Chapter 1

Introduction
The history of computers and computer technology thus far has been a long and a
fascinating one, stretching back more than half a century to the first primitive
computing machines. These machines were huge and complicated affairs, consistin
g of row upon row of vacuum tubes and wires, often encompassing several rooms to
fit it all in. Today's computers operate using transistors, wires and electrici
ty. Future computers might use atoms, fibres and light.
Atoms Optical fibres Light
These are the types of computers that could be everywhere, but never seen. Nano
sized bio-computers that could target specific areas inside your body. Giant net
works of computers, in your clothing, your house, your car and entrenched in alm
ost every aspect of our lives.
1.1. Background
The computers of the early 1950s had several miles of wiring, hundreds of vacuum
tubes, and often weighed several tons. Today s computers operate under the same p
rinciples. Data is represented by either a 0 or a 1 the binary system. The binary
state is determined by something such as the magnetic state of a part of a disk,
or by a pit or groove on a compact disc. For example, the number 123 is express
ed as 1111011 in binary. This forms the basis for all of classical computers, co
mpletely obeying the laws of classical mechanics, which until Max Planck first i
ntroduced the ideas underlying quantum mechanics were the only way we understand
how our universe works. With the advent of quantum mechanics, we were able to e
xplore the rules that govern particle interactions on the atomic scale and small
er. More recently, we are learning to control extremely small systems and manipu
late them to perform calculations quantum computing. For decades, the computing in
dustry has kept pace with Moore s Law, which says processing power will double eve
ry 18 months. With classical computers, that has a limit. New technology will ha
ve to be introduced at a point, and quantum computers are likely to emerge to co
ntinue the trend.
1.2. Objective
Every one has a constant urge to know about the future. Here is something relate
d to future that revolves around the computers and their computing technologies.
This is a Research report which illustrates the Future of computers .
1.3. Moore's law
Visit any site on the web writing about the future of computers and you will mos
t likely find mention of Moore's Law. Moore's Law is not a strictly adhered to m
athematical formula, but a prediction made by Intel's co-founder Gordon Moore in
1965.
Moore predicted that computing technology would increase in value at the same ti
me it would decrease in cost. More specifically, that innovations in technology
would allow a doubling of the number of transistors in a given space every year,
the speed of those transistors would increase and manufacturing costs would dro
p.
A computer transistor acts like a small electronic switch. Just like the light s
witch on your wall, a transistor has only two states, ON or OFF. A computer inte
rprets this on/off state as a 1 or a 0. Put a whole bunch of these transistors t
ogether and you have a computer chip. Intel's newest processor has nearly 1 bill
ion transistors.
Shrinking transistor size not only makes chips smaller, but faster. One benefit
of packing transistors closer together is that the electronic pulses take less t
ime to travel between transistors. This can increase the overall speed of the ch
ip.
Chapter 2
The apparent Future technologies
1. Optical Computers
What are Optical Computers?
The computers we use today use transistors and semiconductors to control electri
city. Computers of the future may utilize crystals and Meta materials to control
light. Optical computers make use of light particles called photons.
Optical fiber
Optical fibers and electric parts to read and direct data from the processor
Light pulses send information instead of voltage packets.
Processors change from binary code to light pulses using lasers.
Information is then detected and decoded electronically back into binary.
Optical Computers
In most modern computers, electrons travel between transistor switches on metal
wires or traces to gather, process and store information. The optical computers
of the future will instead use photons traveling on optical fibers or thin films
to perform these functions. But entirely optical computer systems are still far
into the future. Right now scientists are focusing on developing hybrids by com
bining electronics with photonics. Electro-optic hybrids were first made possibl
e around 1978, when researchers realized that photons could respond to electrons
through certain media such as lithium niobate (LiNbO3). To make the thin polyme
r films for electro-optic applications, NASA scientists dissolve a monomer (the
building block of a polymer) in an organic solvent. This solution is then put in
to a growth cell with a quartz window. An ultraviolet lamp shining through this
window creates a chemical reaction, causing a thin polymer film to deposit on th
e quartz.
NASA scientists are making these organic thin films on the Space Shuttle to over
come problems caused by convection. Convection is a circular motion in air or in
a liquid created from uneven heating. On Earth's surface, when a gas or liquid
is heated it expands, becoming lighter and less dense. This lighter material ris
es, mixing with cooler and denser material from above. Such turbulence occurs in
the world's weather patterns or even in a pot of water boiling on the stove.
The thin films being developed by NASA are composed of organic molecules, which
often are more sensitive than inorganics to changes in light intensity. Organics
can perform a large number of functions such as switching, signal processing an
d frequency doubling, all while using less power than inorganic materials. While
silicon and other inorganics are often used in electronic computer hardware, th
e all optical computers of the future will probably use mostly organic parts. Th
ere will be a gradual hybridisation in which computers using both organic and in
organic parts make use of photons and electrons. These hybrid devices will event
ually lead to all optical computer systems.
Optical components like the thin-films developed by NASA are essential for the d
evelopment of these advanced computers. By developing components for electro-opt
ic hybrids in the present, NASA scientists are helping to make possible the amaz
ing optical computers that will someday dominate the future.
NASA scientists are working to solve the need for computer speed using light
Light travels at 186,000 miles per second. That's 982,080,000 feet per second --
or 11,784,960,000 inches. In a billionth of a second, one nanosecond, photons o
f light travel just a bit less than a foot, not considering resistance in air or
of an optical fiber strand or thin film. Just right for doing things very quick
ly in microminiaturized computer chips.
Dr. Donald Frazier monitors a blue laser light
used with electro-optical materials
"Entirely optical computers are still some time in the future," says Dr. Frazier
, "but electro-optical hybrids have been possible since 1978, when it was learne
d that photons can respond to electrons through media such as lithium niobate. N
ewer advances have produced a variety of thin films and optical fibers that make
 optical interconnections and devices practical. We are focusing on thin films m
ade of organic molecules, which are lighter sensitive than inorganics.
Organics can perform functions such as switching, signal processing and frequenc
y doubling using less power than inorganics. Inorganics such as silicon used wit
h organic materials let us use both photons and electrons in current hybrid syst
ems, which will eventually lead to all-optical computer systems."
"What we are accomplishing in the lab today will result in development of super-
fast, super-miniaturized, super-lightweight and lower cost optical computing and
optical communication devices and systems," Frazier explained.

2. Quantum Computers
Today's powerful computers that run on microscopic transistor chips won't begin
to match the speed of a totally different kind of computer which may be availabl
e 50 years from now, thanks to researchers at The University of Arizona in Tucso
n.
We all know that information technology has been driving our economic engine ove
r the past decade or two. But for that to continue, a new paradigm for informati
on processing will be needed by the middle of the next century. It looks like qu
antum information may be a candidate, there are no fundamental barriers in the w
ay. There is no basic fundamental law that says this cannot be done. Still, it's
going to be very hard.
Quantum computing has potential to shatter the entire concept of binary computin
g, the use of zero's and one's, "on" and "off," to represent information digital
ly.
The researchers at the Optical Sciences Centre are now about to begin experiment
s to test their theory that neutral or chargeless atoms, trapped like individual
eggs in an egg carton by a lattice created by interfering laser beams and super
cooled to the point of zero motion, will work for quantum computing.
Researchers have succeeded in cooling light trapped atoms to the zero point of m
otion, a pure vibrational state that is the crucial initialisation step to using
atoms as quantum information bits. The pure quantum state would be the logical
zero for a quantum mechanical computer. The scientists' success at cooling atoms
was no small achievement. Atoms in this super cooled state are colder than liqu
id helium by roughly the same factor that liquid helium is colder than the cente
r of the sun.
A classical computer takes one input at a time, does its computation and gives y
ou one answer. A quantum computer, very loosely speaking, allows you to enter al
l possible inputs at one time and perform all the corresponding computations in
parallel. However, this is a very simplistic way of putting it. The laws of quan
tum physics only allow you to observe one of the many possible outputs each time
you run the computer, so you have to be very clever about how you look at the r
esults. Surprisingly, researchers have discovered that several classes of comput
ational problems can be solved in ways that take advantage of quantum parallelis
m.
Exactly how powerful is this quantum parallelism? A quantum computer would simul
taneously carry out a number of computations equal to two to the power of the nu
mber of input bits. That is, if you were to feed a modest 100 bits of informatio
n into such a computer, the machine would process in parallel two to the power o
f 100 different inputs, or simultaneously perform a thousand billion billion bil
lion different computations. The higher the number of bits fed into such a compu
ter, the exponentially greater advantage a quantum mechanical computer has over
a classical computer.
Computational scientists have proved in theory that a quantum mechanical compute
r can solve a number of problems conventional computers cannot. At the moment, o
ne of the driving motivations for developing a quantum mechanical computer is th
at it can be used to crack secret codes and on the flip side, to communicate inf
ormation more securely. A quantum mechanical computer could crack a code encrypt
ed for security with a 200 bit number, a problem that would take current classic
al computers the age of the universe to solve. A quantum mechanical computer cou
ld also send information that is fundamentally impossible to decode by anyone ot
her than the intended recipient.
It is important to be honest and say that physicists and computational scientist
s are far from done with the study of quantum information, and it's not really y
et known what kinds of problems such computers might do better than a classical
computer, and which you won't do any better than can already be done by classica
l computers.

The first quantum computer proposal by D-Wave

Even though the company D-wave claim that they have manufactured the world s first
quantum computer, they does not seem to be very sure. The following picture gal
lery shows their invention The first ever quantum computer .
The company says that they have used the laws of quantum mechanics in building t
he processor. The Orion processor powered quantum computer has not been availabl
e to scientists or the public by D-Wave for further scientific examination. The
D-Wave website does not even have apt details for us to go by.

3. DNA Computers
What are DNA Computers?
DNA computers use DNA to store information and perform complex calculations. DNA
has a vast amount of storage capacity computers might tap the vast storage capa
city that enables DNA to hold the complex blueprints of living organisms. The st
orage capacity of a single gram of DNA can hold as much information as one trill
ion compact discs.
DNA Computing
Is there a computer in your genes? A team led by Dr. Leonard Adleman has shown t
hat DNA can be used to solve complex mathematical problems. In Adleman's lab at
USC, one-fiftieth of a teaspoon of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) has solved two mo
destly difficult problems the "Hamilton Path," or "Traveling Salesman," problem an
d the "Customer Satisfaction" or "NP-complete 3-SAT" problem. His experiment has
been heralded as the "start of a new era," forging an unprecedented link betwee
n computational science and life science.
4. Holographic memory
Holography: it allows high record density together with maximum data access spee
d. It's achieved due to the fact that the holographic image (hologram) is coded
in one big data block which is recorded at one access. And while reading this bl
ock is entirely extracted out of the memory. For reading and recording of the bl
ocks kept holographically on the light-sensitive material (LiNbO3 is taken as th
e basic material) they use lasers.
At the first stage in this device a beam of cyan argon laser is divided into two
components - a reference and an object beam (the latter is a carrier of data).
The object beam undergoes defocusing in order it could entirely illumine the SLM
(Spatial Light Modulator) which is an LCD panel where a data page is displayed
in the form of a matrix consisting of light and dark pixels (binary data).
The both beams go into the light-sensitive crystal where they interact. So we ge
t an interference pattern which serve a base for a hologram and is recorded as a
set of variations of the refractive exponent and the reflection factor inside t
his crystal. When reading data the crystal is illuminated with a reference beam,
which interacts with the interference factor and reproduces the recorded page i
n the image of "chess-board" of light and dark pixels (the holograms converts th
e reference wave into the copy of the object one). After that, this image is tra
nsferred into the matrix detector where the CCD (Charge-Coupled Device) serves a
base. While reading the data the reference beam must fall at the same angle at
which the recording was made; alteration of this angle mustn't exceed 1 degree.
It allows obtaining high data density: measuring the angle of the reference beam
or its frequency you can record additional pages of data in the same crystal.

5. Protonic Memory
One of the minor horrors of the computer age is to be working on a document not
yet saved to the hard drive and lose everything because of a power outage or a s
ystem crash that forces the operator to shut down the computer.
Attempts to create circuits that store the information when the power is interru
pted have used high voltages, which quickly wear down computer electronic compon
ents, and have been expensive. Now scientists at Sandia and at France Telecom ha
ve applied for a patent on a prototype memory retention device that is inexpensi
ve, low-powered, and simple to fabricate.
To transmit data, the device uses embedded protons, which remain where they are
when the power turns off, thus preserving the information. In devices such as DR
AM's (dynamic random access memory), typically based on electron flow, the infor
mation is lost when the power is turned off.
To create the memory retentive chip, only a few steps must be added to the hundr
eds currently used to fabricate microchips. The key additional step is to bathe
the hot microchip in hydrogen gas. The gas, permeating the chip, breaks up into
single ions - protons - at defects in the silicon dioxide. (The defects are crea
ted by the heat of the manufacturing process.) The protons can roam only within
the chip's central layer of silicon dioxide, where they are trapped by two layer
s of silicon that sandwich the silicon dioxide.
The Sandia researchers found that:
A positive low voltage applied to one side of the silicon repels the protons to
the far side of the silicon dioxide.
A negative low voltage applied to the silicon attracts the protons to the near s
ide of the silicon dioxide.
If the power is turned off, the protons stay where they are, retaining informati
on in the chip circuit.
First observation of the effect that protons remain in silicon when it is baked
at high temperatures in hydrogen gas came as part of a systematic study at Sandi
a and France Telecom of the effects of hydrogen on silicon.
Chapter 3
Future computing speeds
The future computing speeds are going to depend on the quantum computing to a gr
eat extent. Here are some of the predictions which are to going be seen in the
future.
Present
Today s Boring Pentium 4 3 GHz desktop computer
Future In 2030 it would be,
35076039295941670036888435985190792471742381031424 GHz.

Present The fastest single "computer" is probably NEC's Earth Simulator, no

slouch with a peak performance of 40 teraflops.
Future Assuming Moore's revised 18 month law, it will have the opportunity to
double in speed 163 times before 2248 rolls around, so if all goes
well, it will be breezing along at a mere
467680523945888933825179146469210566289898413752320 teraflops.
Chapter 4
Introduction to the PEN PC The computer of the Future
In the revolution of miniature of computers, the scientists are ahead with Bluet
ooth technology. See the forthcoming computers within our pockets.
Fig 3
This pen sort of instrument produces both the monitor as well as the keyboard on
flat surfaces from where you can just carry out the normal operations you do on
your desktop.
Fig 4
Description
It has a rechargeable Lithium-Ion battery and contains a tubular holographic sto
rage device*. These Holographic storage devices are capable of storing terabytes
of data which is far more greater than today s hard-disks.
A docking stand holds the PEN PC in place.
Using lasers and infrared technology, it projects a screen on the wall.
Also projects a full-size keyboard onto any flat surface.
As you type on the laser projection, it analyses what you are typing by the co-o
rdinates of that location. There is a feature with which the virtual keyboard ca
n be customized to any size, configured with additional keys, virtual touchpad.
E-finger printing allows only the owner to activate the PEN PC. So if it is lost
, the others cannot success it.
The retrieval of data is possible through the holographic storage device along w
ith the Bluetooth technology.
Chapter 5
Some of the proposed future concepts
1. Tribons by FrogDesign
Tribons concept is a vision of future technology to be influence and shape ideas
of community and tribalism, self-awareness and education, trust and global citi
zenship. The idea of Tribons concept is based on a lightweight and powerful comp
uter system that connects kids with their friends and family, thus providing emo
tional support to those who are living anonymously in different cities because o
f the recent mobility.

Tribons are designed as digital mentors, that support kid s personal interests and
show pathways to boost knowledge and development of skills. Moreover, it offers
experiences and information, and make possible the understanding and participat
ion in environments. By using Tribons, an urban child would be introduced to the
natural and biological world, and similarly, a rural child can enhance their kn
owledge about the urban landscape. The accessories developed to comprise an earp
iece that is controlled by a spontaneous 3D interface that projects various educ
ational materials and features a safety system that allows parents track their c
hildren. Not only that, this gadget includes an additional medical module that o
ffers surveillance of the wearer s health parameters that will take care in case o
f chronic sickness and the probability of injuries.
2. Microsoft Surface
Microsoft Surface is a revolutionary multi-touch computer that responds to natur
al hand gestures and real-world objects, helping people interact with digital co
ntent in a simple and intuitive way. With a large, horizontal user interface, Su
rface offers a unique gathering place where multiple users can collaboratively a
nd simultaneously interact with data and each other.
Microsoft Surface has four key capabilities that make it such a unique experienc
e:
Direct interaction. Users can grab digital information with their hands and inte
ract with content on-screen by touch and gesture without using a mouse or keyboa
rd.
Multi-user experience. The large, horizontal, 30 inch display makes it easy for
several people to gather and interact together with Microsoft Surface - providin
g a collaborative, face-to-face computing experience.
Multi-touch. Microsoft Surface responds to many points of contact simultaneously
- not just from one finger, as with a typical touch screen, but from dozens of
contact points at once.
Object recognition. Users can place physical objects on the screen to trigger di
fferent types of digital responses providing for a multitude of applications and
the transfer of digital content to mobile devices.
3. XO-3 by Yves Behar
XO-3 is a stunning touch screen tablet device that has been scheduled to release
on 2012 for the One Laptop Per Child project by Yves Behar. This innovative $75
tablet features an all plastic, extremely durable and semi-flexible body that e
liminates the possibility of being cracked upon impact like the traditional glas
s screens. Like previous XO, the screen of XO-3 can also be optimized in both re
flective and transmissive modes depending on indoor and outdoor lighting situati
ons. To make it serve its purpose effectively, the XO-3 is packed with kid s learn
ing tools such as horizontal book mode and portrait reading mode for convenient
reading, multi-touch feature allows play and learn by using bare hands, a full-t
ouch keyboard, a back facing camera, and many more.

4. E-Ball PC Concept by Apostol Tnokovski

The E-Ball is a sphere shaped computer concept which is the smallest design amon
g all the laptops and desktops have ever made. This PC concept features all the
traditional elements like mouse, keyboard, large screen display, DVD recorder, e
tc, all in an innovative manner. E-Ball is designed to be placed on two stands,
opens by simultaneously pressing and holding the two buttons located on each sid
e. After opening the stand and turning ON the PC, pressing the detaching mouse b
utton will allow you to detach the optical mouse fromthe PC body. This concept f
eatures a laser keyboard that can be activated by pressing the particular button
.
There s no external display unit, a projector will pop up by pressing and holding
the button and focus the computer screen on the wall which can be adjusted with
navigation buttons. If there is no wall around, the paper sheet holder, divides
into three pieces like an umbrella just after popping up, will help to focus the
desktop on a paper sheet.
The software interface of E-Ball is highly stylized with icons that can be remem
bered easily, and is user friendly. This compact PC will be ideal for use when w
orking in office, making video presentations, watching large screen movies, list
ening music and chatting on the net.

5. Froot by dell
Froot is a bio friendly desktop computer concept, which was also a participant o
f DELL Regeneration Green Computing Technology Contest, features laser technolog
y and high end projecting for efficient and convenient computing. With this conc
ept, the need of external peripherals like monitor or keyboard has been eliminat
ed by projecting them onto any flat surface. Froot has been made by using starch
based polymer made biodegradable skin that ensures a close loop of the product
by returning the electrical components to the manufacturer for recycle and reuse
. Moreover, Froot promotes social interaction by using the projected screen as a
media center for business or family entertainment.
Chapter 6
Conclusion
It can be seen from the above research that the processing speeds are going to i
ncrease to unbelievable heights. The human brain, which can perform multiple ope
rations such as
viewing(scanning),
hearing(voice recognition),
reading/writing data onto the synapses(memory units),
processes at the speed of about 168000 and can hold about 100 million megabytes
of memory. From these figures, one can say that, the computers have to travel a
lot more into the future to get the speed of brain.
The electrical power needed with the future technologies would be many tens of m
egawatts - a significant fraction of a power plant. A megawatt can cost as much
as a million dollars a year