736 HIGGS: AN INVESTIGATION OF EARTHING RESISTANCES.
AN INVESTIGATION OF EARTHING RESISTANCES.*
By P. J.
[From the National Physical Laboratory.]
(Paper first received \§th August, 1929, and in final form 20th February, 1930.)
SUMMARY.
The phenomena of polarization and endosmose which
accompany the flow of direct current in soil were investigated
in various laboratory experiments. Polarization was an
effect of gas bubbles on the measured soil resistance—bubbles
which formed owing to a small electrolytic decomposition of
the soil moisture by the current and which accumulated at
the electrodes. Endosmose was extensive and occurred even
against an appreciable hydraulic back-pressure. The earth-
ing resistances of electrodes of inextensive area depend
directly on the resistivity of the surrounding soil, and so
relations were obtained showing the effect of moisture,
temperature and salt on soil resistivity. The resistivities of
coal, coke, ashes, chalk and dried soil were also obtained.
Various types of electrodes of inextensive area, viz. pipes,
plates and strips, were installed in a plot of ground and tested
over a period covering one year. The results are important
as being typical of what may be obtained in practice, but
not as criteria of comparative utility of the various electrode
types on account of the soil resistivity being—there were
reasons to presume—appreciably non-uniform. The earthing
resistances of the various electrode types were, however,
calculated theoretically, a soil of uniform resistivity being
assumed, and the results obtained may be used as criteria.
The seasonal variations in resistance were determined during
the year, and the effect of moisture in this respect was greater
than that of temperature.
Some electrodes of extensive area, viz. water pipes, the
lead sheath of a large size cable and the steel structures of
buildings, that were in the vicinity of the other electrodes,
were also tested. Their earthing resistances were much
smaller than those of the other types, and the smallest resis-
tance was that of a water pipe. The possible differences
between alternating-current and direct-current measurements
made on electrodes in the field were investigated. The greatest
difference obtained was an increase in resistance of about
20 per cent with direct current and with the positive electrode
one of inextensive area.
The various types of electrodes of inextensive area are
considered theoretically in an Appendix.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Section
(1) An investigation of soil resistivity under direct-
current and low-frequency alternating-current
conditions.
(A) Direct-current polarization of soil.
(B) Experiments in electrical endosmose.
(C) Resistivity and moisture content.
(D) Resistivity and temperature.
(E) Resistivity and added salt.
* The Papers Committee invite written communications, with a view to
publication, on papers published in the Journal without being read at a meeting.
Communications (except those from abroad) should reach the Secretary of
the Institution not later than one month after publication of the paper to which
they relate.
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HIGGS, B.Sc.
TABLE OF CONTENTS—continued.
Section
(F) Resistivity and temperature of sandy loam
with added salt.
(G) Resistivities of various materials.
(2) Experimental measurements of the resistance of
various types of earth connections.
(A) Various electrodes of inextensive area.
(B) Various electrodes of extensive area.
(C) Direct-current tests.
Appendix. A theoretical consideration of the earth-
ing resistances of various electrodes of in-
extensive area.
SECTION (1). AN INVESTIGATION OF SOIL R E -
SISTIVITY UNDER DIRECT-CURRENT AND
LOW-FREQUENCY ALTERNATING-CURRENT
CONDITIONS.
Earthing in electrical practice is carried out to mitigate
primarily the dangers of shock to persons and of leakage
currents with regard to starting fires. To make them
effective, earthing resistances are generally made as
small as possible. An earth connection may be made
either for alternating or direct current, and its resistance
may not be the same with each on account of the effects
of polarization and endosmose with direct current.
These effects were investigated in some preliminary
experiments.
(A) DIRECT-CURRENT POLARIZATION OF SOIL.
A sample of sandy loam taken from the ground and
containing about 15 per cent by weight of moisture was
placed between copper disc electrodes in a glass tube
10-5 cm in diameter and 15 cm long, in order to in-
vestigate the direct-current polarization of soil. The
arrangement of the apparatus is shown in Fig. 1. I t
includes various switches by means of which resistance
measurements were made as required, either with alter-
nating current or with direct current flowing in either
direction The electrodes were lightly pressed against
the soil in order to ensure good contact. Each kind of
measurement was made with 140 volts and the soil
resistance was taken to be the ratio of the voltage to
the current.
Polarization was investigated by making various
switch operations in a considered sequence and observing
the resultant changes in soil resistance. To investigate
the effect of the nature of the electrode contacts on
polarization, tests were also made with tinfoil placed
 HIGGS: AN INVESTIGATION OF EARTHING RESISTANCES.
between the copper discs and the soil, and with the
tinfoil replaced by carbon powder.
The results of the tests and notes bearing mainly on
the effects of polarization are given below.
(i) The primary effect of polarization was a decrease
of direct current with time at constant voltage. The
rate of the increase of apparent resistance was greatest
initially and decreased gradually to zero, and the magni-
tude of the total change was in some cases such that
the final value was about three times the initial. The
actual range of resistance measured in this way was
from about 2 000 ohms to 6 000 ohms. The measure-
ments were somewhat inconsistent, as shown by repeat
tests, under apparently similar conditions, giving some-
times appreciably different results. A possible explana-
tion of the inconsistency is given below.
The soil being visible in the glass containing-vessel,
it was noted that an effect of the flow of direct current
was a slow electrolytic decomposition of the contained
moisture, for gas bubbles were continually forming. As
the gas bubbles formed they accumulated in the inter-
stices at the electrode contacts and the direct current
decreased in value. When the interstices, which were
-Glass container
FIG. 1 —Soil resistivity tests Direct-current polarization
in soil.
small in volume, were filled with gas the current was
more or less steady, on account of the production of gas
being balanced by its escape.
The increase of soil resistance to a final steady value
with the flow of direct current appeared, therefore, to
be primarily owing to the accumulation of gases at the
electrodes. On the current ceasing to flow, the soil
resistance would slowly decrease to its former initial
value as the gases became gradually dissipated, and this
feature was observed in the tests.
(n) The resistance of the soil was slightly greater
with an initial direct current than with alternating
current. The difference was probably due to a small
back electromotive force of electrolysis with direct
current as in the electrolysis of water.
(iii) The increase in the resistance of the soil owing
to the polarization effect of direct current of one direction
of flow was apparent in measurements made with alter-
nating current or with direct current flowing in the
reverse direction. This feature is in accordance with
the supposition that the increase in resistance, or polari-
zation effect, is mainly a pure resistance due to the
accumulation of gas at the electrode contacts.
(iv) With tinfoil between the copper discs and the
VOL. 68.
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737
soil, the resistance of the soil with alternating current
or with an initial direct current was about 80 per cent
of its respective value measured with the plain copper
electrodes. The decrease in resistance was presumably
owing to improved electrode contact, but the increase
in resistance on account of polarization was propor-
tionately about the same as before.
(v) With carbon powder instead of tinfoil between
the copper discs and the soil, the initial resistance of
the soil was further slightly decreased, presumably
owing to still better electrode contact. The increase in
resistance owing to polarization was, however, com-
paratively small, possibly on account of the fine carbon
particles preventing the accumulation of gas either by
absorption or by themselves simply occupying the
interstices.
(B) EXPERIMENTS IN ELECTRICAL ENDOSMOSE.
When the direct current flowed continuously for
several minutes in the tests described previously, it was
noted that the soil near the positive electrode was getting
-ifT^c-J.
'erforated zinc
electrodes
FIG. 2 —First electrical endosmose experiment.
wetter and that near the negative electrode drier. The
effect, which was one of movement of moisture in the
direction of the current-flow, was investigated by the
experiments described below.
First Electrical Endosmose Experiment.—A sample of
sandy loam, containing about 12 per cent by weight of
moisture, was placed in a glass tube with four metal
disc electrodes, as shown in Fig. 2. The outer electrodes
C and F were made of copper and the inner, D and E,
of commercial perforated zinc. The soil was divided
by the electrodes into three approximately equal parts.
The electrical connections to D and E were rubber-
insulated conductors, and to C and F brass rods. The
outer electrodes were lightly pressed against the soil
when the measurements were made, in order to ensure
good contact
Endosmose was produced in the soil by means of a
small direct current which flowed continuously during
the experiment, except for periodic short intervals of
time when measurements were made with alternating
current to ascertain the effect of endosmose on the
various sections, and on the whole of the soil.
The results obtained are given by curves in Figs. 3
and 4. Fig. 3 shows the relations between voltage-drop
47
 738 HIGGS: AN INVESTIGATION OF EARTHING RESISTANCES.

and time for the individual sections. The voltage-drop
across a particular section would increase or decrease
with decrease or increase of moisture, and the curves
may be taken to indicate approximately the movement
of moisture among the sections during the experiment.
There was no net loss of moisture, except possibly a
little owing to electrolysis.
The top electrode was a brass piece that fitted in the
neck of the funnel, as shown. It was soldered to the
end of a brass rod which passed with appreciable clear-
ance through the funnel tube portion or small end.
The bottom electrode was a tin cover that fitted the
big end.
A preliminary test was made with the arrangement of
Fig. 5(a). A direct-current voltage of 200 was applied
across the electrodes, the bottom one being positive,
and a current of about 0 • 1 ampere flowed. The moisture
of the soil accumulated slowly around the top electrode
and rose in the tube portion to a height of about 3 in.
It was, therefore, considered interesting to investigate
the height to which the water would rise if the soil were
supplied with an unlimited amount. For this purpose

EF

20 30 40 50
Time, hours
FIG. 3.—Variation of voltage-drop across the individual soil
sections with time (see Fig. 2).

Fig. 4 shows the relation between the resistance of 16)

the whole of the soil and time, and it indicates that the
endosmose increased the resistance considerably. After
the experiment the mean moisture content of each
section was determined: that of section CD, next to the
negative electrode, was 7 • 1 per cent, that of the middle
5 000

4 000 /

/
3 000
Flat dish
/ Half section
2 000 FIG. 5.—Second electrical endosmose experiment.

the arrangement of Fig. 5(6) was used. The funnel

1 000 was placed in a flat dish containing water and its small
end was extended upwards with glass tubing and rubber
connecting-pieces. A lead weight was placed on the
funnel to counteract the lifting effect of water in the
20 30 40 50
Time, hours
tubing.
FIG. 4.—Variation of resistance of whole soil with time On applying the voltage of 200, about 0-1 ampere
(see Fig. 2). flowed and water rose slowly in the tubing. The results
of the experiment are given in Fig. 6 in the form of
section DE 9-8 per cent, and that of section EF, next curves showing relations between head of water and
to the positive electrode, 16-5 per cent, the percentages time, and between current and time. The curves
being by weight of soil. indicate that the current decreased, or, in other words,
Second Electrical Endosmose Experiment.—The arrange- that the soil resistance increased as the head of water
ment of the apparatus used in the second electrical increased. Because there were no changes in the soil,
endosmose experiment is shown in Fig. 5. It consists of either of temperature or of moisture content, it seemed
sandy loam between two electrodes in a glass funnel, that the increase in soil resistance was due to the head
the electrodes being connected in a direct-current circuit. of water, or that the hydraulic back-pressure, which

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 HIGGS: AN INVESTIGATION OF EARTHING RESISTANCES. 739

would increase the resistance to the movement of the garden loam and occurring to a depth of about 2 ft.,
moisture of endosmose through the soil, had also in- and the other is bottom soil having a sandy yellow
creased the electrical resistance. The phenomenon was colour. The former is referred to as " top soil" and the
one of a mechanical back-pressure affecting electrical latter as " sandy loam."
resistance in the same way as an electrical back-voltage. Samples of the soils, having different moisture con-
The conditions were apparently steady after 15 hours tents, were tested by means of the alternating-current
with the head of water about 9 ft. and the current ammeter-voltmeter method. The results given in
about 36 per cent of its initial value. This head of Table 1 indicate the relation between moisture content
water gives at its base a pressure of 3-9 lb. per sq. in., and resistivity—an important factor, since the resistance
which indicates that endosmose occurs even against of inextensive electrodes, such as driven pipes or buried
considerable hydraulic back-pressure. Subsequently it plates, is proportional to the resistivity of the surrounding
soil.
Ft ^ — TABLE 1.
R
Resistivity and Moisture Content of Top Soil and Sandy
Loam. Temperature 11° C.
6
Resistivity Ratio to resistivity at
Moisture 15 per cent of moisture
content
/ per cent
(a) by weight Top soil Sandy loam Top soil Sandy loam

ohms per cm cube

2 / 2-5 250 000 150 000 13-2 14-3
5 165 000 43 000 8-7 41
7-5 100 000 26 000 5-3 2-5
10 53 000 18 500 2-8 1-75
5 10 1-42 1-33
12-5 27 000 14 000
Time, hours 100 100
15 19 000 10 500
100 17-5 14 700 7 900 0-77 0-75
20 12 000 6 300 0-63 0-60
25 8 500 4 800 0-45 0-46
80 \ 30 6 400 4 200 0-34 0-40

60 \
(b) (D) RESISTIVITY AND TEMPERATURE.
\
The relation between resistivity and temperature was
-t-> 4 0 determined for sandy loam containing 15-2 per cent by
weight of moisture. The tests were made with the
alternating-current ammeter-voltmeter method. Tem-
20 peratures between 0° C. and 20° C. were obtained in a
special chamber, and those at and below 0° C. in an ice
box. The results obtained are given in Table 2.
« 5 10 15
TABLE 2.
Time, hours
FIG. 6.—Variation of (a) head of water, and (b) current, with Resistivity and Temperature of Sandy Loam. Moisture
time (see Fig. 5b). Content 15-2 per cent by Weight of Soil.

was noted that the water would rise higher than 9 ft. Temperature Resistivity Ratio to resistivity at
20° C.
without change of conditions except that the counter-
weight on the funnel was increased. When the applied
°C. ohms per cm cube
voltage was removed the water descended slowly in the 10
20 7 200
tube. While the current flowed some electrolytic de- 10 9 900 1-4
composition of the moisture in the soil occurred, for gas 0 (water) 13 800 1-9
bubbles were continually forming and escaping at the 0 (ice) 30 000 4-2
rate of a few a minute through the head of water.
- 5 79 000 110
- 15 330 000 45-.9
(C) RESISTIVITY AND MOISTURE CONTENT.
The relation between resistivity and moisture content
was determined for two kinds of soil which are prevalent The soil resistivity increased steadily with fall of
in the vicinity of the National Physical Laboratory. temperature until freezing point was reached, when a
One kind is top soil having a greyish black colour like relatively large increase occurred at constant tempera-

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 740 HIGGS: AN INVESTIGATION OF EARTHING RESISTANCES.
ture, presumably owing to the moisture in the soil (F) RESISTIVITY AND TEMPERATURE OF SANDY LOAM
freezing. Below 0° C. it continued to increase steadily WITH ADDED SALT.
with fall of temperature but at a much greater rate. The relation between resistivity and temperature was
The results indicate that to obtain reliable earth con- determined for sandy loam containing 20 per cent by
nections with inextensive electrodes they should be weight of moisture to which 5 per cent by weight of salt
buried at depths greater than that to which freezing was added. The results are given in Table 4.
conditions penetrate.
TABLE 4.
(E) RESISTIVITY AND ADDED SALT.
The relation between resistivity and added salt was Resistivity and Temperature of Sandy Loam with Added
determined for sandy loam containing 15 per cent by Salt. Moisture Content 20 per cent by Weight of
weight of moisture. The salt added was measured as a Soil. Salt 5 per cent by Weight of Moisture.
percentage by weight of the contained moisture. The
results obtained are given in Table 3. Temperature Resistivity Ratio to resistivity
at 20 °C.

°C. ohms per cm cube

TABLE 3.
20 110 1-0
10 142 1-3
Resistivity of Sandy Loam with Added Salt. Moisture
0 190 1-7
Content 15-0 per cent by Weight of Soil. Temperature
17° C. - 5 312 2-9
- 15 1440 130
Added salt (per cent by Resistivity Resistivity as percentage
weight of moisture) of original value
The results of Table 4 for salted soil indicate quite
ohms per cm cube small resistivities over the whole temperature range and
0 10 700 100 no large increase under freezing conditions at 0° C.
01 1 800 16-8
1 460 4-3 (G) RESISTIVITIES OF VARIOUS MATERIALS.
5 190 1-8
130 1-2
Various materials were tested for resistivity as a
10
matter of interest in connection with the general problem
20 100 0-95 of earthing. The tests made and the results obtained
are given in Table 5.
The resistivity of the soils dried at oven temperatures
The first additions of salt were most effective; e.g. the was of the same order of magnitude as that of an insu-
first 0 • 1 per cent of added salt decreased the soil lating material. Soils in their naturally driest condition
resistivity by about 80 per cent. would, however, contain some moisture and would be

TABLE 5.

Resistivities of Various Materials.

Moisture content
Material (per cent Resistivity Remarks
by weight)

ohms per cm cube

Sandy loam 0 > 1 000 X 106 * Well dried in oven
Top soil 0 > 1 000 X 106 * Well dried in oven
Coal — > 1 000 X 106 * Natural lump
Coal Saturated 34 000 f Powdered, placed in glass jar and water added to coal surface
Coal 5-5 1-7 x 10 6 * Powdered, placed in glass jar but free water drained off
Coke 18-2 800 + Powdered, placed in glass jar but not compressed
Coke 18-2 250 Powdered, placed in glass jar but compressed
Ashes 0 215 Not compressed
Ashes 0 100 Compressed
Ashes 15 350 Not compressed, water added
Ashes 15 100 Compressed
Chalk 0-72 97 X 106 * Natural slab
Chalk 0 > 1 000 X 106 * Natural slab dried in oven
Chalk . . 14-2 12 800 | Natural slab after immersion in water for 4 days

• The test voltage was about 500 volts (d.c). t The test voltage was about 100 volts (d.c). % The test voltage was about 100 volts (a.c).

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 HIGGS: AN INVESTIGATION OF EARTHING RESISTANCES. 741

partially conducting. A sample of top soil, in a very
dry condition, was taken from the ground surface after
several weeks of summer without rain, and was found
to contain about 5 per cent of moisture by weight.
The resistivity of coal in the natural lump was of the
same order of magnitude as that of an insulating material.
with 10 lb. of salt dissolved in water. A plan of the
general lay-out of the electrodes is shown in Fig. 7.
The resistance of an electrode of inextensive area
depends on (a) its shape, dimensions and depth in the
ground, and (b) the soil resistivity. To obtain earth
connections of low resistance the various electrodes

Grass land

Ro a d w a y P a r t of
._ (approx.). Building B

O13 C>16 Q19 O21

,20
O5

i36 32

Building A
38 39 53

,25 43 55

Gardens CD28 ,35

[]24
£329 44.

,34 46&7 4B49 50

10-ft. squares 1123
45 54

26

FIG. 7.—Plan of lay-out of earthing electrodes.

That of the coal powdered and saturated with water
was high in comparison with values common to soils.
The resistivity of coke and ashes was very low com-
pared with soil and was practically independent of
moisture content. That of chalk in the natural lump
was high, but when the chalk was saturated with water
it was of the same order of magnitude as that of soil.
would be compared either theoretically or practically as
regards (a), (S) being uniform. Uniform resistivity is
assumed in theory as described in the next paragraph,
TABLE 6.
Particulars of Test.

Month of test Condition of soil ' Temperature of

(1925-1926) top soil
SECTION (2). EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS
OF THE RESISTANCE OF VARIOUS TYPES °F.
OF EARTH CONNECTIONS. September * . . Moist t
November Very wet t
(A) VARIOUS ELECTRODES OF INEXTENSIVE AREA. January J Wet 36
Various electrodes of inextensive area were placed in February Wet 46
a plot of ground and tested in order to determine typical May Moist 61
earthing resistances. They were galvanized-iron pipes, July Dry 70
wrought-iron plates and copper strips in various sizes, September Top soil, moist. Sandy 62
and were tested generally to determine their individual loam, very dry
resistances, but in a few cases to determine the effect of
distance apart on the resistances of pairs connected in * The electrodes had just been installed.
t No records taken.
series and in parallel. The individual electrodes were t Melting snow on the ground surface.
spaced about 20 ft. apart in order that there should be
little effect due to proximity, and the pairs were spaced but it could be only very approximately obtainable in
at definite distances apart. All the electrodes were practice where the method of comparing the various
buried except the pipes of 2 in. or less in diameter, electrodes would be that of installation and test.
which were driven. A pipe and a strip were placed Further, the degree of divergence in practice could be
each in a coke bed, and another pipe was salted down hardly determinable. The practical comparison of

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742 HIGGS: AN INVESTIGATION OF EARTHING RESISTANCES.
electrod'es can, therefore, in any case be only roughly
approximate, natural undisturbed ground being more
suitable in this respect than that which has been'' made "
or worked for garden purposes.
The resistance of an electrode of known dimensions
within the area of the National Physical Laboratory-
It was at one time a garden but at the time of the tests
was covered with rough grass.
There were reasons to suppose that the soil resistivity
was appreciably non-uniform. The ground had been

TABLE 7.

Earthing Resistances of Driven Pipes. Mean and Calculated Values and Seasonal Changes.

Resistance

External Maximum
Electrode No. Length diameter Measured, covering one year
Calculated ior Minimum
A — I ft\J\J\J
000t tnhmc
fJ —•*• X\J i n ''*»

Maximum •§ Minimum § Mean§ per cm cube

ft. in. ohms ohms ohms ohms

6 6 1 43 36 39 46 1-2
7 • 6 1 20 17 18 46 1-2
8f 6 1 21 17 18 46 1-3
9 6 1 — — 330|| 46 —
10 $ 9 1 63 33 41 34 1-9
11 1 1 1 450 690 1030 187 2-1
12 2 1 1 450 440 710 112 3-3
13 4 1 103 74 85 65 1-4
14 10 1 28 23 26 31 1-2
15 1 2 1 870 570 940 152 3-3
16 3 2 380 200 260 73 1-9
17 6 2 54 45 49 46 1-2
18 6 2 49 41 45 46 1-2
19 1 6 870 410 550 99 21
20 3 6 182 101 127 52 1-8
21 6 6 51 39 44 32 1-3
22 6 6 30 26 28 32 11

6 ft. x 1 in. Pipes connected %n Series.

1 and 2 1 84 64 70 54 1-3
1 and 3 3 109 84 90 70 1-3
1 and 4 Distance apart, ft. 6 114 95 100 77 1-2
1 and 5 12 170 142 148 84 1-2

6 ft. x 1 in. Pipes connected in Parallel.

1 and 2 r i 37 31 34 36 1-2
1 and 3 3 37 29 33 29 1-3
1 and 4 Distance apart, ft. ] 6 35 29 32 27 1-2
1 and 5 I 12 44 3-4 39 25 1-3

• Placed in a coke bed about 6 ft. long and 1 ft. radius. t Treated with 10 lb. of salt dissolved in water.
t Bent so that 6 ft. was buried 3 ft. deep. § Maximum, minimum and mean of 7 measurements (see Table 6).
|| Tested once only, in February 1926.

and position in the ground can be determined theo-
retically by means of the formula
R = P/(2TTC) *
where p is the soil resistivity (assumed uniform;, and C
is the electrostatic capacity in free space of the electrode
with its image above the ground. The formula shows
that earthing conductance is directly proportional to C
which, being calculable, is valuable as a means of
comparing various types of electrodes of inextensive
area.
Ground Used.—The plot of ground used is situated
* See Appendix.
considerably disturbed for purposes of cultivation.
There were the two kinds of soil, viz. top soil and sandy
loam, and the results given in Table 1 indicate that the
resistivity of the former was rather greater than that of
the latter for similar conditions of moisture content and
temperature. When the excavations were made to
bury the plates, it was noted that the soil moisture
increased with depth. Each of these features interfered
with the condition of uniform resistivity. The two
kinds of soil and the increased moisture content both
decreased the soil resistivity with depth.
If an electrode of inextensive area were placed in the
ground within a few feet of a metal body such as a

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 HIGGS: AN INVESTIGATION OF EARTHING RESISTANCES. 743

water pipe or the steel framework of a building, its
resistance would probably be decreased on account of
the proximity. The only body of that kind in close
proximity to the electrodes was the steel framework of
building A shown in Fig. 7. No electrode was, however,
placed nearer to it than about 10 ft.
which was variable between 50 and 500 volts, was
adjusted in each test to give good meter readings.
The measurement of the resistance of one electrode A
requires two other electrodes B and C, the three being
spaced not less than about 10 ft. apart. Let the re-
sistances between the electrodes in pairs be respectively

TABLE 8.

Earthing Resistances of Buried Plates. Mean and Calculated Values, and Seasonal Changes.

Resistance

Size Depth in Maximum

Electrode No. (length X breadth) ground Measured, covering one year
Calculated for Minimum
per cm cube
Maximum t Minimum f Mean t

ft. ft. ft. ohms ohms ohms ohms

23 3 x 3 1 201 118 141 38 1-7
24 3 x 3 3 60 30 39 30 2-0
25 3 x 3 6 27 21 24 28 1-3
26* 3 x 3 6 30 20 24 27 1-5
30 6 x 3 6 18-4 14-2 16-4 20 1-3
31 6 x 3 6 — — 116 X 20 —
32* 6 x 3 6 14-5 11-2 131 20 1-3
33 6 x 3 1 77 48 60 37 1-6
34 6 x 3 3 28-0 19 22-9 22 1-5
35 6 x 3 8 15-6 130 13-8 20 1-2
36 6 x 6 3 27-0 16-0 20 1 17 1-7
37 6 x 6 6 18-6 11-5 150 15 1-6
38 9X3 6 13-7 11-3 12-5 17 1-2
39 9X9 6 10-5 8-1 91 11 1-3
6 ft. x 3 ft. Plates buried 6 ft. Deep and connected in Series.
27 and 28 6 32 26 28 28 1-2
Distance between
27 and 29 18 37 33 36 35 11
centres, feet
27 and 30 48 36 32 35 38 11
6 ft. x 3 ft. Plates buried 6 ft. Deep and connected in Parallel.
27 and 28 12-0 10-8 11 12-9 11
Distance between
27 and 29 110 9-3 10' 11-3 1-2
centres, feet
27 and 30 9-4 7-9 10-5 1-2

• Plate buried vertically, mean depth 6 ft. t Maximum, minimum and mean of 7 measurements (see Table 6). % Tested once only, in February 1926.

Seasonal Changes in Earthing Resistance.—The re- RAB> RBC> a n d ReA- Then the required resistance R^
sistance of electrodes of inextensive area is affected by is given by
the seasonal changes of climate on account of the RA — \{RAB — RBG + Re A)
influence of the weather on the soil resistivity. Wet or The earthing resistance R1 of the steel framework of
warm conditions will decrease it owing to increasing
soil moisture content or temperature. To investigate
the magnitude of the seasonal effects on the resistance
of the various types of electrodes shown in Fig. 7, tests 1 i
were made at approximately 2-monthly intervals cover-
ing a complete year, September 1925 to September 1926.
Particulars of the tests are given in Table 6.
f— supply
•Direct-current
Method of Measurement.—The tests were made by
means of the alternating-current ammeter-voltmeter
method, the current being obtained from a direct-
Earthing electrodes
current supply through a rotary convertor and a trans-
FIG 8.—Earthing resistance tests. Method of measurement.
former. The arrangement of apparatus is shown in
Fig. 8. The transformer windings were insulated from building A was first determined by this method. The
one another. The secondary voltage of the transformer, resistance R2 of any electrode was thereafter determined

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744 HIGGS: AN INVESTIGATION OF EARTHING RESISTANCES.
by measuring the resistance R between it and the that of the latter. The more sandy the soil the greater
building, the required value being would be its resistivity and the greater the resistances
B2 = R — R ± of electrodes placed in it.
The smallest mean resistance obtained was about
The resistance R was in many cases quite large compared 10 ohms and the greatest about 1 000 ohms, which
with Rv so that R2 was practically equal to R. indicates that it is possible to obtain a wide range of
Results.—The results of the tests are given in Table 7 values even within a comparatively small area where
for pipes, Table 8 for plates and Table 9 for strips. The the soil is roughly of the same nature throughout. The
tables give the following particulars of the electrodes:— effect of the coke or salt was in each case approximately
Their index numbers corresponding to those of Fig. 7; to halve the resistance. The measured resistances of

TABLE 9.

Earthing Resistances of Buried Strips.* Mean and Calculated Values, and Seasonal Changes.

Resistance

Size Depth in Maximum

Electrode No. (width X length) ground Measured, covering one year
Calculated for Minimum
n 1 fl Oftft ithmc
p—XU vwv Ulllila

Maximum J Minimum % Mean % per cm cube

in. ft. ft. ohms ohms ohms ohms

40 2 X 10 1 131 82 98 36 1-6
41 2 X 10 3 55 23 37 32 2-3
42 2 X 10 6 26 20 24 30 1-3
43 1 X 10 1 254 115 155 40 2-2
44 4 X 10 1 98 50 64 33 20
45 8 X 10 1 87 38 50 28 2-3
50 2 X 25 1 52 18-5 27 18 2-8
51 2 X 25 1 — — 32 § 18 —
52 f 2 X 25 1 16 10-7 12-8 18 1-5
53 2 x 25 3 37 18-3 25 16 20
54 2 X 25 6 14-2 11-8 13-3 15 1-2
55 6 X 25 1 29 19-5 22 13-5 1-5
2 in. x 25 ft. Strips buried 1 ft. Deep and connected in Series.
46 and 47 r i 56 23 34 15 2-4
46 and 48 Distance between I 6 80 35 48 26 2-3
46 and 49 centres, feet 1 16 87 38 51 29 2-3
46 and 50 I 36 94 39 53 34 2-4

2 in. x 25 ft. Strips buried 1 ft.Deep and connectedin Parallel.

6 and 47 f 1 29-6 16-4 21-9 14 1-8
46 and 48 Distance between J 6 25-6 12-8 18-5 12 20
46 and 49 centres, feet 1 16 24-8 11-2 171 11 2-2
46 and 50 36 I
25 0 10-9 170 9 2-3

• Copper strip ^ in. thick. t Placed in a coke bed.

J Maximum, minimum and mean of 7 measurements (see Table 6). § Tested once only, in February 1926.

their dimensions and depths in the ground; the measured
maximum, minimum and mean resistances covering the
year of test; the theoretical resistances calculated on
the assumption of a soil resistivity of 10 000 ohms per
cm cube; and the ratios of the maximum values to the
minimum.
Discussion of the Results.—That the results are some-
what irregular was probably due to the soil resistivity
being appreciably non-uniform, as has previously been
mentioned. The resistances of electrodes 9 and 31 were,
for example, particularly high. They were installed in
a small plot of ground away from the main plot and
the soil of the former was mere sandy in character than
the electrodes buried shallow were generally greater
than the respective calculated values, whereas those of
the electrodes buried deep were more nearly in agree-
ment, this being probably due to the soil resistivity
decreasing with depth.
The minimum values occurred mostly in November
when the ground was very wet after a period of heavy
rains, and the maximum in September when the ground
was very dry after a period of warm weather without
rain. The lowest temperature was noted in January
when the ground was covered with melting snow, and
the highest in July when the ground was somewhat dry.
It appears in the former case that the effect of low

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 HIGGS: AN INVESTIGATION OF EARTHING RESISTANCES.
temperature in increasing resistance was largely offset
by the then very wet condition of the soil and, in the
latter case, that contrary conditions prevailed. During
the test period no severe freezing conditions were ex-
perienced, and the effect of moisture on resistance was
greater than that of temperature.
The seasonal variations in resistance of electrodes
buried deep were less than those of electrodes buried
shallow. The variations were not definitely decreased
by the use of coke or salt, the advantage of either being
mainly in reducing mean resistances. If freezing condi-
tions had, however, been experienced, the advantage of
salt on the variations would probably have been definite.
The smallest ratio of the maximum resistance to the
minimum was 1 • 1 and the greatest 3 • 3, the latter
indicating that seasonal changes even under relatively
mild conditions may be quite large.
The resistances of electrodes may change owing to
causes other than seasonal. After an electrode has been
installed the soil takes time to settle around it, and its
resistance may decrease on account of improvement of
contact. An electrode in soil slowly corrodes and the
corrosion may increase the resistance. Tests for the
former effect would be complicated by the seasonal
variations, and for the latter, apart from similar com-
plications, would necessarily have to be continued over
several years.
(B) VARIOUS ELECTRODES OF EXTENSIVE AREA.
Situated near the place of the tests on the inextensive
electrodes were two buildings indicated respectively
by A and B in Fig. 7, where the former and a
part of the latter are shown. Each had a steel frame-
work: the former had also an electric steel-conduit
system the tubes of which were in places laid along and
clipped to the steel framework, and the latter had also
water pipes and a large lead-covered cable. These
various types of electrodes of extensive area were tested
and the results are given in Table 10.
TABLE 10.
Various Types of Electrodes of Extensive Area.
Electrode
Building A.
Conduit
Steel framework
Building B.
Water pipe
Waste-water pipe
Lead sheath of cable
Steel framework
The results indicate that where an electrode is in
contact with soil dispersed throughout an extensive
tract of land, as it was more or less in each of the cases
given in the table, except possibly that of the waste-
water pipe, the resistance is considerably smaller than
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745
that readily obtainable by means of electrodes of in-
extensive area. The lowest resistance was 0*76 ohm
and was given by the water pipe.
(C) DIRECT-CURRENT TESTS.
Tests were made on electrodes of inextensive and
extensive areas with alternating current and with direct
current at different voltages in order to investigate the
effect of direct-current polarization on field measure-
ments. They were made along lines similar to those of
the laboratory experiment made to investigate polariza-
tion in soil, as described in Section (1). The various
switch operations were made as required and when the
current changed with time at constant voltage its initial
and final values were noted. The voltages of the direct
current were respectively about 50, 6 and 2, and were
obtained from a battery which was not earth-connected
except through the electrodes during the tests.
The measurements were somewhat inconsistent, as
shown by repeat tests giving somewhat different results.
Apart from the inconsistency, however, the results
generally indicated the following points. The resistances
measured with initial values of direct current were about
the same as those measured with alternating current.
Direct-current polarization was negligible when the
positive electrode was extensive in area, but it increased
the resistance when the positive electrode was inexten-
sive; the increases were roughly from 10 to 20 per cent
of the initial values. The initial direct-current resistance
was roughly 5 per cent greater with 2 volts than with
50, but the polarization effect was practically independent
of the magnitude of the voltage.
The author thanks Mr. S. W. Melsom for his kindly
co-operation in planning the work, and Dr. E. H.
Rayner, M.A., for his assistance in preparing this paper.
APPENDIX.
A THEORETICAL CONSIDERATION OF THE EARTHING
RESISTANCES OF VARIOUS ELECTRODES OF IN-
EXTENSIVE AREA.
Fundamentals.—Let A, Fig. 9, be a body in an infinite
Earthing
resistance medium of specific inductive capacity e and specific
resistance p.
If A be given a charge Q and C be its capacity to
ohms infinity,
2-4
2-4
If A be a source of current and R its resistance to
0-76 infinity,
7-3 V = IR (2
1-5
2-2 Eliminating V, we obtain
Q
A relation between Q and I is now required.
Let A be enclosed by a spherical surface of radius r;
AB the axis of a small conical pencil; ds the area where
the pencil cuts the surface; dr a short distance from da
 746 HIGGS: AN INVESTIGATION OF EARTHING RESISTANCES.
along AB; — dv the drop in potential along dr; and di Integrating (6) we obtain
the element of current flowing out through ds.
By Ohm's law,
pi =-2"47T
dv
pdi = —ds . . . . (4) Q P
dr that is,
I 4TT

From (3) and (7) we have

7? P (8)-
4TTC

Equation (8) is the general formula relating resistance,,

resistivity and capacity for a body in free space.

B
1i r1
. 1-P-
r
.
I . -j K " Tr 1 \
1 1
G S
j

L i
Ground surface
1 r <=—a

1
A E
FIG. 13.
FIG. 10.
If A be considered with respect to another body B
instead of to infinity, then (8) would still apply, R being"
the resistance between A and B, and C their capacity
as oppositely charged bodies.
Ground surface Practical Applications.—Let A, Fig. 10, be an electrode-
in the ground and A' its image above the ground surface-
GS. If A and A' connected together be considered as.

FIG. 11.
B
I I

1-
Ground surface

ll-t FIG. 14.

A one body in free space, then their resistance to infinity-

would be given by equation (8), where G is their
FIG. 12. capacity to infinity. Because the conditions above and
below GS are symmetrical, the resistance of A alone to-
The electric force F at ds, by definition, is either infinity is
dv 1 Q 1 B = P (9).
- -r • - or - • - 2TTG
dr e r* e
that is, . . . . (5) Equation (9) is the general formula for calculfa4ing_
the resistances of electrodes of inextensive area, tke-
From (4} and (5), units of measurement being in centimetres.
Hemispherical Electrode.—A hemispherical electrode-
. . . . (6)
with. its: flat side level with the ground surface is

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 HIGGS: AN INVESTIGATION OF EARTHING RESISTANCES. 747

in Fig. 11. It with its image is a sphere the capacity ment and the assumption given below are due to Prof.
of which is equal to the radius or G. W. O. Howe.*
C=r (10) Let GA, Fig. 12, be a pipe and GB its image. Ta
determine the resistance of GA it is necessary to calcu-
Driven Pipes.—Owing to the particular geometrical late the capacity of AB in free space.
200 If AB be a charged body in free space, it is wholly
Ground surfac e at a certain potential and its charge is unevenly distri-
buted over its surface, being of greatest density at the-
f
Lengtli ends. This condition is difficult to consider mathe-
matically. The assumption mentioned above is that,
160
,1 the density of charge is uniform, from which the mean,
^Diamete r potential of AB may be calculated, the result will.
"1

I\v \
Soil resi stivity IOC 00 ohm
per cm cu be Ground surface Ground surface
t
© Depth (2) Depth 2 ft.
£120 .^ !• ra-Width 2 m
^ _J 1^ -J
:ter 1 in. | Length I Soil resistivity 10000 ohms ' Length^
2 in
4 in
F per en cube

V V
40 \
8 in 40
£ 80 Lengtll 10 ft.

X ,ength 10 ft.

\
40 30 30
m
E
J:
0

\
«T
\ Len *th 25 i=t. o
C
Length of pipe, feet
\y d
Resis

Lengt i 25 ft.
FIG. 15—Change in resistance of driven pipes with length
and diameter. •

~-—-. 1 — ~ _

Length 100 ft.

10

. Lengtl i ioo a

i
1 2 3 4 2 4 6 8
Depth in ground,feet Width of strip, inches

FIG. 17.—Change in resistance of buried strip with (1) lengtb

and depth in ground, and (2) length and width.
be the actual potential very nearly. The charge and
potential being known, the capacity of AB is the charge-
per unit potential.
In Fig. 12, let GA = I, BS = y, SP = x, D be the
diameter of the pipe and a the assumed uniform charge-
per unit length.
0 2 4 6 The charge on a length dx at P is adx.
Distance apart , feet The potential at S owing to element of charge at P
FIG. 16—Change in resistance of two driven pipes with
distance apart. adx
form of a pipe, capacity is not readily calculable.
The calculation is simplified, however, by making an
initial assumption which, leading to results that are • " On the Capacity of Radio-Telegraphic Antennae," Electrician, 1924,
vol. 73, pp. 829, 859 and 906; "The.1 Calculation of the Effective Resistance
correct within a few per cent of error, is sufficiently of Earth Plates,;' Electnctan, 1915-16, vol. 76,' p. 353: " The Capacity ofi
Rectangular Plates and a Suggested'Formula for the Capacity of Aerials,"
accurate for practical purposes. The method of treat- Radio Review, 1919-20, vol. 1, p. 710.

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 748 HIGGS: AN INVESTIGATION OF EARTHING RESISTANCES.

and, owing TO the whole of charge, is equation (11) For two pipes connected in parallel:—
integrated between the limits of y and 0, and (21 — y) Total mean potential Vm = Vmi + Vm2 . . . (17)
and 0, from which
Total charge Q = 4:1a (18)
V8 = a Tare sinh ^ + arc sinh 2(2Z
~ y)
~| . (12) For n pipes Vm = Vmi + FOT2 + Vm... (n terms) (19)
D D Q = 2nlv (20)
The mean potential of AB is equation (12) integrated For two pipes connected in series:—
between the limits of 21 and 0, divided by 21, from which Total mean potential difference between them
F m = 2 ( F m i - Vm%) . . . . (21)
Vmi =
Total charge Q = 2la (22)
The total charge on AB Buried Strips —To calculate the capacity of a buried
Q = 2la (14) 50
Ground surface
The capacity C is the ratio of (14) and (13).
\
Driven Pipes connected in Series or Parallel.—Let t
4 ft.
40
1 Gr ound surface 40 \
^ \

t \
Depth2ft. Soil resistivity 10000 ohms
> 1 , Width 2 in. per cm cube

30
\ r Length p [
Soil re sistivit y 10000 ohms
per eni cube 30
\ \ .
-Lengt i3ft.

o \ \ \

\\
4>
u

s
•220 \
<u S20
erf J

\ -Leng th6ft.

. Lengtf i 9ft.
*•'

10
^--^
— —

20 40 60 80
4 6
Length of strip, feet
Width of plate, feet
FIG. 18.—Change in resistance of buried strip with length. FIG. 19 —Change in resistance of plates with length and width.
GA and SE (Fig. 13) be two similar pipes at a distance strip, the method of treatment is to substitute for the
a apart, each being of length I, diameter D, and charge strip a pipe having the same length of periphery, to
per unit length a The mean potential of AB due to obtain the mean potential of the pipe by means of the
its own charge is given by Vmi, equation (13). The given formulae and to multiply the result by a correction
potential of AB is, however, affected by the charge on factor, which is about 1-11 when the width of the strip
EF. is about 17 times its thickness.
The potential at K (Fig. 13) due to element of charge Referring to Fig. 14, let AB be the strip of length I,
at P width w and thickness t, buried at a depth d, and let
EF be its image.
dVK = (15) 2(w + t)
+ Diameter of equivalent pipe D = . . (23)
Equation (15) being similar to (11) except that \D is
replaced by a, the mean potential of AB due to charge Potential of AB due to its own charge, from equation (13),
on EF is, from equation (13),
Vmi = 2aK I arc sinh — + — —
21 a l_
' w»2 —
axosmh _ + _ _ (16)
K being the correction factor.

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 HIGGS: AN INVESTIGATION OF EARTHING RESISTANCES. 749

Potential of AB due to charge on image E F , from When the plate is in the plane of the ground surface,
equation (16) equations (28) and (29) apply.
When the plate is at a depth d in the ground that is
Fro2 = ft, [ a r c sinh 1 + !?
!? - + "£-} I (25) large compared with lv the image may be taken to be
Id at a distance of 2d from the plate, and
L
Vm = (26)
Total potential (30)
(27) 2d
Total charge
When d is neither large nor small compared with Zj,
Buried Plates.—To calculate the capacity of a buried the plate with image may be considered as a strip with
plate, the method of treatment is to consider the plate image, in which case equation (25) would apply.
as a large number of strips connected in parallel, to
obtain by integration the potential of any one strip due
to the charge on the whole plate and to obtain, by F m2 = 2aw> arc sinh — + (31)
l
integrating over the whole width of the plate and l_
Total potential of plate V = Vmi + F m 2 (32)
Ground surface
50
Total charge Q = 2<jwlx (33)

Ground surface
40 100
Square plate 4 ft.
1
Soil resistivity 10000ohms
1
1
30
80

r -s—
Square
is
plate
Soil resisti vity
I 10 000 ohms
per cm cul )e
<u"60
u
a
£20
rf
\
40

10
20
V -^_ -—
. -

4 6 0 20 40 60 80
A r e a of plate, sq ft.
Depth in ground, feet
FIG. 20.—Change in resistance of square plates with size and FIG. 21.—Change in resistance of square plate with area.
depth in ground.
The method of calculation of either strips or plates
dividing by the width, the mean potential of the plate.
connected in parallel or series is similar to that described
The result obtained may be given as
for pipes.
-l Theoretical Resistance Curves.—Curves showing rela-
Vmi = 0-0375^) (28) tions between the earthing resistances (calculated by
means of the various theoretical formulae), the dimensions
where lx is the length of the plate and w its width, the and depths in the ground of various types of electrodes,
formula being approximately applicable between the are given in Figs. 15 to 21.
limits of l-Jio = 1 and IJw = 1 2 . Discussion of the Various Types of Electrodes of
Inextensive Area.—The various types of electrodes of
The total charge Q = awlx (29)
inextensive area are compared in Table 11, the relative
The potential of a buried plate due to the charge on earthing resistances given in col. 6 of the table being
its image may be approximately obtained as follows:— obtained from the curves of Figs. 15 to 21.

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 750 HIGGS: AN INVESTIGATION OF EARTHING RESISTANCES.

The values given in the table suggest the following
points:—
(i) Pipes and strips are about equally efficient and
are much more efficient than plates. Pipes, which are
simply driven in the ground, would, however, be more
commonly used than strips, which require a considerable
amount of ground excavation for their installation, on
account of the low first costs of the former.
to be uniform. It appears, therefore, that the possible
variations in soil resistivity with depth are relatively
more important with regard to earthing efficiencies
than the actual depths of burying. A strip or plate
should, when practicable, be buried where the soil
resistivity is lowest, if not too shallow.
The sizes of electrodes and the depths of burying are.
for practical reasons, generally confined within limits,

TABLE 11.
A Comparison of Various Electrodes.

Relative
Electrode Length Width or Depth in Soil
diameter ground excavation f
Earthing Efficiency §
resistance

ft. in. ft. cub. ft.

Pipe 6 1 It
Strip 10 2 4 80 0-68 104
Strip 10 2 2 30 0-72 0-97
Pipe 12 1 0-54 0-92
2 Pipes * 6 1 0-59 0-85
Strip 25 2 2 75 0-37 0-77
Pipe 6 2 0-86 0-58
Strip 10 5 2 30 0-61 0-46
Plate 9 6 4 72 0-59 0-44
(feet)
Plate 3 3 8 72 0-59 0-22
Plate 3 3 4 36 0-63 0-21
Plate 6 6 4 144 0-35 0-10

• Two pipes each 6 ft. in length and 1 in. in diameter, spaced 5 ft. apart and connected in parallel.
t The soil excavation has been calculated on the basis that pipes being driven require none; the minimum width of a trench 2 ft. deep is 1-5 ft. and of one
4 ft. deep is 2 ft.
X A driven pipe 6 ft. long and 1 in. in diameter has been taken as a standard for the purpose of the comparison.
§ Efficiency is taken to be inversely proportional to earthing resistance and to the volume of the electrode; i.e. efficiency is proportional to the earthing
conductance of an electrode per unit volume of metal. The thickness of the^metal of each electrode has been taken as 0-25 in.

(ii) An electrode consisting of two pipes spaced
about 5 ft. apart and connected in parallel is much
more efficient than one pipe of diameter equal to the
sum of the two. A number of small electrodes dis-
persed in the ground and connected in parallel is more
efficient than the same amount of metal less widely
dispersed.
(iii) A plate of a given amount of metal becomes more
efficient the more it is elongated like a strip.
(iv) The efficiency of a strip or plate is only slightly
increased by burying at depths greater than about 2 ft.
or 4 ft. respectively, the soil resistivity being assumed
The dispersion of a number of small electrodes connected
in parallel to obtain a low resistance would, for example,
be limited by the installation cost or by a minimum
size of electrode as regards mechanical strength and
durability. The length of a pipe would be limited to
that which may be easily driven, and the depth of
burying a strip or plate to a moderate amount of ground
excavation. Although the thickness of metal of an
electrode has no appreciable effect on earthing resistance,
yet it should be sufficient to give the electrode a reason-
able mechanical strength and service life in the presence
of possible corrosion.

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