Contents

UNIT 1 .................................................................................................................................................................... 3

STEAM BOILERS .................................................................................................................................................. 3

1.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVE................................................................................................................................ 3

1.1 Classification of Boilers ............................................................................................................................. 3

1.2 Simple Vertical Boiler ................................................................................................................................ 5

1.3 Cochran Boiler ........................................................................................................................................... 7

1.4 Lancashire Boiler ....................................................................................................................................... 9

1.5 Locomotive Boiler ................................................................................................................................... 11

1.6 Babcock and Wilcox Boiler ...................................................................................................................... 13

1.7 Boiler Mountings and Accessories .......................................................................................................... 15

1.8 Performance of Boiler ............................................................................................................................. 16

1.9 Evaporative Capacity ............................................................................................................................... 16

1.10 Equivalent Evaporation ......................................................................................................................... 16

1.11 Boiler Efficiency ..................................................................................................................................... 18

1.12 Overall Efficiency................................................................................................................................... 28

1.13 Boiler Draught ....................................................................................................................................... 28

1.14 Height of Chimney................................................................................................................................. 29

1.15 Condition of Maximum Discharge ........................................................................................................ 37

1.16 Efficiency of Chimney ............................................................................................................................ 43

1.17 Comparison of Forced with Induced Draughts ..................................................................................... 44

Review Questions.............................................................................................................................................. 49

Answers ............................................................................................................................................................. 53
UNIT 2 .................................................................................................................................................................. 54

REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS................................................................................................................................ 54

2.1 Vapor – Compression Refrigeration System ........................................................................................... 54

2.2 Vapor-Absorption Refrigeration System ................................................................................................. 56

2.3 Comparison between Vapor-Compression and Vapour-Absorption Refrigeration Systems.................. 57

2.4 Refrigerant Properties............................................................................................................................. 58

2.5 Points to Remember ............................................................................................................................... 60

Review Questions.............................................................................................................................................. 63

Answers ............................................................................................................................................................. 64
 UNIT 1
STEAM BOILERS
1.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVE
After completing this Unit, you will learn:
 Construction and working of Simple vertical boiler, Cochran boiler, Lancashire boiler,
locomotive boiler and Babcock and Wilcox
 Determination of performance of a boiler
 Natural and artificial draughts
 Determination of height of a chimney
A steam boiler or a steam generator is a device used to create stream by applying heat energy to water.
The hearted or vaporized stream is taken out of the boiler for use in various processes and heating
applications. According to American Society of Mechanical engineers (ASME) boiler is defined as:
A combination of apparatus for producing, furnishing or recovering heat together with the apparatus
for transferring the beat so made available to the fluid being heated and vaporised.
Thus, the boiler is a closed vessel made of high-quality steel in which steam is generated from water
by transfer of heat produced by the burning of a fuel.
1.1 Classification of Boilers
Boilers may be classified according to the following considerations:
1. On the basis of the content of the tube as
 Fire-tube boiler: The hot flue gases pass through the tubes and water surrounds the tube from
all sides. For example, Cochran boiler, Lancashire boiler.
 Water-tube boiler: The water passes through the tubes and hot flue gases surround the tube
from all sides. For example, Babcock and Wilcox boiler.
2. On the basis of the position of the furnace as
 Internally fire boiler: The position of the furnace is outside the shell of the boiler. For
example, Babcock and Wilcox boiler.
3. On the basis of method of the circulation of water as
 Natural circulation boiler: Circulation of water takes place due to natural convection
currents. For example, Cochran boiler, Lancashire boiler, Babcock and Wilcox boiler'
 Forced circulation boiler: Circulation of water takes place by mechanical means' such
asforced pump along with natural convection currents. For example, Benson boiler, Lamont
boiler.
4. On the basis of the number oftubes as
 Single tube boiler: In this type of boiler there is only one fire tube or one water tube. For
example, simple vertical boiler, Cornish boiler.
 Multi-tubular boiler: In this type of boiler there are large numbers of fire tubers or water
tubes. For example, Cochran boiler, Babcock and Wilcox boiler.
5. One the basis of the position of boiler shell as
 Vertical boiler: The axis of the shell of the boiler is vertical. For example, simple vertical
boiler, Cochran boiler.
 Horizontal boiler: This axis of the shell of the boiler is horizontal. For example, Lancashire
boiler, Babcock and Wilcox boiler.
 Inclined boiler: The axis of the shell of the boiler is inclined.
6. On the basis of the pressure of seam as
 Low-pressure boiler: Stream is generated at a pressure above 80 bar. For example, Benson
boiler, Lamont boiler.
 High-pressure boiler: Steam is generated at a pressure below 80 bar. For example, Benson
boiler Lancashire boiler.
7. On the basis of the nature of service as
 Stationary boiler:They are constructed permanently on the land for stationary plants.
 Portable boiler: They canbe readily dismantled and transported from one pace to another.
 Mobile boiler: They are fitted on the vehicle which can be moved from one place to another.
8. On the basis of the number of passes as
 Once through boiler: There is no water drum and hence no separation of water and steam
takes place. Water entering the tube at the inlet is completely transformed into steam by the
time it reaches the outlet.
 Recirculation boiler: A water drum is used to separate the water and the stream. The water
after separation is re-circulated into the water tubes
9. On the basis ofthe draught used as
 Natural draught boiler (chimney drought): The chimney is used to produce the draught.
 Steam jet draught or mechanical draught boiler: The mechanic fan is sued to produce the
draught.
 Steam jet draught boiler: Fresh or used steam fo the boiler is used to produce the
draught.
10. On the basis of the heat source as
 Combustion of solid, liquid or gaseous fuel boiler:The heat of combustion of solid, liquid or
gaseous fuel is sued by the boiler for steam generation.
 Electrical energy, boiler: The electrical energy is used by the boiler for steam generation.
 Nuclear energy boiler: The heat from the nuclear fuel used by the boiler for steam generation.
 Heat of waste or by –products of chemical process boiler: The waste heat ofsome
chemicalprocess is utilized by the boiler for steam generation.
11. On the basis of the boiler shell material as
 Cast iron boiler: The boiler shell is made of cast iron.
 Steel boiler: The boilershell is made of steel.
 Copper boiler: The boiler shell is made of copper.
 Stainless steel boiler: The boiler shell is made of stainless steel.
 Special alloy boiler: The boiler shell is made of alloys that can resist high temperature'
1.2 Simple Vertical Boiler
It is the simplest form of an internally fired, single fire-tube, vertical boiler. Figure 1 shows the
schematic diagram of a simple vertical boiler.

Construction
It consists of a large cylindrical shell with a hemispherical top. The shell surrounds a cylindrical fire
box.The water in the shell surrounds the fire box from all sides, covering the major portion of the
shell.The upper portion of water, inside the shell' is known as steam space.
At the bottom of the fire box there is a grate for combustion of the fuel. An ash pit is below the grate
for collection and disposal of ash. A tube of large diameter starting from the top of the fire box
connects it to the chimney to facilitate natural draught.One or more cross tubes are raid across the fire
box to increase the heating area. These cross tubes are slightly inclined to increase the natural
circulation of water. There are hand holes in the shell opposite to the ends of each cross tube to access
and clean these tubes. A manhole is provided for cleaning and inspection of the boiler, various
mountings are fitted for proper functioning.

Working
Flue Gas Path
The combustion of fuel on the grate produces hot flue gases, traveling straight up from the furnace to
the chimney. During its way from the furnace to chimney, flue gases transfer heat to water contained
by cylindrical shell for formation of steam.

Water Circulation
Circulation of water is caused by natural convection currents. As the hot water in the cross tubes gets
heated, it rises up along with steam and cold water enters from the lower end. This produces
convection currents inside the cylindrical shell. The steam formed in the shell can be trapped through
steam step value fitted at the top in the steam space portion.
The flow of flue gases and circulate of water inside the boiler is shown with suitable arrows in the
figure. It may be pointed out that this boiler although may appear to be a water-tube boiler, it cannot
be classified so because almost whole of the heating is done in the shell itself and the tubes form a
very small fraction of the heating surface.

Advantages
The simple vertical boiler has the following advantages:
1. Minimum floor area is required
2. Boilers are self –contained and hence do not require any brick work setting.
3. It is semi-portable. It can be moved and set up readily in different locations.
4. Cost of installation and maintenance is low.

Limitations
The simple vertical boiler has the following limitations:
1. Boiler requires a high head room.
2. It has lower steam formation rate.
3. It has lower efficiency.
4. Hot fluegases move directly up to the chimney and time for heat exchange is small.

Applications
The simplevertical boilers are largely used on cranes, excavators and in small factories for general
contract work where temporary supply of steam is required.
1.3 Cochran Boiler
It is a multi-tubular, internally fired, fire-tube boiler. It is an improvement over the simple vertical
boiler as it provides greater heating surface. Figure 2 shows the schematic diagram of a Cochran
boiler.

Construction
It consists of a vertical cylindrical shell with a hemispherical top. The furnace is also of hemispherical
shape. The fire grate is arranged in the furnace and the ash pit is below the grate. Adjacent to the fire
box, the boiler has a combustion chamber connecting them with a short flue pipe. The combustion

chamber is lined with fire bricks and refractory on the shell side. At the opposite side of the
combustion chamber a smoke box is built. The smoke box is fitted with a hinged door that gives an
easy access to tubes and supports easy cleaning. At top of the smoke box the chimney is provided for
disposal of the gases.
A number of horizontal smoke tubes of equal lengths and diameters connect the combustion chamber
with smoke box. These tubes are known as {ire tubes. The furnace is surrounded by water on all sides
except the opening for fire door and the combustion chamber. The fire tubes are also surrounded by
water. Various mountings are fitted for proper functioning.

Working
Flue Gases Path
The combustion of fuel and air on the grate produces hot flue gases. These gases enter through the
short flue pipe into the combustion chamber. From the combustion chamber they find their path
through the horizontal fire tubes. Finally, they enter the smoke box and get discharged to the
atmosphere through the chimney.

Water Circulation
The water comes down by the cooler wall of the shell and rises up past the fire tubes. The hotgases
passing through these tubes transfer their heat to water. In doing so, water gets converted into
steam,which gets accumulated in the upper portion of the shell from where it can be supplied to the
user. The sufficient gap between the fire tubes helps in accelerating the natural convection currents.
The flow of flue gases and circulation of water inside the boiler are shown with suitable arrows in the
figure. The superheated can be fitted in the combustion chamber if required, while an economizer and
in air preheater can be placed near smoke box to increase the efficiency.

Advantages
The Cochran boiler has the following advantages:
1. Minimum amount of brick work required
2. It has higher efficiency than simple vertical boiler.
3. It provides greater heating surface them simple vertical.
4. As all fire tubes are of the same size, one tube in space is sufficient for replacement.

Limitation
The Cochran boiler has the following limitations.
1. The capacity and pressure are limited.
2. The furnace cannot be altered to meet requirement for change in fuel.
3. This boiler also requires a high head room.
1.4 Lancashire Boiler
It is a stationary, internally fired, fire –tube horizontal boiler. Although it has two large diameter fire
tubes, it is classified as a single tube boiler. Figure 3 shows the schematic diagram of a Lancashire
boiler.

Construction
It consists of a horizontal cylindrical shell with two circular flue tubes fixed throughout the length.
These flue tubes are covered with water from all around. The front end ofthe flue tubes contains grate

and the back end contains the fire bridge. At the side and bottom of the shell, ducts are provided in
the masonry itself through which hot flue gases pass, and thus form a part of heating surface.
Dampers are fitted in the path of gases to the chimney to control the draught.
Working
Flue Gas Path
The fuel is burnet on the grate. The hot combustion gases produced move all along the flue tubes and
thus transfer heat to water through the surface. Flue gases on reaching the back end of the boiler get
deflected through the fire bridge. Now they travel through bottom flue duct in reverse direction.
Hence, flue gases heat the water from the lower portion of the boiler shell. Again on reaching the
front end, flue gases are divided into two streams and return by side flue duct and travel in the forward
direction. Hence, flue gases heat the water from the side wall of the boiler shell. Finally, they reach to
the smoke chamber from where they are the discharged by the chimney to the atmosphere.

Water Circulation
Water is being circulated inside the shell by natural convection currents produced due to heat
application. The steam formed is trapped through the steam stop value.
The flow of fuel gases and circulation of water inside the boiler are shown with suitable arrows in the
figure. The downward flue chamber is also the position of the superheated in the boiler.

Advantages
The Lancashire boiler has the following advantages.
1. Simplicity of design.
2. Reliable and ease of operation.
3. Less operating and maintenance cost.
4. It can burn coal for inferior quality.
5. Due to large water and steam capacity it is not subjected to severe priming.
6. It can take overloads for considerable time without appreciable pressure drop.

Limitations
The Lancashire boiler has the following limitations:
1. It requires more floor area due to masonry work
2. It produces low pressure and cannot take overload for longer time.
3. The grate area is restricted as the furnace is inside the tubes.

Applications
The Lancashire boiler is commonly used in sugar mills and textile industries for power generation and
processing work.
1.5 Locomotive Boiler
It is portable, internally fired, fire-tube horizontal boiler. Figure 4 shows the schematic diagram of a
locomotive boiler.

Construction
It consists of a cylindrical shell with a rectangular fire box at one end and a smoke box at the other
end. The fire box and smoke box are connected by fire tubes laid all along the length. Nearly 15% of
these fire tubes re of larger diameter having coils/ tubes of super heater. All smaller and larger
diameter fire tubes are immersed in water for transferring heat of flue gases to water. The fire box is
also entirely surrounded by water except for the fire hole and the ash pit. the ash pit is fitted with
dampers on its front and back sides for controlling the flow of air to the grate. The smoke box is
provided with a large door box for inspection and cleaning purposes. A chimney is attached at the top
of the smoke box. Various mountings and accessories are fitted to their proper location.

Working
Flue Gas Path
The coal is introduced into the firebox through fire hole. The hot flue gases rising form the grate gets
deflected by fire brick arch so that the whole of the firebox is properly heated. These hot gases pass
through the fire tubes reaching the smoke box and transfer heat of hot gases to the water. Hot gases re
finally discharged to the atmosphere by a shot chimney. Since only one pass is provided for the gases,
the temperature of the gases leaving the chimney si likely to be high if the fire tube length is not of
sufficient length.
Water Circulation
The circulation of water is of natural type set up by the convection currents. In the cylindrical shell,
water comes down by the cooler side walls and rises past the tubes. The steam generated is collected
in the steam dome. The function of the steam dome is to increase the steam release capacity and to
increase the distance of steam from water line that reduces priming.
In order to get superheated steam, the steam is directed to super heater header with the help fo a
regulator and lever arrangement and then to the super heater tubes. The superheated steam thus
formed is supplied to the engine by the outlet pipe attached to the superheater header.

Draught
As locomotive engine has to run all the while passing through a tunnel or under a bridge, a long
chimney may get a strike against the top. Moreover, a long chimney is likely to create imbalance and
friction when the engine is in motion. This limits the height of the chimney. As chimney is short,
natural draught cannot be obtained so following methods are useful to produce draught in it.
1. Motion of the locomotive on rails: Motion of the locomotive on rails creates vacuum at the
top end of chimney. This helps to suck the hot gases and discharge them to atmosphere.
2. Steam jet draught: exhaust steam from the cylinders of the engine is allowed to rush into the
fire box through the blast pipe. The vacuum thus created sucks the hot gases and helps in
their discharge into atmosphere.
3. Steam blower: Steam blower is used when the steam supply to engine is shut off. It consists
of perforated hollow ring which is paced around the mouth of the blast site and is supplied with
the steam directed from the boiler.

Advantages
The locomotive boiler has the following advantages:
1. Compact
2. High steam capacity.
3. It is ideal for portable units.
4. It has a low cost of installation as there is no brickwork, chimney and special foundation is
required as in other boilers.
5. It is capable of meeting the sudden and fluctuating demands of steam, which may be imposed
because of variation of power and speed.

Limitations
The locomotive boiler has the following limitations:
1. The maximum pressure of steam is limited to 25 bars.
2. Accumulation of sediments and mud particles in water legs can lead to corrosion and scale
formation.
3. It is not able to carry overloads.
4. Leakage occurs frequently at the pages where the tubes join the plates.
5. It has low efficiency.
6. It is difficult to clean some water space.
7. it has low pressure and capacity, but does nto meet present requirements.
Applications
The locomotive boilers are used in railways, road rollers, agriculture field and per service where semi-
portable is desired.

1.6 Babcock and Wilcox Boiler

It is an externally fired, water tube, natural circulation, stationary boiler. Figure 5 shows the schematic
diagram of a Babcock and Wilcox boiler.

Construction
It consists of ahorizontal high-pressure drum at the top. From each end of the drum, connections are
made with an uptake header and a down take header. The headers rejoined to each other by a large

number of water tubes of equal diameter and length. The water tubes are kept inclined at an angle of
about 15o to the horizontal to promote water circulation. The headers re provided with hand holes
paced opposite to the ends of the tools to permit the cleaning or removal of these tubes when desired.
The entire assembly of water tubes is hung with the dru8 in a room made of masonry work, lined with
fire bricks to resist thermal expansion. For superheating the steam, an additional set of U-shaped tubes
is arranged between the drum and the water tubes known as superheater.
The furnace is arranged below the uptake header. Baffles are provided across the water tubes to act as
deflectors to the flue gases, providing three passes of flue gases. A chimney is provided for the exit of
the gases. A damper is paced at the opening of the chimney to regulate draught. Cleaning doors are
provided to access the tubes for cleaning and removal of soot. Various mountings re paced at their
proper places.

Working
Flue Gas Path
The coal is fed to the chain gate stoker through the fire door. The chain speed is so adjusted that by
the time coal reaches the other end of the grate, its combustion has been complete. The hot fuelgases
formed are deflected upward by the bridge will deflector. With the provision of baffles they are
deflected downward. Again with the provision of other baffles they rise upward. After completing
the three passes, steam exits from the chimney. Area between the baffles is such that flue gases
maintain equal velocity throughout their travel.

Water Circulation
The water circulate is maintained by natural convective currents. The water absorbing heat in water
tubes becomes hotter and less dense. The hot water along with the steam formed, rises from the tube
and enters into the boiler drum through the uptake header. The steam vapor escapes room the water
and collects into the steam space of the drum. The cold water flows from the drum to the tubes
through the rear header, completing the cycle. The steam accumulated in the steam space is allowed to
enter into the super-heater tubes. This improves the quality of the steam and makes it superheated
which can be taken out using steam stop value.

Advantages
The Babcock and Wilcox boiler has the following advantages:
1. This type of boiler is suitable for all types of fuels and hand stoker for firing.
2. Draught loss is small and all components are accessible for inspection during the operation.
3. Any expansion of contraction of the boiler has no harmful effect on the masonry work.
4. Replacement of the defective tubes can be made readily.

Applications
As the Babcock and Wilcox boilers has higher steam generation rate, they are replacing stationary
fire-tube boilers. They find their application in sugar mills and textile industries for power generation
and processing work.
1.7 Boiler Mountings and Accessories
Boilers are equipped with various components for their proper control, safety and efficient operations
which can be categorized as:
1. Boiler mountings: These are the fittings and devices necessary of the safety of the boiler and
complete control of the process of steam generation. According to the Indian Boiler Act
regulation, the following mountings should be always fitted to a boiler.
 Safety valves
 Water level indicators
 Pressure gauge.
 feed check valve
 Fusible plug.
 Steam stop valve
 Blow-off cock.
 Manhole.
 An attachment for inspectors test gauge.
2. Boiler accessories: These are the fittings and devices installed to increase the efficiency of the
boiler and for smooth working of the plant. Following accessories are commonly employed in
boilers.
 Economizer.
 Air preheater
 Super-heater.
 Feed pump or injector
 Steam separator of steam driver
 Steam trap
Brief descriptions of a few of the above mountings and accessories are given in an Appendix II to be
supplied separately.

1.8 Performance of Boiler

Steam boilers are be signed to generate the steam according to the requirements. Superheated steam at
high pressure is used for power generation, whereas wet steam at low pressure is sued for process
heating and space heating. The performance of boiler depends upon the following parameters:
1. The condition of the pressure under which boiler has to operate;
2. the quality of steam to be produced;
3. the temperature of feed water supplied to the boiler;
4. grade of fuel burnt;
5. type of firing method;
6. Draught used, etc.

1.9 Evaporative Capacity

Evaporative capacity gives the information of the rate of generation of the steam in a boiler. It can be
provided in one of the following ways:
1. The rate of steam generation at full load in kilogram per hour.
2. The rate of steam generation per unit area of grate (heating surface) in kg/m2h.
3. The rate of steam generate per unit volume of furnace in kg/m3h.
4. The rate of steam generation per unit mass of fuel burnt in kilogram per kilogram of fuel.

1.10 Equivalent Evaporation

If the boilers are to be compared on the basis of their performance, it becomes necessary that they sue
the same fuel, have same feed water temperature and working pressure. Therefore, it is necessary to
adopt some standard reference for these factors. This is best done by the term “equivalent
evaporation”. The equivalent evaporate is defined as “the quantity of dry saturated steam that could be
generated by the boiler per unit time from feed water at 100oC to dry saturated steam under
atmospheric pressure”.
Total heat required to evaporate feed water
Equivalent evaporation E =
latent heat of water at atmospheric pressure
If the water at its saturation liquid condition is fed into the boiler working at atmospheric pressure, it
has to gain only the latent heat of vaporization equivalent to 2257 kJ/kg in order to form the dry and
saturated steam. Therefore,
H1
E
2257
where, H1 = ms(hs –hfw)which is equal to heat require dot produce ms kg of steam; hs is the
enthalpy of steam at the generation pressure and temperature in kJ/kg and hfw is the enthalpy of feed
water at feed water temperature in KJ/kg.
m (h - h )
E  s s fw
2257
where, me is the rate of formation of steam from feed water. If me in kg/kg of coal burnt then E will
also be in kg/kg of coal burnt.
The enthalpy of the steam produced for unit mass of water can be determined by substituting values of
enthalpy from steam table (see appendix I). One the following formula is sued depending upon the
quality of steam produced in the boiler.
1. For wet steamhs=hf+xhfg
2. For dry steam hs=hf+hfg=hg
3. For superheated steam hs=hg+ Cpsx (Tsup – Ts)where hf is the enthalpy of the saturated fluid,
hfgis the latent heat, hg is the enthalpy of dry saturated steam, x is the dryness fraction and Cps
is the specific heat at constant pressure.

PROBLEM 1
Calculate the equivalent evaporation of the boiler per kg of coal fired, if the boiler produces 5000 kg
of wet steam per hour with a dryness fraction of 0.95 and operating at 10 bar. The coal burt per hour
in the furnace is 5500kg and feed water temperature is 40oC.

Solution: Given ms 5000kg / h : x  0.95; P  10bar; m f  5500kg / h; Tw  40o C .

From steam table (temperature basis) at 40oC, we have
h fw  h f  167.45kJ / kg
From steam table (saturation pressure basis) at 10 bar, we have
h fw  h f  xh fg
 762.61  0.95  2031.6
 2675.53kJ / kg
Equivalent mass of evaporation is given by
m 5000
me  s   0.91
m i 5500
Equivalent evaporation is given by
m  hs  h fw 
E
2257
0.91  (2675.53  167.45)

2257
 10.1kg.kg coal
1.11 Boiler Efficiency
Boiler efficiency also serves the purpose of indicating the performance of the boiler. It is defined as
the ratio of heat absorbed by the feed water for generation of steam in a certain period to the heat
liberated by the fuel in the furnace during the same period. Mathematically, boiler efficiency is given
by
Heat absorbed by the feed water
boiler 
Heat liberated by fuel in the furnace
ms  hs  h fw 
boiler 
mi  CV
me  hs  h fw 

CV
where, m, is the rate of steam formation in kg/h; mi is the rate of coal burnt in kg/h; h, is the final
enthalpy of steam in kJ/kg; hfw is the enthalpy of fee water in kJ/kg; m3 is the rate of formation of
steam in kg/h and CV is the calorific value of the fuel.
This shows that the boiler efficiency depends on the hot flue gases discarded through the chimney,
radiation from the furnace to the outside, incomplete combustion, presence of moisture in the fuel,
unburned fuel going to the ash pit, quality of fuel, etc. Increase in these factors tends to reduce the
efficiency of the boiler.
Problem 2
A boiler working at a pressure of 14 bar evaporates 9kg of water per kg fo coal fired from feed water
entering at 35oC. The steam taken from steam stop value is 0.9 dry. The calorific value of the coal is
35000 kJ/kg. Calculate equivalent evaporation “from and at 100oC” and thermal efficiency ofthe
boiler.
Solution: Given p = 14 bar: me  ms / m f  9kg / kg of coal; Tw  35o C; x  0.9 and CV 35000KJ/kg.
From steam table (temperature basis) at 5oC, we have
h fw  h146.56kJ / kg
From steam table (saturation pressure basis) at 14 bar, we have
h f  830.07kJ / kg
hg  1957.7kJ / kg
enthalpy of wet steam is given by
hs  h f  xh
 830.07  0.9  1957.7
 2591.93kJ / kg
Equivalent evaporation is given by
me  hs  h fw 
E
2257
9   2591.93  146.56 

2257
 9.75kg / kg of coal
Boiler efficiency is given by
mc  hs  h fw 
boiler 
CV
9  (2591.93  146.56)

35000
 0.6288 or 62.88%
Problem 3
A boiler generates 2500kg of steam of dry saturated steam per hour at a pressure of 15 bar from the
feed water entering at 25oC. Coal burnt is 350kg/hour on the grate with calorific value 32000 kJ/kg.
Calculate its equivalent evaporation “from and at 100oC”and thermal efficiency.
Solution: Given m, 2500kg/h; x = 1, p = 15 bar; Tw = 25oC and ml= 350kg/h and CV=35000Kj/kg.
From steam table (temperature basis) at 25oC, we have
h fw  h f  104.77kJ / kg
From steam table (saturation pressure basis at 15 bar. we have
h f  844.66kJ / kg
h fg  1945.2kJ / kg
hg  2789.9kJ / kg
Enthalpy of dry steam is given by
hs  h8  2789.9 J / kg
Equivalent mass of evaporation is given by
m 2500
me  s   7.143
mf 350
Equivalent evaporation is given by
me  hs  h fw 
E
2257
7.143  (2789.9  104.77)

2257
 8.7kg / kg of coal

Boiler efficiency is given by

me  hs  h fw 
boiler 
CV
7.143  (2789.9  104.77

32000
 0.5993 or 59.93%
Problem 4
A coal fired boiler plant consumes 500kg of coal per hour of calorific value 32000Kj/kg. The plant
generates 3200kg/h of superheated steam at an absolute pressure of 1.2MN/m2 and temperature 300oC.
If the feed water temperature is 35oC determine the equivalent evaporation “from and at 100oC” and
the thermal efficiency.

Solution: Given mf = 500kg/h; CV 32000Kj/kg; ms = 3200kg/h;p=1.2,M/m2=12bar; Tsup = 300oC and

Tw = 35oC.
From steam table (temperature basis) at 35oC, we have
Ts  187.96o C
h f  798.43kJ / kg
h fg  1984.3kJ / kg
hg  2782.7kJ / kg
Assuming specific heat constant pressure of the steam, Cqs as 2.3kJ/kg, we have
Enthalpy of superheated steam is given by
hs  hg  C ps Tsup  Ts 
 2782.7  2.3  (300  187.96)
 3040.46kJ / kg
Equivalent mass of evaporation is given by

ms 3200
me    6.4
mf 500
Equivalent evaporation is given by
me  hs  h fw 
E
2257
6.4   3040.46  146.56 

2257
 8.2kg / kg of coal
Boiler efficiency is given by
me  hs  h fw 
boiler 
CV
6.4  (3040.46  1.46.56

32000
 0.5788 or 57.88%
Problem 5
The following readings were taken during the test on a boiler for a period of 1h: steam generated
5000kg; coal burnt 700kg, CV of coal 31402kJ/kg and quality of seam 0.92. If the boiler pressure is
1.2 MPa and feed water temperature is 45oC. Find the boiler equivalent evaporation and thermal
efficiency.

Solution: Given ms = 5000kg/h; mf =700kg/h; CV = 31402Kj/kg; x = 0.92;p = 1.2 MN/m2 = 12 bar ;

Tw = 45oC.
From steam table (temperature basis) at 45oC, we have
h fw  h f  188.35kJ / kg
From steam table (saturation pressure basis) at 12 bar, we have
h f  798.43kJ / kg
h fg  1984.3kJ / kg
Enthalpy of wet steam is given by
hs  h f  xh fg
 798.43  0.92  1984.3
 26.23.99 / kg
Equivalent mass of evaporation is given by
m 5000
me  s   7.143
mf 700
Equivalent evaporation is given by
me  hs  h fw 
E
2257
7.143   2623.99  188.35

2257
 7.7kg / kg of coal
Boiler efficiency is given by
me  hs  h fw 
boiler 
CV
7.143(2623.99  188.35)

31402
 0.554 or 55.4%
Problem 6
A boiler is to produce 6000 kg/h of steam at 25 bar and 350oC. The feed water temperature is 40oC.
If the calorific value of the fuel oil is 42000 and the expected thermal efficiency is 75o, determine the
fuel consumption rate and the equivalent evaporation “from and at 100oC”.
Solution: Given ms  6000 kg / h; p  25 bar; Tsup  350o C; Tw  40o C; CV  42000kJ / kg;
boiler 75%.
From steam table (temperature basis) at 40oC, we have
h fu  h f  167.45kJ / kg
From steam table (saturation pressure basis) at 25 bar, we have
Ts  223.94o C
h f  961.96kJ / kg
h fg  1839.0kJ / kg
hg  2800.9kJ / kg
Assuming specific heat at constant pressure of the steam, Cps as 2.3kJ/kg, we have
Enthalpy of superheated steam is given by
hs  hg 6C ps Tsup  Ts 
 2800.9  23  (350  223.94)
 3090.838kJ .kg
Boiler efficiency is given by
me  hs  h fw 
boiler 
m f  42000
6000  (3090.838  167.45)
0.75 
m f  42000
m f  556.8kg / h
Equivalent mass of evaporation is given by
m 6000
me  s   10.775
m f 556.8
Equivalent evaporation is given by
me  hs  h fw 
E
2257
10.775   3090.838  167.45

2257
 13.96kg / kg of oil
Problem 7
The equivalent evaporation of a boiler from and at 100oC is found to be 12kg of steam per kg of fuel
burnt. The calorific value of the fuel is 35000kJ/kg. Determine the efficiency of the boiler. If the
boiler produces 15000kg/h of steam at 20 bars from feed water at 40oC and the fuel consumption is
1800kg/h, determine the condition of steam produced.
Solution: Given E = 12kg/kg of fuel; CV = 3500kJ/kg; ms 15000kg/h;p = 20 bar ; Tw = 40oC; m5
=1800kg/h.
me  hs  h fw 
E
2257
me  hs  h fw 
12 
2257
me  hs  h fw   12  2257
 27084kJ / kg of coal
 kg / kg of oil
Boiler efficiency is given by
me  hs  h fw 
boiler 
CV
27084

35000
 0.7738 or 77.38%
From steam table (temperature basis) at 45oC, we have
h fw  h f  167.45kJ / kg
Equivalent mass of evaporation is given by
m 15000
me  s   8.33
mf 1800
We found that
m(hs  h fw )  27085kJ / kg of coal
Therefore by substituting me in the above equation, we have
8.33(hs  167.45)  27084
hs  3417.53kJ / kg
From steam table (saturation pressure basis) at 20 bar, we have
hg  2797.2kJ / kg
As enthalpy of steam hs is greater than the enthalpy fo dry saturated steam hg(i.e. hs> hg), the steam is
superheated. Also, from steam table (saturation pressure basis) at 20 bar, we find that Ts = 211.37oC
Assuming specific heat at constant pressure, Cps, of the steam as 2.3kJ/kg, we have
Enthalpy of superheated steam, we have
hs  hg  C ps Tsup  Ts 
3417.53  2797.2  2.3  Tsup  211.37 
Tsup  482.08o C
Problem 8
The following readings were taken during the test on a boiler for 1h: Seam generated 6000kg; coal
burnt 700 kg; CV of coal 315000kJ/kg; dryness fraction of steam entering super-heater 0.92’ rated
pressure of the boiler 12 bar; temperature of steam leaving the super-heater 259oC and temperature of
the hot well is 45oC. Determine (a) equivalent evaporation with and without super-heater and (b)
thermal efficiency with and without super-heater.
Solution: Given
ms  6000 kg / h; m f  700kg / h; CV  31500kg; x  0.92; p  12 bar; Tsup  259o C; Tw  45o C.
(a) Equivalent mass of evaporation is given by
m 6000
me  s   8.57
mf 700
From steam table (temperature basis) at 40oC, we have
h fu  h f  188.35kJ / kg
From steam table (saturation pressure basis) at 25 bar, we have
Ts  187.96o C
h f  798.43kJ / kg
h fg  1934.3kJ / kg
hg  2782.7kJ / kg
Enthalpy of wet steam (without super-heater) is given by
hs  h f  xh fx
 798.43  0.92  1984.3
 2623.986kJ / kg
Equivalent evaporation (without super-heater) is given by

me  hs  h fw 
E
2257
8.57   2623.986  188.35

2257
 9.25kg / kg of coal
Assuming specific heat at constant pressure of super-heated steam, Cps as 2.3kJ/kg, we have
Enthalpy of superheated steam (with super-heater) is given by

hs  hg  C ps Tsup  Ts 
 2782.7  2.3  (259  187.96)
 2946.16kJ / kg
Equivalent evaporation (with super-heater) is given by
 me  hs  h fw 
E
2257
8.57  (2946.16  188.35)

2257
 10.47kg of coal

(b) Boiler efficiency (without super heater) is given by

me  hs  h fw 
boiler 
CV
8.57  (2623.986  188.35)

31500
 0.6628 or 66.28%

Boiler efficiency (with super heater) is given by

me  hs  h fw 
boiler 
CV
8.57  (2946.16  188.35)

31500
 0.7504 or 75.04%
Problem 9
A boiler produces steam at 15 bar and a temperature of 250oC. The steam is supplied to the turbine
developing 1.5 MW at a steam rate of 900kg/MWh. Coal of calorific value 32000Kj/KG is used in the
boiler and the thermal efficiency is 80%. Determine the grate area required for a firing rate of
210kg/m2 of grate area per hour.
Solution: Given p = 15 bar; Tsup = 250oC; Tw = 35oC; Power (P) = 1.5 MW; m3 = 9000kg/MWh; CV =
32000kg/kg; boiler  80% and firing rate = 210lg/m2/h.
From steam table (temperature basis) at 35oC, we have
h fw  h f  146.56kJ / kg
From steam table (saturation pressure basis) at 15bar, we have

Ts  198.29o C
h f  844.66kJ / kg
h fg  1945.2kJ / kg
hg  2789.9kJ / kg
Assuming specific heat at constant pressure of superheated steam, Cpt as 2.3kJ/kg, we have
Enthalpy of superheated steam (with super heater) is given by
hs  hg  C ps Tsup  Ts 
 2789.9  2.3  (250  198.29)
 2908.833kJ / kg
Mass of steam consumption is given by
ms  9000kg / MWh
9000

1.5
 6000kg / h
Boiler efficiency is given by
me  hs  h fw 
boiler 
m1  32000
6000  (2908.833  146.56)
0.8 
m f  32000
m f  647.4kg / h

As firing rate is 210kg/m2 of grate area per hour, the grate area will be given by
647.4
Grate area  3.083m 2
210
1.12 Overall Efficiency
Overall efficiency is given by the product of boiler efficiency, economizer efficiency and super-heater
efficiency. Mathematically it is represented as
overall  boiler economizer sup erheater
1.13 Boiler Draught
Draught may be defined as the small pressure difference which causes the gases to flow. In case of
boiler, the function of draught is to create a pressure difference in order to force sufficient quantity of
air into the boiler furnace for complete combustion.
Classification of draught
The draught may be classified as given in Figure 6.
Natural draught
Natural draught is produced by chimney (also called stack) and is also known as chimney draught.
Chimney is a vertical tubular structure built of either masonry brick, concrete or steel. The draught
produced by chimney is due to the density difference between the hot flue gases column inside the
chimney and the cold air column outside.
1.14 Height of Chimney
A diagrammatic arrangement of a chimney is shown in Figure7.
Let H be the height of chimney in meters above the grate Pabe the atmospheric pressure at the
chimney top pa be the mass density or density of air outside the chimney and pg be average mass
density of hot flue gases.
The pressure acting on the grate level at the chimney side is given by
py = atmospheric pressure at the top of chimney + pressure due to column of hot gases of height H.
p1  pa  pg  g  H
The pressure acting on the grate level at the open side is given by
P2 = atmospheric pressure at the top of chimney + pressure due to column of cold gases outside the
chimney fo height H m p1  pa  pg  g  H
Now pressure difference causing the flow through the combustion chamber is
p  p2  p1
  pa  pa  g  H    pa  pg  g  H 
  pa  ps   g  HN / m 2
This difference of pressure causing the flow of gases is known as static draught.
The pressure difference causing the flow through the chimney si small and is generally measured by a
water manometer.
let Ta be the absolute temperature of atmospheric air; Tg be the average temperature of chimney flue
gases; ma be the mass of air supplied per kg of fuel and (ma + 1)= mass of flue gases formed per kg of
fuel. Volume of air at NTP (0oC and 1.013 bar) is given by
mRTa
Va  Va 
Pa
ma  287  273

1.013  103
mT
 a a m 3 / kg of fuel
353
Density of outside air at T1 is given by
mass of air
pa 
volume of air
ma

maTa / 353
353
 kg / m 3
Ta
According to Avogadro’s law, the flue gases at NTP (0oC and 1.013 bar) occupy the same volume that
of air supplied at NTP. Therefore,
Volume of flue gases at NTP is given by
Vgo  Vo  0.77ma m3 / kg of fuel
Volume of flue gases at Tgis given by
 VoTg
Vg 
To
0.773ma  Tg

273
maTg
 m 3 / kg of flue
353
Density of flue gases at Tg is given by
mass of flue gases
pg 
volumeof flue gases
ma  1

maTg / 353
353  ma  1 
   kg / m
3
(3)
Ta  ma 
If hw is the head in millimeters of water measured, b is the manometer and pw is the mass density of
water then the pressure difference is given by
b
p  pw  g  w  hw g (as density of water is 1000kg / m3)
1000
Substituting value of p from Eq. (4) in eq. (1) we have
hw  ( pa  pg ) H mm of water
Substituting the values of pa and pg from eqs. (2) and (3) we have
 353 353  ma  1  
hw      H mm of water
 Ta Tg  ma  
 1 1  m  1 
hw  353H     a 
 Ta Tg  ma  
Sometimes it is desired to express the draught in terms of a column of hot gases or flue gases. If H1
the height in meters of the hot gases column which produce the draught pressure then the pressure
difference is given by
p  pg  g  H1
Substituting value of p from Eq (1) the height of the hot gas column is given by
 p  ps 
H1   a H
 pg 
 
p 
  a  1  H
 pg 
 
Substituting thevalues of pa and pg from eqs. (2) and (3) we have
 353 / Ta
H1   1  H m of hot gas column
 353 / Ta (ma  1) / ma 
or
 T  ma  
H1  H   g    1 m of gas column
 Ta  ma  1  
It may be noted that the actual draught available for causing the flow of gases is less than the
theoretical draught given by Eq. (6) due to losses at various section along the path fo flue gases.

Problem 10
A boiler uses 18 kg of per kg of fuel. Determine the minimum height of chimney required to produce
a draught of 25 mm of water. The mean temperature of chimney gases is 315oC and that of outside air
is 27oC.
Solution: Given
ma  18kg / kg of fuel; hw  25 mm; Tg  315  273  588 K and Ta  27  273  300K .
Draught produced in terms of water column is given by
1 1  ma  1 
hw  353H     mm
Ta Tg  ma 
On substituting the given values we get
 1 1  18  1  
25  353H     
 300 588  18  
H  46.04m
Problem 11
Achimney 40 m high discharges 20kg of flue gases per kg of fuel burnt. If the average temperature of
flue gases is 220oC and the ambient temperature is 25oC, determine the draught produced in
centimeters of water column and equivalent draught in meters of hot gas column.
Solution: Given H=40m; ma + 1 = 20kg/kg of fuel; Tg 220 +273 = 273 = 493 K and Ta = 25 + 273 =
298 K. As mass of flue gas, ma = 19 kg/kg of fuel
Draught produced in terms of water column is given by
 1 1  m  1 
hw  353H     a 
 Ta Tg  ma  
 1 1  20  
 353  40    
 298 493  19  
 17.23mm or 1.72cm
Draught produced in terms of hot gas column is given by
T  m 1 
H1  H   g  a   1
 Ta  ma  
 493  19  
 40     1
 298  20  
 22.86m
Problem 12
Determine the mean temperature of the flue gases leaving the chimney of 27 m height and producing a
draught of 15 mm of water column, if 22 kg of gases formed per kg of fuel burnt. The temperature of
the ambient air is 25oC.
Solution: Given H = 27m; hw = 15mm; ma + 1 = 22 kg/kg of fuel and Ta = 25 + 273 = 298 K.
As massof flue gas, ma + 1 = 22 lg/kg of fuel, mass of air is given by ma= 21kg/kg of fuel
Draught produced in terms of water column is given by
 1 1  m  1 
hw  353H     a 
 Ta Tg  ma  
 1 1  22  
15  353  27      mm
 298 493  21  
Therefore, the mean temperature of flue gases is given by
Tg = 587.92 K or 314.92oC

Problem 13
Calculate the air-fuel ratio in the combustion chamber of a boiler when the static draught of 20 mm of
water column is produced by a chimney of 50 m height. The temperature of the flue gases and
atmospheric air are 212oC and 27oc, respectively.
Solution: Given hw = 20mm; H = 50m;Ts= 212 + 273 = 485 K and Ta = 27 + 273 = 300 K.
 1 1  m  1 
hw  353H     a 
 Ta Tg  ma  
 1 1  ma  1  
20  353  50      mm
 300 485  ma  
Therefore, mass of air is given by
ma = 14.9kg/kg of fuel burnt
Therefore, air-fuel ratio is given by
ma
 14.9
ma
Determination of velocity and discharge of Flue Gases
Assuming no loss, the velocity of the gases passing through the chimney is given by
V  2  g  H1  h1
 4.43 H1  h1
 h 
 4.43 H  1  1 
 H1 1
 K H1 m / s
h1
where K = 4.43 1 and its value for brick chimney is 0.825 whereas its value for steel chimney is 1.1.
H1
The mass of gases flowing through any cross-sectional of the chimney, is given by
mg  pg AV kg / s
where A is the area of cross-section of the chimney which can be determined from the expression

A  d2
4
where d is the diameter of the chimney
pg is the density of the flue gas which is equal to p/RTg

Problem 14
A chimney has a height of 24 m. The ambient temperature is 25oC. Temperature of flue gases passing
through the chimney is 300oC. If the air flow through the combustion space is 20 kg/kg of fuel burnt,
determine (a) theoretical draught in millimeters of water, (b) velocity of the flue gases passing through
the chimney, if 50% of the theoretical draught is lost in friction at the grate and passage.
Solution: Given H = 24m; Ta = 25 + 273 = 293 K; Tg = 300 + 273 = 573 K and ma = 20kg/kg of
fuel.
a) Theoretical draught produced in water column is given by
 1 1  m  1 
hw  353H     a 
 Ta Tg  ma  
 1  20  1  
 353  24   298    1
 573  20  
 11.9mm
b) Theoretical draught produced in hot gas column is given by
T  m 1 
H1  H   g  a   1
 Ta  ma  
 573  20  
 24      1
 298  20  1  
 19.95m
Draught lost in friction at the grate and passage = 0.5 19.95  9.975m
Actual draught produced in hot gas column = 19.95-9.975=9.975m
Velocity of the flue gases in the chimney is given by
V  2  g  H1
 2  9.81  9.975
 14m / s
Problems 15
A stack of 38 m height and 1.8 m diameter discharges 18kg of flue gases per kg offuel burnt in the
combustion chamber. The average temperature of flue gases is 277oC and the temperature of outside
air is 27oC. If 40% of the theoretical draught is lost in friction, find the mass of flue gases per second
passing through the chimney.
Solution: Given H = 38 m;d = 1.8 m; ma + 1 = 18kg/kg of fuel; Tg = 277 + 273 = 550 K;
Ta = 27 + 273 = 300 K and h1 = 0.4 of H1.
Theoretical draught produced in hot gas column is given by.
T  m 1 
H1  H   g  a   1
 Ta  ma  
 550  17  
 38     1
 300  18  
 27.8m
Draught lost in friction at the grate and passage = 0.45  27.8  11.12m
Actual draught produced in hot gas column = 27.8 - 11.12 = 16.68 m
Velocity of the flue gases in the chimney is given by
V  2  g  H1
 2  9.81  16.68
 18.09m / s
Density of flue gases is given by
353( ma  1)
pg 
maTg
353  18

17  550
 0.68kg / m 3
Mass of gas flow through the chimney isgiven by
 
mg  p g  d 2  V
4 
 
 0.68   (1.8) 2   18.09
4 
 31.3kg / s
Problem 16
Calculate the mass of the flue gases flowing through the chimney when the draught produced is equal
to 1.9 cm of water. Temperature of flue gases is 290oC and ambient temperature is 20oC. The flue
gases formed perkg of fuel burnt are 23kg. Neglect the losses and take the diameter of the chimney as
1.8m. [RGPV Jun 2005)
Solution: Given hw  1.9cm  19mm; Tg  290  273  563K ; T ,  293K ;
ma  1  23kg / kg of coa and d 1.8m.
(a) Theoretical draught produced in water column is given by
 1 1  m  1 
hw  353H     a 
 Ta Tg  ma  
 1 1  22  
19  353H     
 298 563  23  
H  35.9m

Theoretical draught produced in hot gas column is given by

T  m 1 
H1  H   g  a   1
 Ta  ma  
 563  22  
19  353H      1
 298  23  
 29m

Neglecting losses, velocity of the flue gases in the chimney is given by

V  2  g  H1
 2  9.81  29
 23.85m / s
Density of flue gases is given by
353( ma  1)
pg 
maTg
353  23

22  563
 0.6555kg / m 3

Mass of gas flowing through the chimney is given by

 
mg  p g  d 2  V
4 
 
 0.6555   (1.8) 2   23.85
 4 
 39.8kg / s
Problem 17
A steam boiler has an average coal consumption of 8000kg/h and flue gases formed are 19kg/kg of
coal fired. The average temperature of the chimney gases is 270oC and the ambient temperature is
27oC. The theoretical draught produced by the chimney is 18mm of water. If 60% of the draught is
lost in friction, calculate the diameter of the chimney.
Solution: Given m f  8000kg / h; ma  1  19kg / kg of coal; Tg  270  273  543 K ;
Ta  27  273  300 K ; h  18mmand h1  0.6 H1.
(a) Theoretical draught produced in water column is given by
 1 1  m  1 
hw  353H     a 
 Ta Tg  ma  
 1 1  19  
18  353H     
 300 563  18  
H  36.7m

Theoretical draught produced in hot gas column is given by

T  m 1 
H1  H   g  a   1
 Ta  ma  
 543  18  
19  36.7     1
 300  19  
 26.23m
Draught lost in friction at the grate and passage = 0.6  26.23  15.74m.
Actual draught produced in hot gas column = 26.23  15.74  10.49m.
Velocity of the fuel gases in the chimney is given by
V  2  g  H1  h1
 2  9.81  10.49
 14.3m / s
Density of flue gases is given by
353( ma  1)
pg 
maTg
353  19

18  543
 0.686kg / m 3
8000
Mass of gas flowing through the chimney, mg   19  42.22kg / s is given by
3600
  
mg  p g  d 2  V
4 
 
42.22  0.686   ( d ) 2   14.35
4 
d  2.336m

Therefore, diameter of chimney d is 2.336m.

1.15 Condition of Maximum Discharge

The chimney draught is most effective when the maximum mass of hot gases is discharged in a given
time. Neglecting the losses, the theoretical velocity of the gases produced by a total static draught is
given by

V  2  g  H1 m / s
This is because H1 is given by
T  m 1 
H1  H   g  a   1
 a
T m a  
Therefore,

T  ma   
V  2 g H  g    1m / s

 Ta  ma  1   

Density of flue gases is given by

P
pg 
RTg
Mass flow rate of fuel gas is given by is given by
p  T  ma  
mg   A 2 g H  g    1
RTg  Ta  ma  1  
PA T  ma 
  2 gH g   1
RTg Ta  ma  1 

K Tg  ma 
   1
Tg Ta  ma  1 
where K = PA / R  2  g  H

The mass flow rate depends upon temperature of flue gases Tg and all other quantities are fixed
quantities. So the amass flow rate mg will be maximum if the derivative of mg with respect to Tg is
zero
That is,
dmg
0
dTg

d  K  ma  
    1  0
dTg  Ta  ma  1  
 
d  1  ma  1 1 
    0
dTg  Ta  ma  1  Tg Tg 2 
 

1/2
1  1  ma  1 1   1  ma  1 1 
K      2     20
2  Ta  ma  1  Tg Tg   Ta  ma  1  Tg Tg 
1  ma  1 1
   2 3
Ta  ma  1  Tg Tg
 ma 
Tg  2   Ta
 ma  1 
Thus, for maximum mass flow rate, the temperature of flue gases should be 2(ma  1) / ma times more
than the atmospheric temperature.
Or,
Tg  ma 
 2 
Ta  ma  1 
For maximum mass flow rate, temperatures of hot flue gases and atmospheric air bear a constant ratio.
To determine the column of hot flue gases for maximum mass flow rate we substitute the value of
Tg / Ta in Eq. (6) we get
  m  1   ma  1  
H1  H   2  a    1
  m a  m a  1  
H1  H
Thus, for maximum mass flow rate (discharge) the height of a hot gas column is equal to the height of
chimney.
To determine the millimeters of water column for maximum mass flow rate, we substitute the value of
Tg in Eq. (5) we get
1
hw  353H   
 ma  1 / ma 

 Ta 2  ma  1 / ma Ta 
176.5H

Ta
Thus, for maximum mass flow rate the height of water column is equal to 176.5/Ta times the height of
the chimney.
Problem 18
A chimney has a height of 24 m. The ambient temperature is 25oC. Temperature of flue gases passing
through the chimney is 300oC. If the air flow through the combustion space is 20 kg/kg of fuel burnt,
determine (a) theoretical draught in millimeters of water, (b) velocity of the flue gases passing through
the chimney, if 50% of the theoretical draught is lost in friction at the grate and passage.
SOLUTION: Given H = 25 m; Ta = 25 + 273 = 298 K; Tg = 300 + 273 = 573 K and ma = 20kg/kg of
fuel.
(a) Theoretical draught produced in water column is given by

 1 1  m  1 
hw  353H     a 
 Ta Tg  ma  
 1 1  20  1  
 353  24     
 298 573  20  
 11.9mm

Theoretical draught produced in hot gas column is given by

T  m 1 
H1  H   g  a   1
 Ta  ma  
 573  20  
 24     1
 298  10  1  
 19.95m
Draught lost in friction at the grate and passage = 0.5 19.85  9.975m.
Actual draught produced in hot gas column = 19.95  9.975  9.975m.
Velocity of the fuel gases in the chimney is given by
V  2  g  H1
 2  9.81  9.975
 14m / s
Problem 19
A stack of 38 m height and 1.8 m diameter discharges 18kg of flue gases per kg of fuel burnt in the
combustion chamber. The average temperature of flue gases is 277oC and the temperature of outside
air is 27oC. If 40% of the theoretical draught is lost in friction, find the mass of flue gases per second
passing through the chimney.
Solution: Given H = 38 m; d = 1.8 m; ma + 1 = 18kg/kg of fuel; Tg = 277 + 273= 550 K;
Ta = 27 + 273 = 300 K and h1 = 0.4 of H1.

Theoretical draught produced in hot gas column is given by

T  m 1 
H1  H   g  a   1
 Ta  ma  
 550  17  
 38     1
 300  18  
 27.8m
Draught lost in friction at the grate and passage = 0.5 19.85  9.975m.
Actual draught produced in hot gas column = 19.95  9.975  9.975m.
Velocity of the fuel gases in the chimney is given by
V  2  g  H1
 2  9.81  16.68
 18.09m / s
Density of flue gases is given by
353( ma  1)
pg 
maTg
353  18

17  550
 0.686kg / m 3
Mass of gas flowing through the chimney, is given by
 
mg  p g  d 2  V
4 
 
 0.68   (1.8) 2   18.09
4 
 31.3kg / s
Problem 20
Calculate the mass of the flue gases flowing through the chimney when the draught produced is equal
to 1.9 cm of water. Temperature of flue gases is 290oC and ambient temperature is 20oC. The flue
gases formed per kg of fuel burnt are 23kg. Neglect the losses and take the diameter of the chimney as
1.8m.
Solution: Given hw  1.9cm  19mm; Tg  290  273  563K ; T ,  293K ;
ma  1  23kg / kg of coa and d 1.8m.
(a) Theoretical draught produced in water column is given by
 1 1  m  1 
hw  353H     a 
 Ta Tg  ma  
 1 1  23  
19  353H     
 298 563  22  
H  35.9m

Theoretical draught produced in hot gas column is given by

T  m 1 
H1  H   g  a   1
 Ta  ma  
 563  22  
 35.9      1
 298  23  
h  29m

Neglecting losses, velocity of the flue gases in the chimney is given by

V  2  g  H1
 2  9.81  29
 23.85m / s
Density of flue gases is given by
353( ma  1)
pg 
maTg
353  23

22  563
 0.6555kg / m 3

Mass of gas flowing through the chimney is given by

 
mg  p g  d 2  V
4 
 
 0.6555   (1.8) 2   23.85
 4 
 39.8kg / s
Problem 21
A steam boiler has an average coal consumption of 8000kg/h and flue gases formed are 19kg/kg of
coal fired. The average temperature of the chimney gases is 270oC and the ambient temperature is
27oC. The theoretical draught produced by the chimney is 18mm of water. If 60% of the draught is
lost in friction, calculate the diameter of the chimney.

Solution: Given m f  8000kg / h; ma  1  19kg / kg of coal; Tg  270  273  543 K ;

Ta  27  273  300 K ; h  18mmand h1  0.6 H1.
(b) Theoretical draught produced in water column is given by
 1 1  m  1 
hw  353H     a 
 Ta Tg  ma  
 1 1  19  
18  353H     
 300 543  18  
H  36.7m

Theoretical draught produced in hot gas column is given by

T  m 1 
H1  H   g  a   1
 Ta  ma  
 543  18  
 36.7     1
 300  19  
 26.23m
Draught lost in friction at the grate and passage = 0.6  26.23  15.74m.
Actual draught produced in hot gas column = 26.23  15.74  10.49m.
Velocity of the fuel gases in the chimney is given by
V  2  g  H1  h1
 2  9.81  10.49
 14.35m / s
Density of flue gases is given by
353( ma  1)
pg 
maTg
353  19

18  543
 0.686kg / m 3
Mass of gas flowing through the chimney, is given by
8000
mg   19
3600
 42.22kg / s
Diameter of chimney can be determined as follows:

 
mg  p g  d 2  V
4 
 2
 0.686    d    14.35
4 
d  2.336m
Therefore, diameter of chimney d is 2.336m.

1.16 Efficiency of Chimney

In the natural draught system, a certain minimum temperature is required to produce draught with the
given height of the chimney. Therefore, the temperature of flue gases leaving the chimney is always
higher in this system than the artificial system. This indicates that the natural draught is created at the
cost of thermal efficiency of the boiler plant.
Let T1 be the absolute temperature of fuel gases leaving the chimney required to produce draught of
hw mm of water; T’’ be the absolute temperature of fuel gases leaving the chimney in case of artificial
draught of hw mm of water; Cp is the mean specific heat of flue gases.
The extra heat carried away by 1 kg of flue gas due to higher temperature required to produce natural
draught is equal to Cp (T’ –T’’).
The draught produced bynatural draught system in height of hot gases column is given by
T  m  1 
H1  H   g  a   1 m
 Ta  m a  
This is the maximum energy head given to 1 kg of flue gas at the expanse of extra heat carried away
from the boiler plant.

Artificial Draught
Artificial draught is produced by eight mechanical means such as fans, blowers, etc. or by using steam
jet. It does not require a tall chimney/stack. Small chimney is sufficient to discharge flue gases to a
safe height in the atmosphere for minimum pollution. Thus, artificial draught is classified as:
1. mechanical draught;
2. steam jet draught

Mechanical Draught
Most boilers now depend on mechanical draught. It is produced using fans, bowers, etc. and thus can
be classified into three types as follows.
1. Force draught: Here draught is obtained by forcing air into the furnace so as to force the flue
gases out through the chimney. For this a forced fan is installed at the bottom of the furnace as
shown in Figure 8(a). Thus, forced draught furnaces have a positive pressure.
2. Induceddraught:Here draught is obtained by sucking the flue gases from the furnace side and
forcing them out through the chimney. For this an induced fan is installed at the base of the
chimney as shown in Figure 8(b). Thus, induced draught furnaces have a negative pressure
(pressure less than the atmospheric pressure).
 3. Balanced draught: Balanced draught is obtained through use of both induced and forced
draught, shown in Figure 8( c). This is more common with larger boilers where the flue gases
have to travel a long distance through many boiler passes. The induced draught fan works in
conjunction with the forced draught fan allowing the furnace pressure to be maintained slightly
below atmospheric pressure.

1.17 Comparison of Forced with Induced Draughts

The comparison of forced and induced draughts is given in Table 1.

Steam Jet Draught

In steam jet draught a part of steam is taken from the boiler unit. This steam on passing though the
muzzle results in a raise in velocity and a drop in the local pressure. Low pressure causes the draught
to take place. Draught produced using steam jets may be classified into two types.

Forced draught Induced draught

1 The pressure inside the furnace is more than The pressure inside the furnace is
the atmospheric pressure. less than the atmospheric pressure
2 There is always chance of air blowout if the There is always a chance of air
furnace is not properly sealed leakage into the furnace if it is not
properly sealed
3 The flames from furnace may flare out upon The flames from furnace cannot flare
the opening of the fire door. So the furnace out upon the opening fo the fire
should be equipped with dampers to shut door. So the furnace should be
off the air supply when doors are opened equipped with dampers to shout off
the air supply when doors are
opened.
4 The forced fan has to handle the cold air, so The induced fan has to handle hot
the fan size is smaller flue gases the fan size is larger
(nearly 1.3 times that of forced fan)
5 Water cooling of the bearings is not Water cooling of the bearings is
required required as it has to withstand high
temperature of flue gases
6 Combustion rate is better due to better air Combustion rate is poor
dispersion across the grate
7 Maintenance is easy Maintenance is difficult
8 Less power consumption More power consumption
1. Forced draught: Here the steam jet is paced before the grate, shown in Figure 9(a), so as to
form air and steam up through the bed.
2. Induced draught: Here the steam jet is placed near the chimney directed toward the smoke
box, shown in Figure 9(b), so as to induce air across the grate and throw it out from stack.
Steam jet draught is disadvantageous because of the fact that steam is not available initially
with boiler unit just starts

Points to Remember
1. Enthalpy at a given pressure can be determined using the steam table (saturation pressure
basis) and using one of the following formula, depending upon the quality of steam.
(a) Wet steam: hs  h f  xh fg
(b) Dry steam: hs  h f  hg
(c) hs  h f  C ps  (Tsup  T )
2. Enthalpy of feed water h fw can be obtained as h f from steam table (temperature basis)
corresponding to the feed water temperature.
3. Equivalent evaporation is given by
me  hs  h fw 
E
2257
4. Boiler efficiency is given by
me  hs  h fw 
boiler 
m f  CV
5. Overall efficiency is given by
overall  boiler economizer sup erheater
6. Draught produced in terms of water column is given by
 1 1  m  1 
hw  353H     a   mm
 Ta Tg  ma  
7.
Draught produced in terms of hot gas column is given by
 T  ma  
H1  H   s    1 m
 Ta  ma  1  
8. If h1 is the pressure loss in meters of flue gases column for the gases passing though the
chimney, then the velocity of the fuel gases is given by
 V  2  g  H1  h1 m / s
9. Density of fuel gases is given by

353(ma  1)
pg 
maTg
10. Mass of gas flowing through any cords sectional diameter, say d meters, of the chimney is
given by
 
mg  pg  d 2 Vkg / s
4 
11. For maximum mass flow rate draught in terms of water column
hw  176.5  H   /Ta mm
12. For maximum mass flow rate draught in terms of hot flue gas column H1 = Hm
13. Efficiency of chimney draught is given by
 
 Tg / Ta    ma / (ma  1)   1
chimney   
C p (Tg  T '' )
353  19

18  543
 0.686kg / m 3
Key Terms
Fire-tube boiler Boiler mountings and accessories Artificial draught
Water tube boiler Evaporative capacity Mechanical draught
Simple vertical boiler Equivalent evaporation Forced draught
Cochran boiler Boiler efficiency Induced draught
Lancashire boiler Natural or chimney draught Balanced draught
Locomotive boiler Height of chimney Steam jet draught
Babcock and Wilcox boiler
Objective -Type Question
Multiple – Choice Questions
1. Which of the following is a water-tube boiler?
a. simple vertical boiler
b. Cochran boiler
c. Lancashire boiler
d. none of these
2. Which of the following is an externally fired boiler?
a) Cochran boiler
b) locomotive boiler
c) Babcock and Wilcox boiler
d) none of these
3. Which of the following is a single tube boiler?
a) Simple vertical boiler
b) Cornish boiler
c) Lancashire boiler
d) All of these
4. Which of the following method cannot be used to produce draught in a Babcock and Wilcox
boiler?
a) steam jet draught
b) chimney draught
c) steam blower
5. Number of fire tubes in a Lancashire boilers are
a) one
b) two
c) three
d) more than three
6. Water tubes in a Babcock and Wilcox boiler are placed
a) horizontal
b) vertical
c) inclined
d) spiral
7. Which of the following is a mounting?
a. Super-heater
b. economizer
c. air-preheater
d. manhole
8. The amount of water evaporated in kilogram per kilogram of fuel burnt is called
a) equivalent evaporation
b) evaporative capacity
c) boiler efficiency
d) boiler power
9. The chimney draught depends upon
a) Atmospheric pressure
b) furnace temperature
c) height of chimney
d) all of these
10. Draught produced in column of water is given by
 1 1  m  1 
a) 353H     a 
 Ta Tg  ma  
 1 1  m  1 
b) 353H     a 
 Ta Tg  ma  
T  ma  
c) H   g    1
 Ta  ma  1  
T  ma  
d) H   g    1
 Ta  ma  1  
11. For maximum discharge of flue gases, the ratio of the temperatures of the flue gases and the
atmospheric air should be equal to
ma  1
a)
ma
ma  1
b)
ma
 m 1
c) 2  a 
 ma 
 m 1
d) 2  a 
 ma 
12.The draught produced by the fan placed near the chimney of the boiler is called
a. forced mechanical draught
b. induced mechanical draught
c. forced steam jet draught
d. induced steam jet draught
13. A balance draught requires
a) Only chimney
b) Both forced fan and chimney
c) both induced fan and chimney
d) both forced and induced fan
Review Questions
1. Write short note on classification of steam boilers
2. What is the difference between fire –tube and water –tube boilers? Give an example of each.
3. Draw a neat labeled diagram of a simple vertical boiler showing placement for the different
mountings on it. Also show the path of flue gases and the water circulation in it.
4. Describe the classification, construction and working of a simple vertical boiler.
5. State the advantages, limitations and application of a simple vertical boiler.
6. Draw a neat labeled diagram of a Cochran boiler, showing placement of the different mountings on
it.
7. Describe the classification, construction and working of a Cochran boiler.
8. Draw a neat labeled diagram of a Cochran boiler and state its advantages, limitations and
applications.
9. Draw a neat labeled diagram of a Lancashire boiler showing placement of the different mountings
on it. Also show the path of flue gases in it.
10. Describe the classification, construction and working of a Lancashire boiler.
11. Draw a neat labeled diagram of a locomotive boiler showing placement for the different mountings
on it. Also show the path of flue in it.
12. Describe the classification, construction and working of a locomotive boiler.
13. How does the small chimney of the locomotive boiler work properly as compared to the long
chimney of thermal power plant boilers?
14. Draw a neat labeled diagram of a Babcock and Wilcox showing placement of the different mounts
on it. Also show the path of flue gases in it.
15. Describe the classification, construction and working of a Babcock and Wilcox boiler.
16. What do you understand by the term boiler performance? How is it measured?
17. Explain the term “equivalent evaporation from and at 100oC as applied to a boiler and give
reasons for its employment.
18. What do you mean by equivalent capacity of a boiler? How is it expressed? Define and explain
equivalent evaporation.
19. Define equivalent evaporation and boiler efficiency.
20. Explain boiler efficiency.
21. What are the various types of boiler draughts used in practice.
22. Explain the natural draughts?
23. What are natural and artificial draughts?
24. What are the limitations of the chimney draught?
25. What is boiler draught? Derive an expression for chimney height.
26. Prove that the height of a hot gas column is equal to the height fo the chimney at a maximum mass
flow rate of the gas through the chimney.
27. Define chimney efficiency and derive an expression for it.
28. Differentiate between artificial draught and natural draught.
29. What is a mechanical draught? Explain various types of mechanical draught.
30. Differentiate between the forced and the induced types of mechanical draught systems.
31. What is a balanced draught? What are its advantages over the other two mechanical draught
systems?
32. What is a steam jet draught? Explain with an example.

Problems
1. Calculate the equivalent evaporation of the boiler per kg of coal fired, if the boiler produces 3200
kg of wet steam per hour with a dryness fraction of 0.92 and operating at 10 bar. The coal burnt
per hour in the furnace is 2050kg and feed water temperature is 32oC.
2. A boiler working at a pressure of 10 bar evaporates 12kg of water per kg of coal fired from feed
water entering at 28oC. The steam taken from steam stop value is 0.88 dry. The calorific value
of the coal is 33500kJ/kg. Calculate (a) equivalent evaporation “from andat 100oC and (b)
thermal efficiency of the boiler.
3. A boiler generates 2760kg of steam of dry saturated steam per hour at a pressure of 15 bar from
the feed water entering at 20oC. Coal burnt is 370 kg/h on the grate with calorific value
31500kJ/kg. Calculate its (a) equivalent evaporation “from and at 100oC and (b) thermal
efficiency.
4. A coal fired boiler plant consumes 520kg of coal per hour of calorific value 31500kJ/kg. The
plant generates 31500 kg/h of super-heated steam at an absolute pressure of 1.6 MN/m2 and
temperature 350oC. If the feed water temperature is 40oC, determine (a) equivalent
evaporation“from and at 100oC” and (b) thermal efficiency.
5. The following readings were taken during the rest on a boiler for a period of 1 h: Steam generated
4500kg; coal burnt 620kg, CV of coal 31000kJ/kg and quality of steam 0.9. If the boiler pressure
is 1 MPa and feed water temperature is 40oC. Find the boiler equivalent evaporation and thermal
efficiency.
6. A boiler is to produce 5200kg/h of steam at 15 bar and 250oC. The feed water temperature is
25oC. If the calorific value of the fuel oil is 41000kJ/kg and the expected thermal efficiency is
80%, determine (a) fuel consumption rate and (b) equivalent evaporation “from and at 100oC.
7. The equivalent evaporation of a boiler from and at 100oC is found to be 8kg of steam per kg of
fuel burnt. The calorific value of the fuel is 32500kJ/kg. Determine the efficiency of the boiler.
If the boiler produces 1800kg/h of steam at 12 bar from feed water at 27oC and the fuel
consumption is 220kg/h, determine the condition of steam produced.
8. A boiler produces steam at 14 bar and at a temperature of 280oC from feed water at 27oC.
Thesteam is supplied to the turbine developing 1.8 MW at a steam rate of 800 kg/ MWh. Coal of
calorific value 32500kJ/kg is sued in the boiler and the thermal efficiency is 80%. Determine the
grate area required for a firing rate of 22kg/m2 of grate area per hour.
9. Calculate the height of chimney required to produce a draught equivalent to 1.7 cm of water if
the flue gas temperature is 270oC and the ambient temperature 22oC and the minimum amount of
air per kg of fuel is 17kg
10. Calculate the minimum height of the chimney in order to produce a net draught of 21 mm of
water column when 16kg of air is supplied per kg of fuel. The mean temperature of the chimney
gases is 347oC and boiler house temperature is 32oC.
11. A chimney of 30 m height discharges 15kg of flue gases per kg of fuel burnt. If the average
temperature of flue gases is 250oC and the ambient temperature is 40oC, determine the draught
produced in centimeters of water column and the equivalent draught in meters of hot gas column.
12. Determine the mean temperature of the flue gases leaving the chimney of 35 m height and
producing a draught of 17mm of water column, if 16kg of gases formed per kg of fuel burnt. The
temperature of the ambient air is 20oC.
13. A boiler is provided with a stack of 24m height to produce a draught of 14mm of water column.
The outside temperature is 20oC and 16 kg of air is supplied per kg of fuel burning on grate.
Estimate the mean temperature of the flue gases leaving the chimney.
Answers
Multiple – Choice Questions
1. (d)
2. (c)
3. (d)
4. (c)
5. (b)
6. (c)
7. (d)
8. (b)
9. (d)
10. (a)
11. (c)
12. (b)
13. (d)
Problems
1. 11.234kg/kg of coal
2. 12.85kg.kg of coal, 86.6%
3. 8.94kg/kg of coal, 64.08%
4. 7.83kg.kg of coal, 56.13%
5. 7.41kg/kg of coal, 56.36%
6. 444.5kh/h, 14.53kg/kg of oil
7. 55.55%, 0.767
8. 2.23m+2
9. 33.44m
10. 38m
11. 1.22cm, 17m
12. 523.6K
13. 610K
 UNIT 2
REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing the Unit, you will learn
 Vapor-compression refrigeration system
 Vapor-absorption refrigeration system
 Ozone-depleting refrigerants and their properties
 Eco-friendly refrigerants and their properties.
Refrigeration is the process of extracting heat from an enclosed space or from a substance in order to
cool and rejecting the extracted heat to the atmosphere. Thus, the primary purpose of the refrigeration
system is to lower the temperature of the enclosed space and to maintain that lower temperature. In
order to satisfy the second law of thermodynamics some form of work must be performed to
accomplish this. The performance of refrigerators is expressed in terms of the coefficient of
performance (COP) which is defined as the ratio of the cooling effect produced to the work input.
Mathematically,
Desired output Cooling effect
COPR  
Re quired input Work input
The cooling capacity of a refrigerator system is defined as the rate of heat removal from the
refrigerated space. It is generally expressed in terms of tons of refrigeration (TR). One ton of
refrigeration is defined is the heat that has to be extracted to freeze 1 ton (1000kg) of water at 0oC in
24h, which is taken equivalent to 210 kJ/min or approximately 3.5 kJ/s.
Out of several refrigeration systems available, two basic types of refrigeration systems are explained
below.

2.1 Vapor – Compression Refrigeration System

Vapor-compression refrigeration is sued in domestic and commercial refrigerators, large-scale ware
houses for storage of foods and meats, refrigerated trucks and railroad cars as well as air-conditioning
systems. Industries utilizing large vapor-compressing refrigeration system include oil refineries,
petrochemical and chemical processing plants and natural gas processing plants.

Working
The vapor-compression refrigeration system sues a circulating liquid refrigerant as the medium which
absorbs heat form the space/chamber to be cooled and rejects that heat to the atmosphere. Figure 10
shows the schematic of a single-stage vapor-compression refrigeration system. It has four basic
components, namely, compressor, a condenser, an expansion value (or throttle value) and an
evaporator.
 Figure 10 Simple vapour-compression refrigeration system

Circulating refrigerant enters the compressor in a saturated vapor state. Here it is compressed to a
high pressure resulting into a higher temperature of the refrigerant and is in the superheated vapor
state.
The hot vapor is then rouged through the tubes of a condenser. Here refrigerant rejects its heat to the
cool water or cool air flowing outside the tubes. This condenses the refrigerant and the refrigerant
comes in the saturated liquid state.
The saturated liquid is then routed through an expansion value where it undergoes an abrupt reduction
in pressure. The pressure reduction lowers the temperature, colder than the temperature of the
enclosed space to be refrigerated.
The cold mixture is then routed through the coil or tubes of the evaporator, lying in the enclosed space.
The evaporator coils absorb the heat and cool the air subsequently the substance kept in the enclosed
space. The refrigerant leaving the evaporator is in the saturated vapor state which is routed back to the
compressor.
2.2 Vapor-Absorption Refrigeration System
The absorption refrigerator is a refrigerator that utilizes a heat source to provide the energy needed the
drive the refrigeration system rather than being dependent on electricity to run a compressor. These
refrigerators are popular where electricity is unreliable, costly or unavailable, where noise from the
compresses. The most common use is commercial climate control and cooling go machines.
Absorptive refrigeration is also used to air-condition buildings using the waste heat from a gas turbines
or water heater.

Types
The vapor – absorption refrigeration system common in large commercial plants uses (i) ammonia,
hydrogen gas and water; (ii) solution of lithium bromide salt and water; (iii) air, water and a salt
solution. However, large industrial units generally use ammonia as a refrigerant and water as an
absorbent.

Figure 11 Simple vapour-absorption cycle.

The vapor-absorption refrigeration system differs fundamentally from vapor-compression system only
in the method of compressing the refrigerant. An absorber, generator and pump in the absorption
refrigerating system replace the compressor of a vapor –compression system. The other components
are condenser, expansion value and evaporator. Figure 11 shows the schematic diagram of a vapor-
absorption refrigeration system.
Ammonia vapor is produced in the generator at high pressure from the strong solution of ammonia by
an external heating source. The water vapor carried with ammonia is removed in the rectifier and only
the dehydrated ammonia gas enters the condenser. High-pressure ammonia vapor is condensed in the
condenser. The cooled ammonia solution is passed through a throttle value and the pressure and
temperature of the refrigerant are reduced below the temperature to be maintained in the evaporator
the low temperature refrigerant enters the evaporator. It absorbs the required heat from the evaporator
and leaves the evaporator as saturated vapor.
Slightly superheated, low-pressure ammonia vapor is absorbed by the weak solution of ammonia
which is sprayed in the absorber. Weak ammonia solution (aqua-ammonia) entering the absorber
becomes strong solution after absorbing ammonia vapor which is pumped to the generator through the
heat changer. The pump increases the pressure of the strong ammonia solution to the generator
pressure. It may be noted that the strong solution of ammonia coming from the absorber in the heat
exchanger at a lower temperature than the weak ammonia solution coming from the generator. This
strong ammonia solution absorbs heat in the heat exchanger from the weak ammonia solution. The
ammonia solution entering the generator becomes weak as NH3 solution from the generator is passed
to the heat exchanger into the absorber through the throttle value. Thus, the pressure of the ammonia
liquid is reduced to the absorber pressure by the throttle value.

2.3 Comparison between Vapor-Compression and Vapour-Absorption Refrigeration

Systems
Comparison between the vapor-compression refrigeration system and the vapor-absorption
refrigeration system is given in Table 1.
SN. Vapor-compression refrigeration system Vapor-absorption refrigeration system
1 Uses mechanic work, that is a Uses heat, that is a low-grade energy,
high-grade energy therefore may be worked on exhaust
systems from internal combustion
engines, gas turbines, etc.
2 Moving parts are in the compressor. Moving parts are only in the pump,
Hence subjected to more wear, which is a small element of the system.
tear and noise. Hence operation is smooth.
3 The coefficient of performance The COP of is not affected even though
(COP) decreases considerably with the system works on lower evaporator
decrease in evaporator pressure. pressure.

4 Performance is adversely affected Performance is not affected at partial

at partial loads. loads or reducing loads
5 Liquid traces of the refrigerant in Liquid traces of the refrigerant present in
the such in line may damage the piping at the exit of evaporator constitute
compressor no danger.

6 Automatic operation for Automatic operation for controlling the

controlling the capacity is difficult. capacity is easy.
2.4 Refrigerant Properties
The thermodynamic efficiency of a refrigerationsystem depends mainly on its operating temperatures.
However, important practical issues such as the system design, size, initial and operating costs, safety,
reliability, serviceability, etc, depend very much on the type of refrigerant selected for a given
application. Owing to several environment issues such as ozone layer depletion and global warming
and their relation to the various refrigerants used, the selectionof suitable refrigerant has become one
of the most important issues in recent times. Replacement of an existing refrigerant by a completely
new refrigerant, for whatever reason, is an expensive proposition as it may call for several changes in
the design and manufacturing ofrefrigerationsystems. Hence it is very important to understand the
issues related to theselection and use of refrigerants. In principle, any fluid can be used as a
refrigerant. Air used in an air cycle refrigeration system can also be considered as a refrigerant.
However, the attention is mainly focused on those fluids that can be sued as refrigerants in vapor-
compression refrigeration systems only.
Selection of refrigerant for a particular application is based on the following requirements:
1. thermodynamic and thermo-physical properties;
2. environmental and safety properties;
3. economics.

2.4.1 Ozone-Depleting Refrigerant’s and Their Properties

The properties of a few commonly used ozone –depleting refrigerants are given below:
1. R-11
Formula :CCI3 F (Trichloro monofluoromethane)
Molecular weight : 137.7g/mol
Boiling temperature (at 1.013 bar) :23.8C
Latent heat of vaporization (1.013 bar) :182.5 kJ/kg
Critic temperature : 198C
Ozone depletion potential :1
Global warming potential : 4000
Ratio of specific heats (C/C) :1.12
It is non-flammable, non-corrosive, non-toxic and stable. The cylinder color code is orange. It is used
in large air conditioning systems, industrial heat pumps, etc. now the manufacture and use of R11 is
banned.
2. R -12
Formula :CCl2 F2 (Dichlorodifluoromethane)
Molecular weight : 120.9g/mol
Boiling temperature (at 1.013 bar) :–29.8C
Latent heat of vaporization (1.013 bar) :166.9 kJ/kg
Critic temperature : 112C
Ozone depletion potential :1
Global warming potential : 7300
Ratio of specific heats (Cp/Cv) :1.14
It is little odor, colorless gas or liquid, non-flammable, non-corrosive, non-toxic and stable. The
cylinder color code is white. It is sued in domestic refrigerators, small air conditioners, water
coolers, small cold storages, etc. Owing to its ozone-depleting potential, it is currently replaced by
R134a(1, 1, 1, 2-tetrafluoroethane), R142b (chloro-1-difluoro-1, 1-ethane) or R409a (mixture
containing 60% of R12).
 3. R-22
Formula :CCIF2 (Chlorodifluoromethane)
Molecular weight : 86.5.7g/mol
Boiling temperature (at 1.013 bar) :–40.8oC
Latent heat of vaporization (1.013 bar) :233.9 kJ/kg
Critic temperature : 96C
Ozone depletion potential : 0.05
Global warming potential : 1500
Ratio of specific heats (Cp/Cv) :1.166
It is non-flammable, non-corrosive, non-toxic and stable. The cylinder color code is green. It was
earlier used in air conditioning systems, cold storages, etc. It will be replaced by R-134A.

2.4.2 Eco-Friendly Refrigerants and their Properties

The properties of a few commonly used eco-friendly refrigerants are given below:
1. R-134A
Formula :H2FC-CF3(1,1,1.2-Tetfluoromethane)
Molecular weight : 102g/mol
Boiling temperature (at 1.013 bar) :–26.6C
Latent heat of vaporization (1.013 bar) :215.9 kJ/kg
Critic temperature : 100.9C
Global warming potential : 1200
Ratio of specific heats (Cp/Cv) :1.14

It is immiscible in mineral oils, highly hygroscopic. It is sued in domestic refrigerators, water coolers,
automobile, air conditioning system, etc. It has replaced R12 and R22. No replacement of R-134A is
required as it has no ozone depletion potential.
2. NH3
Formula : NH3 (Ammonia)
Molecular weight : 17g/mol
Boiling temperature (at 1.013 bar) :–33.5C
Latent heat of vaporization (1.013 bar) :1371.2 kJ/kg
Critical temperature : 132.4.9C
Ratio of specific heats (Cp/Cv) :1.3
It is highly flammable and poisonous if inhaled in large quantity. So far any design or application,
careful consideration must be given. It is toxic, incompatible with copper, highly efficient,
inexpensive and available. It is sued in cold storage, warehouse plants, ice-cream manufacturing, food
freeing plants, etc. No replacement of NH3 is required as it has no ozone depletion potential and
global warming potential.
3. R-290
Formula :C3H8(Propane)
Molecular weight : 44.1g/mol
Boiling temperature (at 1.013 bar) :–42.1C
Latent heat of vaporization (1.013 bar) :425.3 kJ/kg
Critical temperature : 96.6C
Global warming potential :3
Ratio of specific heats (Cp/Cv) :1.13
 It is highly flammable
4. R-407C
Formula :CH2F2CF3-CHF2FCF3
Composition : R407C is ternary blend of hydro fluorocarbon.
23% of R32, 25% of R125 and 52% R134a
Molecular weight : 86.2g/mol
Boiling temperature (at 1.013 bar) :–43.4C
Latent heat of vaporization (1.013 bar) :249.9 kJ/kg
Critic temperature : 86.2C
Global warming potential : 1610
Ratio of specific heats (Cp/Cv) :1.19
It is colorless, volatile liquid with ethereal and faint sweetish odor. It should not be mixed with air
above atmospheric pressure for leak testing or any other purpose.
5. R-410A
Formula :CH2F2CHF2-CF3
Composition : R-410A is a binary blend of hydro fluorocarbon
50% of R32 and 50% R125
Molecular weight : 72.6g/mol
Boiling temperature (at 1.013 bar) :–51.6C
Latent heat of vaporization (1.013 bar) :256.7 kJ/kg
Critic temperature : 70.2C
Global warming potential : 1890
Ratio of specific heats (Cp/Cv) :1.24
It is colorless
6. R-417A
Formula :CH2FCF3,CHF2CF3, C4F10
Composition : R-417A is a binary blend of hydro fluorocarbon
50% of R134a.of R125 and 3.4% R600
Molecular weight : 106.7g/mol
Boiling temperature (at 1.013 bar) :–38.0C
Critical temperature : 89.9C
Global warming potential :0
Ratio of specific heats (Cp/Cv) :1.15
It is a suitable candidate for the replacement of R 22 for both refrigeration and air conditioning
applications.

2.5 Points to Remember

1 Coefficient of performance (COP) is defined as the ratio of the cooling effect produced to
the work input.
2 One ton of refrigeration is defined as the heat that has to be extracted to freeze 1 ton
(1000kg) of water from and at 0 c in 24h, which is taken equivalent to 210kJ/mn or 3.5kJ/s.
3 The basic components of vapor-compression refrigeration system are compressor,
condenser, expansion value (or throttle valve) and evaporator.
4 The basic components of vapor-absorption refrigeration system are absorber, generator,
pump, condenser, expansion value and evaporator.
5 R-11, R 012 and R-2 are the ozone –depleting refrigerants.
6 R-134A, NH3, R-29 0. R-407C, R-410A, r-417A are the eco-friendly refrigerants.

Key Terms
Coefficient of performance Ozone-depleting refrigerants NH3
Cooling capacity R-11 R-290
Vapor-compression refrigeration R -12 R – 407C
system R – 22 R-410A
Vapor-absorption refrigeration Eco-friendly refrigerant R-417A
system R-134A

Objective -Type Questions

Multiple choice Questions
1. Coefficient of performance of a refrigeration is defined as
Work input
a.
Cooling effect
 Work input
b.
Heating effect
Cooling effect
c.
Work input
Heating effect
d.
Work input
2. The cooling capacity of a refrigerator is
a. capacity of compressor
b. size of evaporating chamber
c. coefficient of performance
d. tons of refrigeration
3. 1 ton of refrigeration effect is equal to
a. 3.5 kJ/s
b. 55 kJ/s
c. 200 kJ/s
d. 210 kJ/s
4. the evaporator coils in the refrigerating chamber
a. compresses the refrigerant
b. expands the refrigerant
c. rejects the heat
d. absorbs the heat
5. In a vapor-compression refrigeration system, the abrupt reduction of pressure takes place in
the
a. compressor
b. condenser
c. throttle valve
d. evaporator
6. Which of the following component is not used in a vapor-absorption refrigeration system
a. Pump
b. Compressor
c. Absorber
d. Generator
7. In an aqua-ammonia absorption refrigeration system, the ammonia vapors are produced at
height pressure in the
a. generator
b. condenser
c. evaporator
d. absorber

8. Refrigerant R -22 is also known as

a. Chlorodifluoromethane
b. dichlorodifluoromethane
c. trichloromonofluoromethane
d. none of these
 9. Which of the following refrigerant has minimum ozone depletion potential?
a. R-11
b. R-12
c. R-22
d. R124a
10. Usually, refrigerant R – 410 is the blend of
a. 25% of R32 and 75% of R125
b. 50% of R32 and 50% of R125
c. 75% of R2 and 25% of R125
d. 23% of R32, 25% of R125 and 52% of R134a
11. R-407C is the blend of
a. 23% of R32, 25% of R125 and 52% of R124a.
b. 23% of R134a, 25% of R125 and 52% of R32
c. 23% of R32, 25% of R134a and 52% of R32
d. 23% of R134a, 25% of R32 and 52% of R125
12. Which of the following refrigerant has the lowest boiling point?
a. R-134a
b. R-407c
c. R-410a
d. R-417a

Review Questions
1. What is the unit of refrigeration and how is it defined?
2. What is COP?
3. Explain vapor-compression refrigeration system with a neat sketch.
4. Explain vapor-absorption system with a neat sketch.
 5. Write short notes on properties of some commonly used ozone-depleting refrigerants.
6. Write short notes on eco-friendly refrigerants. [RGTU Feb 2008]

Answers
Multiple-Choice Questions
1. (c)
2. (c)
3. (a)
4. (d)
5. (c)
6. (b)
7. (a)
8. (a)
9. (d)
10. (b)
11. (a)
12. (c)