Chapter 4 - Surface Runoff - Student

HYDROLOGY
(BFC 32002)
By:-
WAN AFNIZAN BIN WAN MOHAMED

DEPT. OF WATER & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
FAC. OF CIVIL & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
e-mail: afnizan@uthm.edu.my
CHAPTER 4
SURFACE RUNOFF
CONTENT
 RUNOFF DEFINITION
 FACTORS AFFECTING SURFACE RUNOFF
 MEASUREMENT OF STAGE
 MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY
 THEORY OF DISCHARGE
MEASUREMENT
 DETERMINATION OF STREAM-
FLOW
CONTENT
 STAGE DISCHARGE RATING CURVE
 CATCHMENT CHARACTERISTICS
Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ;

JKAP ; FKAAS
RUNOFF DEFINITION
What
is
Runoff

JKAP ; FKAAS
RUNOFF DEFINITION
 RUNOFF  Draining or flowing off of precipitation from a
catchment area  represent the output of catchment in a
given unit of time.
 The evapotranspiration, initial loss, infiltration and

detention-storage requirements  satisfied  runoff.
 Occurrence start with Overland flow = The excess

precipitation moves over the land surfaces to reach smaller
channels.
 The movement of flow from surface  open channels

(small channel, river, stream)  catchment outlet =
SURFACE RUNOFF

JKAP ; FKAAS
RUNOFF DEFINITION
... Con’t
Clouds Rainfall
Evaporation Overland flow
Infiltration
Evaporation Interception
and depression
storage
Evaporation Soil Subsurface flow

moisture
percolation
storage
runoff
Direct
Deep
Groundwater Base flow
storage
Stream
flow
Evaporation
Figure 4.1 : Forms of runoff in the hydrologic cycle

RUNOFF DEFINITION
... Con’t
1. Overland flow
2. Base flow of stream

Precipitation contributed by groundwater
discharge
3. Major part of absorbed water

moves laterally through the
shallow soil horizon in the
zone aeration
1
4. Some water moving through
the top soil also appears as
the return overland flow
3 4
Stream
Figure 4.2 : Paths of runoff

FACTORS AFFECTING SURFACE RUNOFF
 METEOROLOGICAL FACTORS
 Type of precipitation (rain, snow)

 Rainfall intensity
 Rainfall amount
 Rainfall duration
 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Land use
 Vegetation
 Soil type
 Drainage area
 Basin shape JKAP ; FKAAS
MEASUREMENT OF STAGE
 Staff Gauge
 Wire Gauge
 Automatic Stage Recorders
a) Float – Gauge Recorder
b) Bubble – Gauge Recorder

JKAP ; FKAAS
... Con’t
 Stage = Water-surface elevation.

 Measured above datum (MSL or any arbitrary datum).
1. STAGE GAUGE
 Measurement ??  Elevation of the water surface in
contact with a fixed graduated staff.
 Characteristics of staff :-
 Durable material  Low coefficient of expansion
(temperature and moisture).
 Fixed rigidly to a structure (e.g: abutment, pier, wall, etc)
 Vertical or inclined  clearly & accurately permanent
markings.
 If gauge at different locations  sectional gauges.
... Con’t
Figure 4.3 : Vertical staff gauge
Figure 4.4 : Sectional staff gauge

... Con’t
2. WIRE GAUGE
 Measure water-surface elevation  above the surface (e.g:
bridge).
 Weight touch the water surface.
 Mechanical counter measures length of the wire paid out.
 Operating range = 25 m.
3. AUTOMATIC STAGE RECORDERS

 More accurate compared to staff & wire gauge.
 Considerable use in stream-flow measurement practice.
 Two types :-

JKAP ; FKAAS
... Con’t
I FLOAT – GAUGE RECORDER
 Float  balanced by counterweight over the pulley of a

recorder.
 Displacement of float (rising / lowering)  input to recorder.
 Mechanical linkages convert angular displacement to linear
displacement of a pen.
 Operates (day, week or fortnight)  provide plot of stage vs
time.
 Analogue model.
 Improvement  digital signals transmit data-processing
centre.
 Disadvantage : Expensive.
JKAP ; FKAAS
... Con’t
Figure 4.5 : Stilling well installation

JKAP ; FKAAS
... Con’t
II BUBLE – GAUGE RECORDER
 Use compressed air or gas  at outlet bottom of the river.
 Pressure gauge measures gas pressure.
 The pressure gauge  reads water depth  transmitted to a

recorder.
 Advantages :-
 Cheaper than float – gauge ( x stilling wells).

 Measured up to 30 m change of stage.
 Inlet less get blocked or choked (constant bleeding).

JKAP ; FKAAS
... Con’t Instrument room
Reference level
Legend :-
1 High pressure bottle
2 Gas adjustment unit
3 Pressure point
4 Mercury manometer
5 Recorder
Figure 4.6 : Bubble gauge recorder
... Con’t
STAGE DATA
 Presented  stage hydrograph (plot of stage against time)
 Uses :-
 Determine stream discharge  flood warning & flood-
protection works.
 Peak river stages  design of hydraulic structures (e.g :
bridges, weirs).
Figure 4.7 : Stage hydrograph

MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY
 Current Meters
a) Vertical – Axis Meter
b) Horizontal – Axis Meters
 Floats

JKAP ; FKAAS
CURRENT METER
 Most commonly used  measure the velocity at a point.

 Consists of rotating element  rotates due stream current.
 Typical relationship :-
v  aNs  b ……. 4.1

which ;
v = Stream velocity (m/s)
Ns = Revolutions per second
a, b = Constants
Note : Typical values of a and b :-

For size 12.5 cm diameter  a = 0.65 and b = 0.03
For size 5 cm diameter  a = 0.30 and b = 0.003
... Con’t
CURRENT METER
1. VERTICAL – AXIS CURRENT METERS
 Conical cups mounted around a vertical axis.
 Cups rotate in a horizontal plane generates signals

proportional to the revolutions.
 Example : Price current meter & Gurley current meters.
 Velocities  0.15 – 4.0 m/s.
 Accuracy  1.50 % (threshold) & 0.30 % (v > 1.0 m/s).

JKAP ; FKAAS
... Con’t
CURRENT METER
Figure 4.8 : Vertical – axis current meter

... Con’t
CURRENT METER
2. HORIZONTAL – AXIS CURRENT METERS
 Propeller mounted at the end of horizontal shaft.
 Variety of size  propeller diameters 6 – 12 cm.
 Measure velocities 0.15 – 4.0 m/s.
 Accuracy  1 % (threshold) & 0.25 % (v > 0.3 m/s).

JKAP ; FKAAS
... Con’t
CURRENT METER
Figure 4.9 : Horizontal – axis current meter

JKAP ; FKAAS
FLOATS
 Floats  released at uniform spacing at upstream section.

 Time to cross this reach by reach is noted.
 Float  leak proof & easily identifiable.
 Affected by surface winds.
 Velocity in the vertical directly  Rod float.
 Velocity can be computed using :-
S
Vs 
t ……. 4.2
which;
S = Distance traveled in time, t
 Usage :-
 Small stream in flood.
 Small stream with a rapidly changing water surface.
 Preliminary / exploratory surveys.
... Con’t FLOATS
Figure 4.10 : Floats

JKAP ; FKAAS
Let’s take a
break!!!

JKAP ; FKAAS
THEORY OF DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT
 Discharge of stream-flow = Volume of flow rate.
 Expressed as (ft3/s) or (m3/s)
 The discharge equation :
Q   v a
A
Q   av
which ;
a = Subsection area
v = Mean velocity of subsection

JKAP ; FKAAS
DETERMINATION OF STREAM-FLOW
What
is
Stream - Flow

JKAP ; FKAAS
... Con’t
 STREAM – FLOW = Flow channel  surface runoff from

basin drains.
 Measured in (m3/s).
 Important branch of Hydrometry.
 Measurement techniques :-
a) Direct Determination / Stream Gauging
b) Indirect Determination

JKAP ; FKAAS
... Con’t
A) DIRECT DETERMINATION
Mid - section
 Area-velocity methods
Mean - section
 Velocity measurement by floats
 Tracer-dilution techniques
 Electromagnetic method
 Ultrasonic method
B) INDIRECT DETERMINATION
 Hydraulic structures
 Slope – area method
JKAP ; FKAAS
A) DIRECT DETERMINATION
AREA VELOCITY METHODS
1. MID – SECTION METHOD
 Measure :-
 Area of cross-section at selected section.
 Velocity of flow through cross sectional area.
 Site  with care  few years.
 Criteria adopted :-
 Stream well-defined cross-section.
 Easy accessible.
 Site straight, stable reach.
 Gauging site free from backwater effects.

... Con’t
How it is done ???

( Survey markings )
Section line Determine Divide cross - section

markings cross-section into subsections
( Current meter )
Measure Measure
average velocity depth
( Sounding ( Eco depth

DISCHARGE rods ) recorder )

JKAP ; FKAAS
... Con’t AREA VELOCITY METHODS
verticals
2nd PART 1st PART 3rd PART
Figure 4.11 : Mid – section method

Note : More subsections used  more accurate discharge estimation !!!

... Con’t
How discharge is calculated ???
By creating tables and use equation as below :-
N 1
Q   Q 1
i 1 …….. 4.3
Calculation of Q is divided into 3 parts :-
1st PART
W W  For  i = 2 to N-1 ... 4.4

Q 1  y i  i  i  1  v i
 2 2  ( At middle segments )
Where ; W = Width of segment

y = Depth

... Con’t
2nd PART
Q  v1A1 For  i = 1 ... 4.5

which; ( At first segment - left )
A1  W1y1
2
 W2 
 W1  2 
W1 
2W1
with ; v = Average velocity


... Con’t
3rd PART
Q N  v N A N For  i = N ... 4.6

( At last segment - right )
which;
A N  W N y N
2
 WN  1 
 WN  
 
2
WN
2 WN
JKAP ; FKAAS
EXAMPLE 4.1
The data pertaining to a stream-gauging

operation at a gauging site are given in the
table below. The rating equation of the
current meter is v = 0.51 Ns + 0.03 m/s.
Calculate the discharge in the stream.

JKAP ; FKAAS
SOLUTION
i 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Distance from left of water
0 1 3 5 7 9 11 12
edge (m) 1
Depth (m) 2 0 1.1 2.0 2.5 2.0 1.7 1.0 0
Rev. of a current meter at

0 39 58 112 90 45 30 0
0.6 depth 3
4
0 100 100 150 100 100 100 0
Duration of observation (s)
Revolutions per seconds, Ns 0 0.39 0.58 0.75 0.9 0.45 0.3 0
W 1 2 2 2 2 2 1
3  4

JKAP ; FKAAS
SOLUTION ... Con’t
1st PART At W2 & W3 …. WN-1
W W 
Q 2  y 2  2  3  v 2
 2 2  i = 2 ; i+1 = 3
Find v2 ;
v 2  0.51N s  0.03
v 2  (0.51)(0.58)  0.03
v 2  0.326 m/s
Thus ;
 2 2
Q 2  ( 2)    (0.326)
 2 2
Q 2  1.304 m 3 /s
2nd PART At W1 - Left
Q1  v1A1 i=1
Find v1 & A1 ;
v1  0.51N s  0.03 A1  W1y1

v1  (0.51)( 0.39)  0.03
v1  0.229 m/s Which ;
2
 W2 
 W1  2 
W1 
2W1
2
 2
1  2 
W1   2m
( 2)(1)
2nd PART At W1 - Left
Thus ;
2
A1  ( 2)(1.1)  2.2 m
Hence ;
Q1  (0.229)( 2.2)
Q1  0.504 m 3 /s

JKAP ; FKAAS
3rd PART At W6 - Right
Q6  v 6A6 N=7
Find v6 & A6 ;
v 6  0.51N s  0.03 A6  W6y 6

v 6  (0.51)( 0.3)  0.03
v 6  0.183 m/s Which ;
2
 W6 
W
 7 
2 
W6 
2W7
2
 2
1  2 
W6   2m
( 2)(1)
3rd PART At W6 - Right
Thus ;
2
A6  ( 2)(1)  2 m
Hence ;
Q6  (0.183)( 2)
Q6  0.366 m 3 /s

JKAP ; FKAAS
Tabulate the calculation :-
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)=(4)  (5)
Distance from Average, W Depth, y Average, A Average, v Segmental
left discharge, Qi
(m) (m) (m) (m2) (m/s) (m3/s)
0 0 0 - - -
W1
1 2 1.1 2.2 0.229 0.504
W2
3 2 2.0 4.0 0.326 1.304
W3
5 2 2.5 5.0 0.411 2.055
W4
7 2 2.0 4.0 0.336 1.344
W5
9 2 1.7 3.4 0.260 0.884
W6
11 2 1.0 2.0 0.183 0.366
W7
12 0 0 - - -
TOTAL DISCHARGE = 6.457 m3/s


... Con’t
2. MEAN – SECTION METHOD
How it is done ???
Cross-section Determine area

geometric shape
Determine mean
DISCHARGE velocity
( Current meter )

JKAP ; FKAAS

... Con’t
Figure 4.12 : Mean – section method

Note : More subsections used  more accurate discharge estimation !!!
EXAMPLE 4.2
Table below provides the field measurements

of width, depth, and velocity. Calculate the
discharge at the river cross section.

JKAP ; FKAAS
... Con’t
Table : Field measurement data
Vertical section Section width Depth Mean velocity

no. (m) (m) (m/s)
0 0 0 0
1 4.2 4 2.1
2 3.3 5 2.3
3 4.8 7.2 2.7
4 5.2 7.4 2.8
5 3.7 7.1 2.5
6 5.1 4.7 2.2
7 5.9 0 0
JKAP ; FKAAS
Tabulate the calculation :-
Sub-area Cross-sectional area Average velocity Discharge, Q

(m2) (m/s) (m3/s)
0–1 8.40 1.05 8.82
1–2 14.85 2.20 32.67
2–3 29.28 2.50 73.20
3–4 37.96 2.75 104.39
4–5 26.83 2.65 71.10
5–6 30.09 2.35 70.71
6–7 13.87 1.10 15.26
Total 161.28 376.15
DILUTION METHOD
 Also known as chemical method.
 Two types :-
 Sudden – injection method / gulp / integration method.

 Constant rate injection method / plateau gauging.

JKAP ; FKAAS
DILUTION METHOD
... Con’t
2. SUDDEN – INJECTION METHOD
Figure 4.13 : Sudden - injection method

DILUTION METHOD
... Con’t
1. SUDDEN – INJECTION METHOD
 The discharge can be calculated :-
1C1
Q ... 4.7
 t C 2  Co  t
t2
1
which ;
1 = Tracer volume at section 1
Co = Initial concentration
C1 = Concentration at section 1
DILUTION METHOD
... Con’t
2. CONTANT RATE INJECTION METHOD
Figure 4.14 : Constant rate injection method

DILUTION METHOD
... Con’t
2. CONSTANT RATE INJECTION METHOD
 The discharge can be calculated :-
C1  C2 
Q q ... 4.8
C2  Co 
which ;
Co = Initial concentration
C2 = Concentration at section 2 (peak value)
q = Rate of tracer (at constant)
DILUTION METHOD
... Con’t
2. CONSTANT RATE INJECTION METHOD
 Emphasis on :
 Steady flow.
TRACER
 Properties should :
 Not absorbed by sediment, channel boundary &
vegetation.
 Not chemically react with above surfaces.
 Not lost by evaporation.
 Non – toxic.
 Capable detected.
 Not expensive. JKAP ; FKAAS
DILUTION METHOD
... Con’t
TRACER
 Types :
 Chemicals (e.g : salt & sodium dichromate.
 accuracy : 1% (10 ppm).
 Fluorescent dyes (Rhodamine – WT)

 Detect until nanograms (1011)
 Small amount dye.
 Radioactive materials (Bromine – 82)

 Most accurate (picouries  1014) 
 Large – scale dilutions.
EXAMPLE 4.3
A 25 gm/l solution of a fluorescent tracer was

discharged into a stream at a constant rate of
10 cm3/s. The background concentration of the
dye in the stream was found to be zero. At a
sufficiently distance downstream section, the
dye was found to reach an equilibrium
concentration of 5 parts per billion. Estimate
the stream discharge .
Given :
Co = 0 gm/m3
C1 = 25 gm/l = 0.025 gm/m3
C2 = 5  10-9 g/m3
q = 10 cm3/s = 10  10-6 m3/s
... Con’t
Using equation 4.8 :
C1  C2 
Q q
C2  Co 
 0.025  (5  10 9 ) 
Q  10  10-6
 5  10 9 
Q  50 m 3 / s

JKAP ; FKAAS
ELECTROMAGNETIC METHOD
 Based on Faraday’s principle.
 Induced magnetic field in conductor (water).
 Discharge is formulated using :-
 Ed 
Q  K1   K2
 I  ... 4.9
which ;
K1 & K2 = Constants
E = Signal output
d = Depth
I = Current in the coil
... Con’t
Figure 4.15 : Electromagnetic method

... Con’t
 Disadvantage :-
 Involves sophisticated & expensive.
 Advantage :-
 Can be used in tidal channel.

JKAP ; FKAAS
ULTRASOND METHOD
 Use ultrasonic signals  measure average velocity.
Figure 4.16 : Ultrasonic method

ULTRASOND METHOD
... Con’t
L 1 1
v   
2 cos   t1 t 2  ... 4.10
which ;
1 1 2 v p 2 v cos 
  
t1 t 2 L L
with ;
L L
t1  ; t2 
C  vp C  vp

JKAP ; FKAAS
ULTRASOND METHOD
... Con’t
 If single path (depth)  get area & mean velocity  “single
path gauging”.
 If multiple depth  different v at each path  “multi – path

gauging”.
 Advantages :-
 Rapid &  accuracy.
 Suitable for automatic recording.
 Handle rapid changes (magnitude & direction).
 Disadvantages :-
 Unstable cross-section.
 Fluctuating weed growth.
 High S.S.
 Salinity & temperature changes.
B) INDIRECT DETERMINATION
FLOW STRUCTURES
 Weir, flume / similar flow structure  produce control

section of flow.
 Q is a function of H measured at upstream.
 Types of flow structures :-
 Thin – plate structures (e.g : V-notch,

rectangular -notch.
 Long – base weir / broad – crested weir
(concrete /masonry).
 Flumes. Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ;
JKAP ; FKAAS
SLOPE AREA METHOD
 Used when facing difficulties in velocity measurement (e.g :

large flood).
 What we do?? Take high water level, Cross section, Channel

slope and do calculation :-
1
Q  AR 2 3So1 2 ... 4.11
n
Which ;
n = Manning’s coefficient
A = Wetted area
R = Hydraulic radius
So = Channel slope
STAGE DISCHARGE RATING CURVE
 Used to interpret the results.
 Plot : Stage vs Discharge.
0.2
0.16
Discharge Q (m 3/s)
y = 1.1444x2 - 0.0531x
0.12 R 2 = 0.9808
0.08
0.04
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Stage (H) (m )
Figure 4.17 : Stage – Discharge Curve

CATCHMENT CHARACTERISTICS
Concentration time Drainage divide
Concentration
point /outlet
Figure 4.18 : Catchment area

What
is
Watershed

JKAP ; FKAAS
DEFINITION
 Watershed  all points enclosed within an area

from which rain falling at this point will
contribute water to the outlet .
 Also known as boundary of a catchment area.
 Obtained  by drawing lines perpendicular to the
elevation contour lines.
Figure 4.19: Delineation of watershed boundary

DEFINITION
 Watershed is formed from a few sub watersheds.
Figure 4.20: Watershed consists of three subwatersheds

DEFINITION
What
is
Catchment Area

JKAP ; FKAAS
DEFINITION
 System  change rainfall (input) into discharge

(output) in its outlet.
 Also called drainage area.
 Bordered by ridge, saddle and hill.
 Consists of land use (forest, agriculture, bush,
desert, swamp, housing and etc).

JKAP ; FKAAS
WHY WE NEED TO JUSTIFY THIS ??:-

 Because every hydrologic design is different &
vary with location.
 Factors affecting :-
 Drainage area
 Watershed length
 Watershed slope
 Watershed shape
 Land cover & use
 Surface roughness
.... Cont ‘ DRAINAGE AREA
 Reflect the volume of water that can be generated

from rainfall.
 Requires the delineation of the watershed
boundary.
 Area can be computed either using planimeter or
“stone-age” method.
 “stone-age” method  use transparency showing
a grid blocks laid over the map  count
number of grid blocks within the boundary 
actual area is based on topographic map scale.
JKAP ; FKAAS
.... Cont ‘ WATERSHED LENGTH
 Defined as the distance measured along the main

channel from the watershed outlet to the basin
divide.
 Extend a line from the end of the channel to the
basin divide following path where the greatest
volume of water would travel.

JKAP ; FKAAS
.... Cont ‘ WATERSHED SLOPE
 Difference in elevation (E) between the end

points of the principal flow path divided by the
hydrologic length of the flow path (L).

JKAP ; FKAAS
.... Cont ‘ WATERSHED SHAPE
 Shapes  reflects the way that runoff will “bunch

up” at the outlet.
 For example  Long, narrow drainage basins :
 have straight stream channels and short tributaries.
 Storm waters reach the main channels far more
rapidly.
 Flash floods are common  resulting in greater
erosion potential.
Q/Area
B A
A C
A Time
C B
.... Cont ‘ LAND COVER & USE
 Provide effect to land cover on runoff rates and

volumes.
 Example :-
 Rooftops are impervious, steeply sloped, planar
surfaces,  little to retard the flow  flow starts
very shortly after the start of rain.
 Grassy hill  some of the water infiltrates  flow
will begin long after the rain.
 Flow from impervious surfaces would have greater
volumes and smaller travel times than flow over
pervious surfaces having similar size, shape, and slope
characteristics
.... Cont ‘ LAND COVER & USE
 Descriptors of land use are used in hydrologic

design  represent by ‘C’ value.
 Larger values of C reflect increased runoff
potential.
 For example :-
 commercial properties (C = 0.75) Value increase
 residential areas (C = 0.3) means more
 forested areas (C = 0.15) runoff occurs
  Runoff potential increases as a watershed is

transformed from a forested cover to an urban land
cover. Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ;
JKAP ; FKAAS
.... Cont ‘ SURFACE ROUGHNESS
 Unevenness of texture.
 Represented by Manning’s n roughness
 For example :-
 Grass surface  n
 shingled roof  n

JKAP ; FKAAS
MODELING OF
CATCHMENT AREA
 Hydrology problem  how to derive flow rate of a

river based on the observed rainfall data.
i(mm) Q(m3/s)
t(hr) t(hr)
input output
System or Box
Pe
Surface layer and Shallow layer Qs
input
Q
P R Subsurface layer Qg
Unsatisfied
P-Pe area

JKAP ; FKAAS
.... Cont ‘ MODELING OF
CATCHMENT AREA
CONCEPTUAL MODEL / LUMPED APPROACH
 Two concepts used :-

 Translation (travelling of water through a system).
Rainfal
l
System
Effect of translation can be stipulated with belt conveyor where at the

up side is given rainfall.
 Storage (water retention on surface land such as

stream, lake, etc.)
Water Storage
Inflo
w Outflow

JKAP ; FKAAS 21
TIME’S UP …
THANK YOU

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HYDROLOGY

WAN AFNIZAN BIN WAN MOHAMED

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ;

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ;

 The evapotranspiration, initial loss, infiltration and

 Occurrence start with Overland flow = The excess

 The movement of flow from surface  open channels

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ;

Evaporation Overland flow

Evaporation Soil Subsurface flow

Figure 4.1 : Forms of runoff in the hydrologic cycle

2. Base flow of stream

3. Major part of absorbed water

Figure 4.2 : Paths of runoff

 Type of precipitation (rain, snow)

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ;

 Stage = Water-surface elevation.

Figure 4.3 : Vertical staff gauge

Figure 4.4 : Sectional staff gauge

3. AUTOMATIC STAGE RECORDERS

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ;

 Float  balanced by counterweight over the pulley of a

Figure 4.5 : Stilling well installation

 Pressure gauge measures gas pressure.

 The pressure gauge  reads water depth  transmitted to a

 Cheaper than float – gauge ( x stilling wells).

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ;

 Presented  stage hydrograph (plot of stage against time)

Figure 4.7 : Stage hydrograph

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ;

 Most commonly used  measure the velocity at a point.

v  aNs  b ……. 4.1

Note : Typical values of a and b :-

1. VERTICAL – AXIS CURRENT METERS

 Conical cups mounted around a vertical axis.

 Cups rotate in a horizontal plane generates signals

 Example : Price current meter & Gurley current meters.

 Velocities  0.15 – 4.0 m/s.

 Accuracy  1.50 % (threshold) & 0.30 % (v > 1.0 m/s).

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ;

Figure 4.8 : Vertical – axis current meter

2. HORIZONTAL – AXIS CURRENT METERS

 Propeller mounted at the end of horizontal shaft.

 Variety of size  propeller diameters 6 – 12 cm.

 Measure velocities 0.15 – 4.0 m/s.

 Accuracy  1 % (threshold) & 0.25 % (v > 0.3 m/s).

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ;

Figure 4.9 : Horizontal – axis current meter

 Floats  released at uniform spacing at upstream section.

Figure 4.10 : Floats

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ;

 Discharge of stream-flow = Volume of flow rate.

 Expressed as (ft3/s) or (m3/s)

 The discharge equation :

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ;

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ;

 STREAM – FLOW = Flow channel  surface runoff from

 Important branch of Hydrometry.

a) Direct Determination / Stream Gauging

Wan Afnizan b Wan Mohamed ;

AREA VELOCITY METHODS

1. MID – SECTION METHOD