Temperature

temperature measure of the relative warmth or coolness of

an object. Temperature is measured by means of a
thermometer or other instrument having a scale calibrated
in units called degrees. The size of a degree depends on
the particular temperature scale being used. A
temperature scale is determined by choosing two
reference temperatures and dividing the temperature
difference between these two points into a certain number
of degrees. The two reference temperatures used for most
common scales are the melting point of ice and the boiling
point of water. On the Celsius temperature scale , or
centigrade scale, the melting point is taken as 0°C and the
boiling point as 100°C, and the difference between them is
divided into 100 degrees. On the Fahrenheit temperature
scale , the melting point is taken as 32°F and the boiling
point as 212°F, with the difference between them equal to
180 degrees. The Réaumur scale, used in some parts of
Europe, also sets the melting point at zero, but it has an
80-degree temperature difference between 0°Re and the
boiling point at 80°Re. The temperature of a substance
does not measure its heat content but rather the average
kinetic energy of its molecules resulting from their motions.
A one-pound block of iron and a two-pound block of iron at
the same temperature do not have the same heat content.
Because they are at the same temperature the average
kinetic energy of the molecules is the same; however, the
two-pound block has more molecules than the one-pound
block and thus has greater heat energy. A temperature
scale can be defined theoretically for which zero degree
corresponds to zero average kinetic energy (see gas
laws ). Such a point is called absolute zero , and such a
scale is known as an absolute temperature scale. The
Kelvin temperature scale is an absolute scale having
degrees the same size as those of the Celsius
temperature scale ; the Rankine temperature scale is an
absolute scale having degrees the same size as those of
the Fahrenheit temperature scale . The relationship
between absolute temperature and average molecular
kinetic energy is one result of the kinetic-molecular theory
of gases

Heat

Heat generated from the infrared electromagnetic

radiation from the Sun is one of the driving forces
of life on Earth.

In physics and thermodynamics, heat is energy transferred from

one body or system to another due to thermal interaction or
thermal contact. It is an energy transfer to the body in any other
way than due to work performed on the body.[1] Energy transfer
by heat occur between objects by conduction. Energy can only
be transferred by heat between objects, or areas within an object,
with different temperatures, a consequence of the zeroth law of
thermodynamics. This transfer happens spontaneously only in
the direction to the colder body, as per the second law of
thermodynamics. The transfer of energy by heat from one object
to another object with an equal or higher temperature can
happen only with the aid of a heat pump via mechanical work or
by using mirrors or lenses to focus electromagnetic radiation
which thereby increase its energy flux density.

A related term is thermal energy, loosely defined as the energy

of a body that increases with its temperature. Heat is also loosely
referred to as thermal energy, although many definitions require
this thermal energy to be in transfer between two systems to be
technically called heat, otherwise, many sources prefer to
continue to refer to the internal quantity as thermal energy.

In thermodynamics, a thermodynamic system is said to be in

thermodynamic equilibrium when it is in thermal equilibrium,
mechanical equilibrium, radiative equilibrium, and chemical
equilibrium. The word equilibrium means a state of balance. In
an equilibrium state, there are no unbalanced potentials (or
driving forces) with the system. A system that is in equilibrium
experiences no changes when it is isolated from its
surroundings.

The opposite of equilibrium systems are nonequilibrium systems

that are instantaneously off balance.

Classical thermodynamics deals with dynamic equilibrium

states. The local state of a system at thermodynamic equilibrium
is determined by the values of its intensive parameters, such as
pressure or temperature. Specifically, thermodynamic
equilibrium is characterized by the minimum of a
thermodynamic potential, such as the Helmholtz free energy, i.e.
systems at constant temperature and volume:

A = U – TS;

Or as the Gibbs free energy, i.e. systems at constant pressure and

temperature:

G = H – TS.
where T = temperature, S = entropy, p = pressure, V = volume.
The Helmholtz free energy is often denoted by the symbol F, but
the use of A is preferred by IUPAC [2].

The process that leads to a thermodynamic equilibrium is called

thermalization. An example of this is a system of interacting
particles that is left undisturbed by outside influences. By
interacting, they will share energy/momentum among
themselves and reach a state where the global statistics are
unchanging in time

What is thermal equilibrium?

Temperature, as you know, measures how hot or

cold a body is with respect to a standard object.
To discuss temperature changes, two basic
concepts are important: thermal contact and
thermal equilibrium. Two objects are in thermal
contact if they can affect each other's
temperature. Thermal equilibrium exists when
two objects in thermal contact no longer affect
each other's temperature. For example, if a
carton of milk from the refrigerator is set on the
kitchen countertop, the two objects are in
thermal contact. After several hours, their
temperatures are the same, and they are then in
thermal equilibrium.

specific heat capacity (also called more properly

"mass-specific heat capacity" or more loosely
"specific heat"), is the heat capacity per unit mass
of a body. These quantities are "intensive
quantities". That is, they are not dependent on
amount of material, but directly reflect the type of
material, as well as the physical conditions of
heating.

Temperature reflects the average total kinetic

energy of particles in matter. Heat is transfer of
thermal energy; it flows from regions of high
temperature to regions of low temperature.
Thermal energy is stored as kinetic energy and, in
molecules and solids, also as potential energy in
the modes of vibration or phonons.[1] These
represent degrees of freedom of movement for
atoms. These degrees of freedom, and sometimes
others, contribute to the heat capacity of a
thermodynamic system. As the temperature
approaches absolute zero, the specific heat
capacity of a system also approaches
zero. Quantum theory can be used to
quantitatively predict specific heat capacities in
simple systems.

The heat capacity indicates how much thermal

energy ΔQ a physical body can absorb for a change
in temperature ΔT. It refers to a specific body, and
gives no indication of the amount of substance or
composition of the body.
 C is the heat capacity of the body, and in
the International System of Units (SI) has the
units (joule per kelvin).

If the heat capacity is related to a certain

amount of substance, or a volume, we can
distinguish

 the specific heat capacity c, the heat

capacity per unit mass, which has SI

units
 the molar heat capacity Cmol (also molar
specific heat), the heat capacity per mole of
chemical substance, which has SI
units
 the volumetric heat capacity s, the heat
capacity per unit volume, which has SI
units

The heat capacity itself is an extensive quantity,

meaning one that is a property of the whole body,
and is therefore sensitive to the size of the object
(for example, a bathtub of water has a greater heat
capacity than a cup of water). The three derived
quantities are intensive quantities, meaning they
are no longer dependent on amount of material,
but capture more directly the dependence on the
type of material, given the particular physical
conditions of heating

Latent heat

The expression latent heat refers to the amount

of energy released or absorbed by a chemical
substance during a change of state that occurs
without changing its temperature, meaning
a phase transition such as the melting of ice or the
boiling of water.[1][2] The term was introduced
around 1750 by Joseph Black as derived from the
Latin latere, to lie hidden. In meteorology, latent
heat flux is the flux of heat from the Earth's
surface to the atmosphere that is associated
withevaporation or transpiration of water at the
surface and subsequent condensation of water
vapor in the troposphere. It is an important
component of Earth's surface energy budget.
Latent heat flux is commonly measured with
the Bowen ratio technique, or by eddy covariance.

Specific latent heat

The specific latent heat is the amount of energy

required to convert 1 kg (or 1 lb) of a substance
from solid to liquid (or vice-versa) without a change
in the temperature of the surroundings – all
absorbed energy goes into the phase change – is
known as the specific latent heat of fusion.
Likewise, the amount of energy required to convert
1 kg (or 1 lb) of a substance from liquid to gas (or
vice-versa) without a change in the external
temperature is known as the specific latent heat
of vaporization for that substance. Tables of
values for the two specific latent heats are
published; values for some common substances
are given below.

The latent heat for a different mass of the

substance can be calculated using the equation:

Q = mL

where:

Q is the amount of energy released or absorbed

during the change of phase of the substance
(in kJ or in BTU),
m is the mass of the substance (in kg or in lb), and
L is the specific latent heat for a particular
substance (kJ-kgm−1 or in BTU-lbm−1); substituted
as Lf to represent as the specific latent heat of
fusion, Lv as specific latent heat of vaporization.
In other words, specific latent heat is found when
energy is divided by mass, or as represented

as

Relation to Kinetic Theory and Ideal Gases

Boyle’s law states that at constant temperature for

a fixed mass, the absolute pressure and the
volume of a gas are inversely proportional. The law
can also be stated in a slightly different manner,
that the product of absolute pressure and volume
is always constant.

Most gases behave like ideal gases at moderate

pressures and temperatures. The technology of the
17th century could not produce high pressures or
low temperatures. Hence, the law was not likely to
have deviations at the time of publication. As
improvements in technology permitted higher
pressures and lower temperatures, deviations from
the ideal gas behavior would become noticeable,
and the relationship between pressure and volume
can only be accurately described employing real
gas theory.[7] The deviation is expressed as
the compressibility factor.

Robert Boyle (and Edme Mariotte) derived the law

solely on experimental grounds. The law can also
be derived theoretically based on the presumed
existence ofatoms and molecules and assumptions
about motion and perfectly elastic collisions
(see kinetic theory of gases). These assumptions
were met with enormous resistance in
the positivist scientific community at the time
however, as they were seen as purely theoretical
constructs for which there was not the slightest
observational evidence.

Daniel Bernoulli in 1738 derived Boyle's law

using Newton's laws of motion with application on
a molecular level. It remained ignored until around
1845, when John Waterston published a paper
building the main precepts of kinetic theory; this
was rejected by the Royal Society of England. Later
works of James Prescott Joule,Rudolf Clausius and
in particular Ludwig Boltzmann firmly established
the kinetic theory of gases and brought attention
to both the theories of Bernoulli and Waterston.[8]

The debate between proponents

of Energetics and Atomism led Boltzmann to write
a book in 1898, which endured criticism up to his
suicide in 1906.[8] Albert Einstein in 1905 showed
how kinetic theory applies to the Brownian
motion of a fluid-suspended particle, which was
confirmed in 1908 by Jean Perrin.[8]

Equation
The mathematical equation for Boyle's law is:

where:

p denotes the pressure of the system.

V denotes the volume of the gas.
k is a constant value representative of the
pressure and volume of the system.

So long as temperature remains constant the same

amount of energy given to the system persists
throughout its operation and therefore,
theoretically, the value ofk will remain constant.
However, due to the derivation of pressure as
perpendicular applied force and the probabilistic
likelihood of collisions with other particles
through collision theory, the application of force to
a surface may not be infinitely constant for such
values of k, but will have
a limit when differentiating such values over a
given time.
Forcing the volume V of the fixed quantity of gas to
increase, keeping the gas at the initially measured
temperature, the pressure p must decrease
proportionally. Conversely, reducing the volume of
the gas increases the pressure.

Boyle's law is used to predict the result of

introducing a change, in volume and pressure only,
to the initial state of a fixed quantity of gas. The
before and after volumes and pressures of the
fixed amount of gas, where the before and after
temperatures are the same (heating or cooling will
be required to meet this condition), are related by
the equation:

Boyle's law, Charles's law, and Gay-Lussac's

law form the combined gas law. The three gas laws
in combination with Avogadro's law can be
generalized by theideal gas law.
Charles's law

Charles's law (also known as the law of

volumes) is an experimental gas law which
describes how gases tend to expand when heated.
It was first published by French natural
philosopher Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac in 1802,
[1]
although he credits the discovery to unpublished
work from the 1780s by Jacques Charles. The law
was independently discovered by British natural
philosopher John Dalton by 1801, although Dalton's
description was less thorough than Gay-Lussac's.
[2]
The basic principles had already been described
a century earlier by Guillaume Amontons.

Whatever the priority of the discovery, Gay-Lussac

was the first to demonstrate that the law applied
generally to all gases, and also to the vapours of
volatile liquids if the temperature was more than a
few degrees above the boiling point. His statement
of the law can be expressed mathematically as:

where V100 is the volume occupied by a given

sample of gas at 100 °C; V0 is the volume
occupied by the same sample of gas at 0 °C;
and k is a constant which is the same for all
gases at constant pressure. Gay-Lussac's value
for k was1⁄2.6666, remarkably close to the present-
day value of 1⁄2.7315.

A modern statement of Charles's law is:

At constant pressure, the volume of a given

mass of an ideal gas increases or decreases by
the same factor as its temperature on
the absolute temperature scale (i.e. the gas
expands as the temperature increases).[3]

which can be written as:

 where V is the volume of the gas; and T is
the absolute temperature. The law can also
be usefully expressed as follows:

The equation shows that, as absolute

temperature increases, the volume of the
gas also increases in proportion.

Pressure-temperature law

Gay-Lussac's name is also associated —

erroneously — with another gas law, the so-called
pressure law, which states that:

The pressure of a gas of fixed mass and

fixed volume is directly proportional to the
gas's absolute temperature.

Simply put, if a gas's temperature increases then

so does its pressure, if the mass and volume of the
gas are held constant. The law has a particularly
simple mathematical form if the temperature is
measured on an absolute scale, such as in kelvins.
The law can then be expressed mathematically as:

or

where:

P is the pressure of the gas.

T is the temperature of the gas (measured in
Kelvin).
k is a constant.

This law holds true because temperature is a

measure of the average kinetic energy of a
substance; as the kinetic energy of a gas
increases, its particles collide with the container
walls more rapidly, thereby exerting increased
pressure.

For comparing the same substance under two

different sets of conditions, the law can be written
as:
Amontons's Law of Pressure-
Temperature: The pressure law described above
should actually be attributed to Guillaume
Amontons, who, in the late 17th century (more
accurately between 1700 and 1702[2][3][4]),
discovered that the pressure of a fixed mass of gas
kept at a constant volume is proportional to the
temperature. Amontons discovered this while
building an "air thermometer". Calling it Gay-
Lussac's law is simply incorrect as Gay-Lussac
investigated the relationship between volume and
temperature (i.e. Charles's Law), not pressure and
temperature.

Charles's Law was also known as the Law of

Charles and Gay-Lussac, because Gay-Lussac
published it in 1802 using much of Charles's
unpublished data from 1787. However, in recent
years the term has fallen out of favor, and Gay-
Lussac's name is now generally associated with the
law of combining volumes. Amontons's
Law, Charles's Law, and Boyle's law form
the combined gas law. The three gas laws in
combination with Avogadro's Law can be
generalized by the ideal gas law.