Numerical Modelling of Turbomachinery Aero- and Thermodynamics

Franco Rispoli
Dipartimento di Meccanica e Aeronautica
Università di Roma “La Sapienza”
Via Eudossiana, 18, I00184 Roma
Tel: (+39) 06 44585233, fax: (+39) 06 4881759, e-mail: rispoli@dma.ing.uniroma1.it

Alessandro Corsini
Dipartimento di Meccanica e Aeronautica
Università di Roma “La Sapienza”
Via Eudossiana, 18, I00184 Roma
Tel: (+39) 06 44585231, fax: (+39) 06 4881759, e-mail: corsini@dma.ing.uniroma1.it

Summary of the workshop organised at the Conference on Modelling

Fluid Flow (CMFF’03), September 3 to 6, 2003, Budapest

Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) coupled to turbomachinery devoted thermo-fluid dynamic models, has
greatly enhanced the understanding of flow features pertinent to turbomachinery. CFD has become a mature
investigation tool, pushed by the efforts in improving numerical algorithms and computing platforms. However the
effectiveness of CFD application is limited by some pacing items, and those linked to the turbulence modeling are
considered critical. For this reason, the workshop aimed at the presentation of state-of-the-art strategies developed
for the modelling of turbulence related phenomena peculiar of turbomachinery configurations. With respect to gas
turbine framework, still remains a lack of generally applicable techniques with satisfactory accuracy in demanding
flow conditions exploiting:
 on the turbomachinery bladings, boundary layer development in presence of transition [1] and severe non-
equilibrium effects [2] (such as those related to large three-dimensional separation, or secondary-to-main
flow interactions, &c);
 in the combustors, finite rate chemistry combustion phenomena in turbulent regime [3];
 in the gas turbines, heat transfer and film cooling [4].

The unsteady laminar-turbulent (l-t) transition is one of the most important and also most complex issues of the
contemporary turbomachinery aerodynamics [1]. The unsteady flow character results not only from the presence of
turbulent fluctuations of all the important flow quantities but also from the mutual rotor-stator bladerow
interactions. Despite the fact that even physics of these phenomena is not well understood, it is observed that the
periodic flow unsteadiness affects strongly the location of l-t transition region in boundary layers at the blade
surface. In turn this circumstance affects not only the boundary layer structure but also heat transfer coefficients at
the blade surface and the thermal fatigue. The wakes also influence the separation behavior of boundary layers and
have a large effect on the performance of airfoils as well as turbine and compressor blades.
That is why a proper numerical simulation of the transitional flows, especially under the condition of wake
unsteadiness, is nowadays one of most important but also of most difficult tasks to solve. Though dramatic
improvements have been achieved in the algorithms and in CFD itself, the transition modeling is still lagging
behind numerical procedures. In this respect, the fundamental research is needed in two main areas. The first one is
the unsteady flow in blade channels and in particular the transport of wakes in curved channels. The second
important area is the unsteady interaction of wakes with boundary layer and in particular the influence of wakes and
l-t transition in boundary layers on blade profiles. In fact, transition modelling still largely limits the quality of the
CFD codes today, and indeed the errors in estimation of onset and extension of the transition can affect the
efficiency by several percent and component life by more than an order of magnitude. Simultaneously, it is
important to remember that the development of this field and physical understanding of transition can not be
achieved without the experimental work. Institute of Thermal Machinery working in the TRANSPRETURB
Thematic Network was one of the groups which delivered substantial amount of data for validation of wake induced
transition approaches [1].

Under the turbulence modelling viewpoint [2], the non-isotropic eddy viscosity models (EVM) are considered as a
fair baseline in turbomachinery simulation, as they include provisions to account for curvature and non-equilibrium
effects, and to attenuate stagnation-point inconsistency. In the number of this family of turbulence closures,
particular attention should be given to the non-linear EVM that adopt higher-order polynomial (e.g. third order)
relationship to mimic the stress-strain relationship as a mean to recover the turbulence anisotropy. This model still
undergoing validation efforts in several flow problems (such as: external aerodynamics, environmental problems,
etc.), has not yet been extensively applied in the context of real turbomachinery configurations. To this end, in the
workshop has been presented comparative analyses on 2D DCA compressor cascade and a 3D NFV axial
ventilation fan rotor, confirmed that this non-linear model is able to provide a better base-line for non-equilibrium
effects simulation with respect to the standard one. In particular the flow survey behind the fan rotor, along the
whole operating line from design to throttled flow rates, shows that the non-linear solution improves the prediction
of spanwise work distribution reproducing the endwall feaures (such as the casing under- and hub over-turning).
This circumstance was related to the ability of non-linear model of adequately taking into account the stall-like
behaviour on blade suction-side as well as the leakage phenomena. To this end, the sensitization of cubic stress
dependence on strain and vorticity was considered as the critical modelling mean to predict severe 3D flow structure
not affected by non-physical eddy diffusivity levels.

In the design of modern gas turbine combustors, a major role is played by constraints deriving from increasingly
stricter pollutant emission standards (e.g. carbon monoxide CO, or nitrogen oxides NO x) [3]. The prediction of
pollutant emissions can be attempted at two levels: by using empirical correlations, and by using CFD tools. The
first approach has been widely used in the design of gas turbine combustion chambers, with some degree of success.
However, empirical correlations are based on global quantities, and accordingly do not allow to assess the impact of
fine design changes, aimed at reducing pollutant emissions. Accordingly, nowadays CFD represents the most
promising tool. Among the emissions from turbojet engines the nitric oxides are of particular environmental concern
as they represent one of the main factors depleting the ozone layer. It is worth emphasizing that the fraction of NO x
emitted in the form of nitrous oxide N 2O has also an important climatic effect, since the GWP (Global Warming
Potential) of nitrous oxide stands at 320, i.e., it is as many times as effective as carbon dioxide as a greenhouse gas.
Despite the low amounts of nitrous oxide emitted from combustion sources, there is evidence that it contributes
about 10% to global warming. A detailed model to predict pollutant emissions from gas turbines has been proposed
[3], based on the stretched laminar flamelet approach. This model is able to account for the NO x emissions from
both the thermal and the nitrous oxide (N 2O) pathways; thus the emissions of N 2O itself and CO are quantified. As
far as the N2O is concerned this may turn out to be a significant source, especially in view of the fact that the
increasingly higher pressure ratios adopted in modern gas turbine engines will presumably lead to an increased
weight of the N2O pathway. Present results suggest that this pathway can contribute significantly, especially at take-
off conditions. The fraction of nitrous oxide not converted to NO is however substantially higher at cruise
conditions. In particular, it is found that the N 2O pathway contributes 12.8% and 8% to total NO x emissions at take-
off and cruise, respectively.

Three-dimensional numerical simulation of heat transfer and film cooling is becoming a part of complex procedure
of gas turbine blade design and is slowly replacing simpler two-dimensional methods mainly based on boundary
layer computations and relying strongly on experimental databases. However, many fundamental and practical
developments are needed before the full three-dimensional computational analysis becomes reliable. In the
workshop, has been discussed the application of Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations and the
validity of different EVMs in the treatment of the heat transfer and film cooling of gas turbines. A first critical
modelling feature is the overprediction of turbulent kinetic energy effects the heat transfer predictions. To this end
has been used an experimentally document test case of a film-cooled gas turbine rotor blade (VKI blade test case).
The second analysis deals with an unsteady three-dimensional slot jet, in order to discuss the unsteady effects
(including jet pulsations) using RANS methodology coupled with eddy-viscosity turbulence models. It was shown
herein that substantially improved heat transfer and film cooling predictions can be obtained when eddy-viscosity
based turbulence models are carefully used. Limiters, such as the bound on turbulence time scale T, that prevent
anomalous levels of turbulent kinetic energy predictions in a turbine passage are an example of simple and efficient
improvement to widely used turbulence models.
As a final illustration the improved eddy-viscosity models were used as a part of an optimal shape design algorithm
used for the design of an experimental rig at Stanford University.

Acknowledgments:

Franco Rispoli and Alessandro Corsini wish to express a deep gratitude to the workshop contributors for the quality
of the presented lectures, and to the Conference Organizer Prof. T. Lajos and Prof. J. Vad. 
References:

[1] Contribution by W. Elsner, invited lecturer. Presentation: W. Elsner, S. Drobniak, 2003, “Modelling of Unsteady Boundary
Layer Transition”, Proc. Conference on Modelling Fluid Flow (CMFF’03), September 2003, Budapest, Vol. 1.
[2] Contribution by A. Corsini, invited lecture “Flow analyses in axial compressors with a non­linear eddy­viscosity closure”,
Dipartimento di Meccanica e Aeronautica, University of Rome “La Sapienza”.
[3] Contribution   by   D.   Lentini,   invited   lecturer.   Presentation:   D.   Lentini,   2003,   “Pollutant   Emission   Modelling   in   Gas
Turbines”, Proc. Conference on Modelling Fluid Flow (CMFF’03), September 2003, Budapest, Vol. 1.
[4] Contribution by G. Medic, P. Durbin, 2003, “Rans Simulations For Film-Cooling Analysis And Design”, Proc. Conference
on Modelling Fluid Flow (CMFF’03), September 2003, Budapest, Vol. 1.

pOlLutANT EMISSION MODELLING IN GAS TURBINES, Diego Lentini

A detailed model to predict pollutant emissions from gas turbines is presented, based on the stretched
laminar flamelet approach. NOx emissions from both the thermal and the nitrous oxide (N 2O) pathways
are considered, thanks to a recently developed model; emissions of N 2O itself and CO are quantified as
well. The model is applied to a typical aeronautical gas turbine combustion chamber, at both take-off and
cruise conditions. In particular, it is found that the N 2O pathway contributes 12.8% and 8% to total NO x
emissions at take-off and cruise, respectively. Extensions to account for radiative and convective heat
transfer are outlined.
Key Words: CFD, gas turbines, pollutant emissions
Intro: