LECTURE-3: STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS FOR TALL BUILDINGS

By

Mr. SAMEER SUTHAR,

M. ASCE, ACI

Structural Engineering Department,

Sardar Patel College of Engineering, Andheri (W), Mumbai, India
January-2017

Structural Engineering Department, S.P.C.E, Mumbai. 1

• Basic materials of 18th – 19th century:

• Wood:
• Good strength but catch fire

• Stone:
• Good strength, good fire resistance but self weight is very high
• As the height of building increases, thickness required for load
bearing walls also increases at lower stories, their by reducing
the available carpet area.
• Stone wall demands large thickness for lateral load moment transfer. This
had restricted the height of buildings.
• Monadnock Building, Chicago:

• Height of building is 210 ft. (64 m) & 17

story

• Material: Stone load bearing walls

• Wall thickness at ground floor is 2.1m

for transfer for DL+LL & Wind load
moment
Monadnock Building Entrance: Thick Wall at Ground Level
Monadnock Building: Structural Layout
Monadnock: Sec. Elevation (Side) Monadnock: Sec. Elevation (Front)
• Beams and columns were used in conjunction with masonry bearing
walls.
• Generally of cast or wrought iron.
• Structural steel began to replace iron in the late 1880s.
• Beam columns provided increased floor areas that previously
consumed by thick masonry walls.
• Invention of elevators made upper floors attractive, rentable and
thereby increased in height of the buildings.
• Pre-1960 Structural Systems:
• Regularly spaced columns connected by floor beams, referred to as
the beam-column frame or skeleton frame.
• Emerged in steel sky scraper at the end of the 19th century.
• Columns spaced at 10’ to 16’ was a standard layout, with the
perimeter frames of beams and columns supporting non-load bearing
curtain walls.
• By the early 1900s, reinforced concrete joined structural steel as a
building material that could be employed in beam-column frame
construction.
Invention of Steel Frame:
William Le Baron Jenney is best known for
designing the ten-story Home Insurance
Building in Chicago. The building was the
first fully metal-framed building, and is
considered the First Skyscraper
Home Insurance Building, Chicago
(1884 -1931)

• First Steel Framed building

• First Modern Sky scraper

• It comprises of Steel girders & Steel

columns
Flat-iron Building, New York:

• Steel Framed building

• Steel girders & columns

• 21 Story

• Year of completion: 1901

Woolworth Building, New York:

• Location: Lower Manhattan

• Year of completion: 1913

• Steel Framed

• 60 story & 792 ft. (241.4 m) tall

• Concrete: for foundation & slab

Chrysler Building, New York:

• Steel Framed

• 77 story & 1046 ft. (319 m) tall

Empire State Building, New York:

• Steel Braced Framed

• 102 story & 1472 ft. (448.6 m)

with antenna on top

• Year of completion: 1933

• Pre-1960 Structural Systems:
• To stabilize the tall building frames, the joints at beam-column
connections were detailed as rigid (moment-resisting) or semi-rigid
connections, which induced bending and shearing of the structural
members and thereby afforded resistance to lateral forces.

• The horizontal stiffness of a rigid frame is governed by the bending

resistance of girders, columns & their connections in a low rise frame.

• But in a tall frame by the axial rigidity of columns.

• The shear or flexure action depends on aspect ratio of a frame.

• Pre-1960 Structural Systems:

• The shear at any story is resisted by bending of beams & columns of

the same story.

• The overall moment of the external horizontal load is resisted in each

storey level by the couple resulting from the axial tensile &

compressive forces in the columns on opposite side of the structure.

Shearing action/mode Flexure action/mode
Undeformed shape Deformed shape Bending moment
Deformed shape BMD SFD AFD
• Pre-1960 Structural Systems:
• The incorporation of diagonal bracing offered another method for
stabilizing tall buildings in structural steel construction.
• These are the vertical shear trusses were commonly located in the
walls around the service core of elevators and other centralized
services.
• Braced frame transfer the load by axial compression & tension in the
members
• As lateral load is reversible the bracing system is subjected to both
tension as well as compression
• Pre-1960 Structural Systems:

• Hence, they are designed for more critical case, which is compression.
Compression causes the buckling of members, hence it is more preferable
to have short bracing instead of full bracing.

• Short bracing may be achieved by effective restrained in two directions.

• There are different types of bracing each having its own advantage & place
in tall building structures.

• Fully triangulated bracings are preferred (Except in a very high seismic

areas).
δ = 4.547 δ = 3.967 δ = 3.155 δ = 2.651 δ = 12.95

Deflected Shape due to lateral load (deflection in mm)

 Axial force due to gravity load
Compression: Red & Tension: Yellow
Axial force due to lateral load from left side
Compression: Red & Tension: Yellow
Bending moment due to lateral load from left side
Hogging: Red & Sagging: Yellow
Shear force due to lateral load from left side
• Pre-1960 Structural Systems:
• In the late 1940s, a similar concept developed for reinforced concrete
construction, namely shear wall system.
• Shear walls or shear trusses are generally positioned parallel to the
direction of wind or seismic motion so to act as a vertical cantilevers
in resisting the lateral forces.
• Shear walls are area elements having high inplane stiffness.
• Resistance to lateral load is primarily provided by flexural/bending
action of shear wall
• Shear walls are used as partition between two unit or they may be
part of service cores or staircase
• Pre-1960 Structural Systems:

• Shear walls may be planar or of L, T, I, U, E, or Y shaped section to

better suit the planning & to increase their flexural stiffness.

• Pre-1960 Structural Systems:
• The three lateral load resisting systems were appropriate for buildings
up to 20 to 30 stories (depending on the types of building and
structural features).
• But each was hampered by sway and potentially unacceptable
member stresses when employed in taller structures.
• The beam-column frame system was relatively flexible and
experienced large floor to floor column drift.
• To stiffen the structural frame work, reduce column axial
deformations, and control member stresses, designers increased the
width and depth of frame members and the efficiency of beam to
column connections.
• Pre-1960 Structural Systems:
• These modifications brought about small relative improvement.
• Instead, the material costs associated with strengthening and
stiffening a high rise structure increased disproportionately to
building height.
• The economy of vertical shear truss and shear walls systems similarly
diminished with rising construction height as the aspect ratio of the
structural elements became excessively high in buildings over 30 to
40 stories.
• The shear truss and wall systems, moreover, required a larger service
core and symmetrical placement of the structural elements to
minimize torsion of the building structure.
• Pre-1960 Structural Systems:
• Although, additional shear walls or trusses could be located outside
the service core, such placement restricted the free planning of the
interior space or, if positioned on an exterior wall, displaced windows.
• The approach around 1960s was to assume that, when beam-column
frame and shear walls/trusses are present in the structure, the entire
wind or seismic forces are being carried by shear walls/trusses.
• It means frame carry only Gravity loads (GRAVITY COLUMNS)
• No Shear wall/truss-frame interaction.
• Reason was, limited analytical capacity, convenience, and the habit of
accepted methods.
• Few engineers were writing about the participation of both frame and
wall systems in resisting lateral loads, but a notable gap remain
between theory and common office practice.
• Premium for Tall buildings:

• Weight of floor per unit floor area = Constant = (DL + LL) KN/m2

• Weight carried by column per unit floor area α Height of Building (H)
(Hence the gravity load on column increases down the height of the
building)

• Bending moment due to lateral load α Hn

(Wind or Earthquake)
 Additional For Lateral
Loads

For Columns DL+LL

For Floors
Einstein of Tall Buildings:
Dr. Fazlur R. Khan (1929-1982),
BE (Civil), Calcutta University, India
M.S (Structures), Ph.D. (Applied Mechanics)
Illinois Institute of Technology, Illinois, USA
Shear Wall + Frame
• Brunswick:
• Khan developed structural scheme for Brunswick building.
• Central RC Core with perimeter columns spaced at 9’4” there by
eliminating curtain walls.
• To span the interior space between the central core and perimeter,
the designer detailed joist-slab floor system that turned in to waffle-
slab at the corner regions.
• Khan and other engineers on approximate analysis of the shear walls
at the core and exterior frames with column spaced at 9’4” found that
the effective stiffness of the frame parallel to wind direction
approached that of the shear walls.
• Hence, Khan accepted the behavior and accordingly designed the
system and structural elements.
• Shear wall-frame:
• There was no theoretical background to interaction between shear
walls and frames at that time.
• So, this complexity and challenge of this work inspired him.
• The participation of rigid frames affects behavior of both, shear walls
and frames.
• That is, each system restrains the natural movements of the other.
• Shear wall-frame:
• Another factor, in reducing the premium for height in design is the
stress reserve in individual structural members applicable to transient
loading conditions.
• All building codes permitted as increase in allowable stress (up to
33%) for wind or earthquake loads because of their temporary
nature.
• If stresses in a structural members, which were already designed for
gravity load, increased by not more than this allowable amount, then
the member sizes were adequate; that is no premium was necessary.
IS 1893 (Part-1): 2016 DRAFT
IS 1893 (Part-1): 2016 DRAFT
IS 13920: 2016 - Ductile detailing

P-∆ effects
Framed Tube
• Framed Tube:
• In this project there was a no service core, with 40 storied building.
• Khan realized that, a tall building is essentially a vertical cantilever
which reacts to wind or seismic loads.
• And the mode of response of tall building is a cantilever one.
• He visualized the building as a hollow thin tube perforated with
windows.
• What was needed for efficient lateral load resistance was a vertically
standing hollow box-shaped building with all structural material
pushed out to periphery, cantilevering out of the ground.
• Framed Tube:
• Now, we know that elementary beam theory indicates that portions
of a cross-section farthest from the centroidal axis are most highly
stressed, or fully utilized, in supporting bending loads, whereas
portions located closer to the centroidal axis are less highly stressed,
or underutilized.
• The closed form of a box –shape has the advantage of higher bending
and torsional stiffness than an open form of the same quantity of
structural material.
• By placing majority of the building columns at large distance from the
center of the floor plan/structural neutral axis in each direction and
creating a closed structural shell around the perimeter, one could
expect to obtain optimum stiffness and strength in bending for the
building.
• Framed Tube:
• It consist of closely spaced exterior columns tied at each floor level
with relatively deep spandrel beam.
• Hollow concrete tube perforated by window, hence named “Framed
Tube”.

• System received wide acceptance in the world.

• C/C spacing of columns: 1m to 3m (generally)

• Width of spandrel beam: 250mm to 1000mm (generally)

• Depth of spandrel beam: 600mm to 1200mm (generally)

• Behavior of framed tube:
• When subjected to lateral loads, it respond in a hybrid manner similar
to that of shear wall-frame interaction systems.
• If the structure were a solid walled tube, it would deform
predominantly in a bending mode as a cantilever.
• But, because it is perforated with window openings, the shape also
assumes deformation characteristics of a beam-column frame.
• The framed tube experiences both tube action and frame action.
• The tube action resists overturning moments on the structure
through axial forces in the columns.
• Column shortening and elongation take place, creating one
component of the form’s total deflection.
• Behavior of framed tube:
• Frame action in the two sides of the structure parallel to the direction
of lateral load resists shear at each floor level through bending and
shearing in the beams, along with bending at the top and bottom of
column in that storey.
• Because of the flexibility of frame members, story shear is
inefficiently distributed among the columns in a beam-column frame.
• This phenomenon of incomplete transfer of shear from one column to
next, termed as shear lag.
• Shear lag prevents the attainment of ideal straight-line stress diagram
for the two walls parallel to the direction of lateral load (Web
portion).
• Similarly, uniform stress distribution is not achieved for the
walls/columns perpendicular to the load (Flange portion).
• Behavior of framed tube :
• Behavior of framed tube:
• Increased axial stresses in the corner columns and decreased stresses
(as compared to the ideal tube’s stress diagram) in the central column
hampers structural efficiency of the system.
• The central columns of the planes perpendicular to the direction of
the wind do not fully participate in the form’s resistance to
overturning moment.
• Frame action carries in the order of 30% of total shear and cantilever
carries remainder.
• Yet, this 30% of the total shear force causes approximately 70% of the
total deflection of the structure.
• Although this system can be employed in buildings taller than 40 to
50 stories, but its efficiency decreases.
Trussed Tube
• Trussed tube:
• In this system the perimeter is provided with diagonal members
thereby increasing c/c column spacing.
• These diagonal members extended vertically across numerous stories
at the building’s exterior to create stiff perimeter form.
• This system was out come of masters thesis at IIT Illinois, by the
student name Mikio Sasaki and supervised by Khan.
• These diagonal assisted in gravity load transfer, reduced shear lag
effect and suggested superb economy in material.
• For wind load conditions this system is ideal.
• But Khan later concluded that the cross-braced system was overly
rigid (very stiff) and insufficiently ductile for use in high seismic zones.
John Hancock Center: Structural Layout,
Unbraced: transfer of gravity Braced: transfer of gravity
& wind loads (Khan) & wind loads (Khan)
Bundled Tube
• Bundled tube:
• To ensure against excessive dynamic response in strong wind,
however, a building height to width (Aspect) ratio had to be limited.
• In the 1960s and 1970s, 6:1 was considered a practical limit, although
8:1 was acceptable.
• As height increases, one needs larger footprint to maintain a
reasonable aspect ratio.
• But large dimension needs larger columns at building perimeter,
which in turn subjected to large shear lag effects.
• This shear lag is very higher in framed tube for buildings beyond 400’
to 600’ particularly in steel construction.
• Bundled tube:
• The walls could be braced internally.
• To stiffen the exterior frames, he needed only to introduction of shear
walls across the full width of the building.
• These interior shear wall diaphragms would resist wind shear and
stiffen and connect the long perimeter walls, thereby creating a highly
effective cantilever tube structure.
• But, there was no analytical method to solve such systems.
• Hence Khan commenced his own work.
• He recommended such system to an architecture student at IIT
Illinois, A. G. K. Menon.
• Bundled tube:
• For Menon’s master thesis project in 1965-66, he designed a slender
812’ tall reinforced concrete apartment tower.
• Based on Menon’s findings that efficiency of a tube structure of large
dimension was improved considerably by incorporating diaphragm
walls, Khan felt confidence in the proposed system.
• Outrigger braced structures:
• It consist of interior RCC shear wall or steel braced frame as main
core.
• This core is connected to exterior perimeter columns by means of
flexurally stiff horizontal cantilevers that passes through core.
• This cantilevers are called as Outrigger. Outriggers may be deep girder
or deep truss.
• Outrigger activates the perimeter columns.
• The opposite axial forces developed in perimeter columns forms a
resisting couple.
• Using outrigger, efficient use of outer columns are possible.
• Outrigger braced structures:
• It can be used where overturning moment is large compared to shear.
• That is, overall deformations are because of flexure mode.
• Outrigger can reduce excessive drifts & core wind moments.
• Improves occupant comfort during high winds.
• Important to maintain relative rigidities of outrigger & core structures
Hull Core
• Gravity Columns + Core:
• It can be used where service core space is sufficiently larger.
• It means, when a structural core is stiff and strong so enough such
that, it carries at least 90% of total shear due to seismic or wind.
• The remaining vertical elements like columns and/or shear walls then
only be design for the gravity loads.
• It means gravity columns and/or gravity shear walls.
• These gravity elements were forced to not attract any forces due to
lateral loads (seismic or wind).
• This system not fall under Dual systems.
Buttressed Core
Mile High
Thank you