Lagrangian Interaction

An Introduction to Relativistic Symmetry

in Electrodynamics and Gravitation

Noel A. Doughty
Department of Physics, University of Canterbury,
Christchurch, New Zealand

Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.

The Advanced Book Program
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Contents

Preface vii
Figures xvii
Biographical details xix

I Galilean relativity and Newtonian physics 1

1 Introduction 3
1.1 Fundamental particles and interactions 4
1.2 Electrodynamics 6
1.3 Weak-nuclear interaction 11
1.4 Strong-nuclear interaction 15
1.5 Gravity 18
1.6 * Unifying principles 24
/
2 Space and time 27
2.1 Space 28
2.2 Time 29
2.3 Spacetime coordinates 30
2.4 Homogeneity, isotropy and curvature 32
2.5 Orientability of time and space 36
3 Euclidean geometry 40
3.1 Euclidean line elements 41
3.2 Indexed/notation and matrix multiplication ^ 43
3.3 Parity .46
3.4 Charge conjugation 52
3.5 Time reversal ~ 53
3.6 Rotations 56
3.7 Groups 59

4 Tensor fields in Euclidean spacetime 62

4.1 Euclidean scalars and scalar fields 62
4.2 Euclidean vectors and vector fields 63
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4.3 Euclidean tensors and tensor fields 65

4.4 Symmetric and antisymmetric tensors 67
4.5 Proper and improper tensors 69
4.6 Permutation pseudotensor 73
4.7 Three-dimensional tensor duality 75
4.8 Manifest Euclidean covariance 77

Spacetime kinematics and Galilean relativity 80

5.1 Introduction 80
5.2 Measurement and simultaneity 82
5.3 Spacetime reference frame 85
5.4 Principle of relativity 88
5.5 Galilean and Lorentz transformations 93
5.6 Galilean relativity 100
5.7 Aristotelean and Galilean gravity 104
5.8 Fibre bundle structure of Galilean spacetime 104

Newtonian mechanics 107

6.1 Newtonian dynamics and conservation 107
6.2 Additivity of conserved quantities 113
6.3 Interaction in Newtonian physics 114
6.4 Potential energy of conservative systems 120
6.5 External interaction 124
6.6 Galilean covariance and conservation 124
6.7 Natural equations 127

Newtonian gravity 130

7.1 Introduction 130
7.2 Gravity 131
7.3 Newton's gravity theory 132
7.4 Newton's gravitation constant 135
7.5 Field equations^of Newtonian gravity , 138y
7.6 First-order Newtonian gravity field equations 141
7.7 Second-order Newtonian gravity field equations 142
7.8 Equations of motion in a gravitational'field 144
7.9 Cosmological constant 145
7.10 Gauge freedom of Newtonian gravity 147
7.11 Weak equivalence principle 149
7.12 Michell and Laplace black holes 152
7.13 Soldner's gravitational deflection of light 153
7.14 Deviations from Newtonian gravity 157
7.15 Newton-Cartan spacetime 160
Contents xiii

II Lagrangian interaction and symmetry 163

8 Euler-Lagrange equations of motion 165
8.1 Introduction 165
8.2 Lagrangian of a system of Newtonian particles 166
8.3 Momenta and configuration space Hamiltonian 168
8.4 Generalized coordinates in mechanics 170
8.5 Stationary action 174
8.6 Hamilton's principle of stationary action 175
8.7 Functional differentiation 178
8.8 Lagrangian interaction 179
8.9 Newtonian gravitational Lagrangian interaction 182
8.10 Constraints 184

9 Symmetries and Noether's theorem 189

9.1 Introduction 189
9.2 Point transformations of configuration space 190
9.3 Invariant and covariant Lagrangians 191
9.4 Hamilton's modified principle of varied action 192
9.5 Symmetries of Lagrangian systems 195
9.6 Noether charges for mechanical systems 197
9.7 Noether's theorem for mechanical systems 200

10 Non-relativistic Lagrangian fields 202

10.1 Introduction 202
10.2 Mechanics to fields 203
10.3 Hamilton's principle for Newtonian fields 205
10.4 Poisson and Laplace equation Lagrangians 209
10.5 Newtonian gravitational action 211
10.6 Schrodinger Lagrangian 214
10.7 Invariant and covariant field Lagrangians 217
10.8 Noether's theorem for Newtonian fields 219
10.9 U(l) phase invariance — Schrodinger charge 222

11 Hamiltonian dynamics ^^"225

11.1 Introduction 225
11.2 Phase space Hamiltonian 226
11.3 Hamilton's equations ^ 228
11.4 Phase space Hamilton's principle 229
11.5 Poisson brackets 231
11.6 Non-relativistic Hamiltonian fields 233
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III Poincare covariance and Einsteinian physics 237

12 Special relativity 239
12.1 Introduction: the electricity and the ether 239
12.2 Einsteinian relativity postulates 246
12.3 Lorentz transformations 247
12.4 Geometry of spacetime 250
12.5 Spacetime causal structure and proper time 252
12.6 The dimensionality of spacetime 257

13 Poincare transformations 259

13.1 Covariant notation 259
13.2 Minkowskian spacetime isometry group 263
13.3 Restricted Lorentz transformations 266
13.4 Lorentz boosts and spatial rotations 270
13.5 Rapidity and 'hyperbolic rotations' 272
13.6 Boosts in an arbitrary direction 273
13.7 Factorizing a Lorentz transformation 274

14 Tensor fields in Minkowskian spacetime 276

14.1 Scalar and vector fields 276
14.2 Lorentz tensors and tensor fields 279
14.3 Lorentz scalar product 281
14.4 Manifest Lorentz and Poincare covariance 283
14.5 Symmetric and antisymmetric tensors 285
14.6 Pseudo 4-scalars, 4-vectors and 4-tensors 286
14.7 Permutation pseudotensor 289
14.8 Tensor duality in Minkowskian spacetime 291
14.9 Matrix generators of Lorentz transformations 293

15 Einsteinian mechanics 296

15.1 Four-velocity and four-acceleration 296
15.2 Poincare-covariant conservation laws 299
15.3 Relativistic free particle equations of motion 305
15.4 Relativistic Lagrangian mechanics 307
15.5 Relativistic free particle Lagrangians 308
15.6 Massless particles ~ 311
15.7 Einbein Lagrangian 312
15.8 Relativistic Hamiltonian mechanics 315
15.9 Spin of a massive relativistic system 319
15.10 Helicity of a massless particle 323
15.11 Spacelike surfaces and covariant 3-volume 325
15.12 Gauss's theorem in Minkowskian spacetime 327
15.13 Energy-momentum tensor 329
Contents xv

IV Electrodynamic and gravitational fields 333

16 Relativistic Lagrangian fields 335
16.1 Field equations and Noether currents 336
16.2 Canonical energy-momentum tensor 341
16.3 Klein-Gordon field 342
16.4 Real scalar field 344
16.5 Charged scalar field. Internal symmetries 347
16.6 Free Klein-Gordon plane-wave expansion 352
16.7 Relativistic Klein-Gordon wave mechanics 353
16.8 Klein-Gordon Hamiltonian 354

17 Relativistic scalar gravity 357

17.1 Graviscalar action of Nordstr0m 357
17.2 Gravitational time dilation or red shift 362
17.3 Riemannian structure of scalar gravity 365
17.4 Graviscalar light deflection 367
17.5 Linear graviscalar perihelion shift 367
17.6 Non-linear graviscalar perihelion shift 370
17.7 Short-range gravitational interaction 374

18 Maxwell's equations 376

18.1 Introduction 376
18.2 Characterization of the electromagnetic field 382
18-.3 Invariance and conservation of charge 383
18.4 The general form of the field equations 386
18.5 Covariant first-order Maxwell's equations 387
18.6 Maxwell's equations in 3-vector form 389
18.7 Second-order Maxwell's equations 393
18.8 Electromagnetic invariants 395
18.9 Electromagnetic gauge invariance 396
18.10 Boost transformation of field strengths 398
18.11 Magnetic charge and magnetic monopoles 400
18.12 Electromagnetic energy-momentum tensor ^ 403
18.13 Maxwell and Proca Lagrangian densities 405

19 Electrodynamics 410
19.1 Lorentz law of charged particle motion 410
19.2 Current density of a classical charged particle 412
19.3 Electromagnetic coupling constant 414
19.4 Interaction: classical electrodynamic action 415
19.5 Belinfante symmetric energy-momentum tensor 419
19.6 Physical components of the Maxwell potential 421
19.7 Lorentz family of gauges 423
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19.8 Maxwell polarization basis 425

19.9 Coulomb gauges 427
19.10 Hamilton and radiation gauges 427

20 Gauge principle 430

20.1 Introduction 430
20.2 Dirac field of relativistic electrons 431
20.3 Dirac equation 435
20.4 Dirac Lagrangian density 439
20.5 Plane Dirac waves 441
20.6 Dirac current 443
20.7 Chiral Dirac fields and Weyl neutrinos 444
20.8 Localization of a global symmetry 447
20.9 Spinor electrodynamics 449
20.10 CPT symmetries of Weyl and Dirac equations 454
20.11 Gauge-covariant derivative: minimal coupling 455
20.12 Scalar electrodynamics 456
20.13 Yang-Mills fields — nuclear interactions 458
20.14 Quantum field theory 463

21 Relativistic gravitation 466

21.1 Introduction 466
21.2 Rarita-Schwinger spin | vector-spinor fields 466
21.3 Fierz-Pauli massless spin 2 tensor gravity 469
21.4 Experimental tests of tensor gravity 475
21.5 Einstein strong equivalence principle 480
21.6 General relativity 482
21.7 Unification and supersymmetry 492
21.8 Relativistic superstrings 496

Appendices 499
A.I Physical constants 499
A.2 Counting components 500
/ A.3 Helmholtz decomposition of vector fields 501
A.4 Poincare Lemma 502

References ^ 504
Index 543