FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY 2016/2017

(SKPU1711)
EXPERIMENT FRICTION LOSSES IN PIPE (E1)
SECTION 04 (GROUP 7)

GROUP MEMBERS
NAME MATRIC NO.
RAM KUMAR RAO A/L NAGARAJAN A15KP0119
VINOTH A/L KANTHARAO A15KP0135
SHALENI A/P KUMAR A15KP0148
CHUAH KAI JIE A15KP0018
MAGED FADHL MAHMOOD AHMED A14KP4002

LAB SUPERVISOR

PN. NORAZANA BINTI IBRAHIM

DATE OF EXPERIMENT

6th SEPTEMBER 2016

DATE OF SUBMISSION

13th SEPTEMBER 2016

1 Experiment 1 Friction Losses in Pipe

 TABLE OF CONTENT

NO. CONTENTS PAGE

1.0 Introduction 3

1.1 Objective of Experiment 3

2.0 Theory of Experiment 4

3.0 Apparatus 11

4.0 Experimental Procedure 15

5.0 Results 18

6.0 Discussions 20

7.0 Conclusion 29

8.0 References 30

2 Experiment 1 Friction Losses in Pipe

1.0 INTRODUCTION :

As an in-compressible fluid flows through a pipe, a friction force along the pipe wall
is created against the fluid. The frictional resistance generates a continuous loss of
energy or total head in the fluid and hence decreases the pressure of the fluid as it
moves through the pipe. There are four factors that determine friction losses in pipe

i. The velocity of the fluid.

ii. The size (inside diameter) of the pipe

iii. The roughness of the inside of the pipe

iv. The length of the pipe

In addition to energy or head loss due to friction, there are always head losses in pipes
due to an enlargement or contraction of the flow section, bends, junctions, valves etc.,
which are commonly known as minor or small losses. When the direction of flow is
altered or distorted, energy losses occur which are not recovered are dissipated in
eddies and additional turbulence and finally lost in the form of heat. However, this
energy must be supplied if the fluid is to be maintained in motion, in the same way, as
energy must be provided to overcome friction. In practice, in long pipe lines of
several kilometers the effect of minor losses may be negligible. For short pipeline the
losses may be greater than those for friction.

1.1 OBJECTIVE OF EXPERIMENT:

The objectives of this experiment are
i. To measure head loss in pipes for different water flow rates, pipe diameters
and pipe bends.
ii. To estimate the values of loss coefficient for pipes of different flow conditions
and diameters.
iii. To study the effect of the velocity of the fluid, the size (inside diameter) of the
pipe on the values of loss coefficient.
iv. To study the effect of sudden change in pipe diameter and flow direction on
the total energy or head losses in pipes.
v.

3 Experiment 1 Friction Losses in Pipe

2.0 THEORY

In Bernoulli’s equation as shown below, hf represents the head loss due to friction
between the fluid and the internal surface of the constant diameter pipe as well as the
friction between the adjacent fluid layers.

P1 / g  V1 / 2 g  Z1  P2 / g  V2 / 2 g  Z 2  h f
2 2
(Eqn.1)

This will result in a continuous change of energy from a valuable mechanical form
(such as kinetic or potential energies) to a less valuable thermal form that is heat. This
change of energy is usually referred to as friction head loss, which represents the
amount of energy converted into heat per unit weight of fluid.

The head losses (hf) in pipe due to friction can be determined using Darcy-Weisback
equation;

4 fLV 2
Turbulent flow hf  (Eqn.2)
2 gD

32 fLQ2
Laminar flow hf  (Eqn.3)
 2 gD 5

Where:

f = Friction factor

L = Length

V= Mean velocity (Q/A)

g = Gravity

D= Constant diameter

The friction head loss for both laminar and turbulent flows can be expressed by
similar formulas although the original derivation of each one is different:

4 Experiment 1 Friction Losses in Pipe

 L V2
hf  f (Eqn.4)
D 2g

In laminar flow, the friction factor is only a function of Reynolds number while for
turbulent flow it is a function of Reynolds (Re) number and the relative roughness of
the pipe.

VD
Re  (Eqn.5)


where : density, V: average velocity, D: pipe inside diameter, : viscosity.

Based on the nature of the flow, friction factor (f ) can be estimated by using the
following correlations

64
Laminar flow f  (Eqn.6)
Re

0.25
Turbulent Flow f  0.316  Re (Eqn.7)

Eqn.7 is Blausius Equation and only valid for smooth pipe and 3000 < Re <. The
value of f for turbulent flow can be obtained experimentally from the Moody Chart.

Moreover, for turbulent flow, the relationship between hf and V takes the form

h f  K.V n (Eqn.8)

Where K is a loss coefficient and n ranges from 1.7 to 2.0 (depending on the value of
Re and ks/D. This equation can be written as

5 Experiment 1 Friction Losses in Pipe

Log hf = Log K + n Log V (Eqn.9)

in order to find K and n experimentally, using graph

Experimentally, one can obtain the head loss by applying energy equation between
any two points along a constant diameter pipe. This is done in Eqn.1 and by noticing
that the pipe is horizontal and the diameter is constant. The pressure heads of a fluid
between 2 points, h1 and h2, are measured by using Piezometer tubes. The total head
loss can be determined experimentally by applying the Bernoulli’s equation as
follows:

h f  ( P1  P 2 ) / g  h1  h2 (Eqn.10)

Energy losses are proportional to the velocity head of the fluid as it flows around an
elbow, through an enlargement or contraction of the flow section, or through a valve.
Experimental values for energy losses are usually reported in terms of a resistance or
loss coefficient K as follows:

KV 2
hL  (Eqn.11)
2g

where hL is the minor loss, K is the resistance or loss coefficient, and V is the
average velocity of flow in the pipe in the vicinity where the minor loss occurs. The
resistance or loss coefficient is dimensionless because it represents a constant of
proportionality between the energy loss and the velocity head. The magnitude of the
resistance coefficient depends on the geometry of the device that causes the loss and
sometimes on the velocity of flow.

6 Experiment 1 Friction Losses in Pipe

3.0.1 Minor losses at sudden enlargement

When a fluid flows from a smaller pipe into a larger pipe through a sudden
enlargement, its velocity decreases abruptly, causing turbulence, at which generates
energy losses.

where,

V1 = velocity at small cross-section (upstream)

V2 = velocity at large cross-section (downstream)

The minor loss (hL) due to sudden enlargement of the pipe can be estimated by
integrating the momentum, continuity and Bernoulli equations between positions 1
and 2 to give

(V1  V2 ) 2
hL  (Eqn.12)
2g

Substituting again for the continuity equation to get an expression involving the two
areas,

(i.e. V2=V1 (A1/A2) gives

2
KV1
hL  (Eqn.13)
2g

7 Experiment 1 Friction Losses in Pipe

 2
 A1    D1  
2 2

Where, K  1    1   
 A2    D2  

3.0.2 Minor losses at sudden contraction

When a fluid flows from a larger pipe into a smaller pipe through a sudden
contraction, the fluid streamlines will converge just downstream of the smaller pipe,
known as vena contraction phenomena, creating a turbulence region from the sharp
corner of the smaller pipe and extends past the vena contract, which subsequently
generates an energy loss.

In a sudden contraction, flow contracts from point 1 to point 1', forming a vena
contraction. It is possible to assume that energy losses from 1 to 1' are negligible (no
separation occurs in contracting flow) but that major losses occur between 1' and 2 as
the flow expands again

8 Experiment 1 Friction Losses in Pipe

 If the vena contract area is A1’= Ac, then the minor loss (hL) can be estimated by
integrating the momentum, continuity and Bernoulli equations between positions 1
and 2 to give

2
 A  V2
hL  1  C  2 (Eqn. 14)
 A2  2 g

The above equation is commonly expressed as a function of loss coefficient,(K) and

the average velocity,(V2) in the smaller pipe downstream from the contraction as
follows;

2
KV2
hL  (Eqn.15)
2g

2
 A 
Where K  1  C 
 A2 

As the difference in pipe diameters gets large (A1/A2 0) then this value of K
will tend towards 0.5 which is equal to the value for entry loss from a reservoir into a
pipe. The value of K depends upon the ratio of the pipe diameters (D2/D1) as given
below;

D2/D1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

K 0.5 0.45 0.412 0.39 0.36 0.33 0.28 0.15 0.15 0.06 0

9 Experiment 1 Friction Losses in Pipe

3.0.3 Minor Losses at elbow or bend pipe

Losses in fittings such as elbow, valves etc have been found to be proportional to the
velocity head of the fluid flowing. The energy loss is expressed in the general form,

KV 2
hL  (Eqn.16)
2g

Where,

K = loss coefficient (dependent on the ratio of total angle of bending to radius

of bending

of the curves as the bending occurs)

3.0.4 Experimental determination of total head loss

In the experiment the pressure heads before and after a fluid undergoing sudden
change in pipe diameter or flow direction, h1 and h2, are measured by using
Piezometer tubes. The total head loss (major and minor losses) can be determined
experimentally by applying the Bernoulli’s equation as follows:

P1 / g  V1 / 2 g  Z1  P2 / g  V2 / 2 g  Z 2  hL
2 2
(Eqn.17)

h1  V1 / 2 g  Z1  h2  V2 / 2 g  Z 2  hL
2 2
(Eqn.18)

V1  V2
2 2
and since Z1 = Z2 , then hL  h1  h2  (Eqn.19)
2g

10 Experiment 1 Friction Losses in Pipe

3.0 APPARATUS

Figure 1.0 : Apparatus used to perform the friction losses in pipe experiment

11 Experiment 1 Friction Losses in Pipe

 Measuring Description Materia
section l
I. Pipe section with PVC
-Discontinuous expansion 20 x 1,5 to 32 x 1,8
-Discontinuous constriction 32 x 1,8 to 20 x 1,5
II. Pipe section straight, measurement length 800mm 20 PVC
x 1,5

III. Pipe section with PVC

-2 x Y piece 45°
-2 x T piece
20 x 1,5
IV. Pipe section with PVC
- 2x 90° angle
- 2 x 90° bend
- 2 x 45° angle
20 x 1,5
V. Adjustable measuring section for installation of PVC
various measurements objects
20 x 1,5

Pos. Item Pos. Item

1 Annular chambers with pressure tapping 7 Measurement objects- flow
nipples measurement
2 Ball valves for shutting off part section 8 Adjustable measuring section
3 Back wall 9 Measurement objects- shut-off
devices
4 Double pressure gauge 10 Drain
5 Inlet (concealed) I to VI Measuring sections
6 Tubular steel frame with suction pads

Figure 2.0 : Components of the device

12 Experiment 1 Friction Losses in Pipe
Pos. Item Pos. Item
1 Sump Tank 8 Switch box
2 Sliding value 9 Flow control valve
3 Remote sight gauge 10 Overflow pipe
4 Volumetric measuring tank with 11 Water supply connection for
channel accessories with pump
5 Water supply connection for 12 Submersible motor driven pump
accessories without pump
6 Diverting cap 13 Drain cock
7 Connecting piece for pump

Figure 3.0 : Basic Bench

13 Experiment 1 Friction Losses in Pipe

Table 1: Water Dynamic Viscosity and Density at Different Temperatures

Temperature (oC)  (kg/m3)  (x 10-3 N.s/m3)

0 999.8 1.781

5 1000.0 1.518

10 999.7 1.307

15 999.1 1.139

20 998.2 1.002

25 997.0 0.890

30 995.7 0.798

40 992.2 0.653

50 988.0 0.547

60 983.2 0.466

70 977.8 0.404

80 971.8 0.354

90 965.3 0.315

100 953.4 0.282

14 Experiment 1 Friction Losses in Pipe

4.0 Experimental Procedure
1. All outlet valves of pipes I, II, III, IV and V( valves in parallel with the pipe)
are fully opened and the flow control valve is turned clockwise to make sure that
the valve is in closed position.
2. The pump is switched on and the control valve is slowly turned in the direction of
counter-clockwise until maximum and waited for a while in order to remove any
air bubbles existing in the flowing pipe.
3. During installation of water manometer rubber tube, inlet flowing pressure (H1)
and outlet pressure (H2) was determined.
4. The direction of water inflow and outflow through the pipe was determined.
5. Performed measurement
-Desired flow by way of inflow valve was adjusted.
-Differential pressure as difference in height between the two water columns
was recorded.
-The mean value as the reading fluctuates was estimated.
-When taking differential pressure measurements, it is more important to
achieve reproducible readings than absolute accuracy.
-During the process, if air bubbles present in the flowing pipe, the air will
move through the water manometer rubber tube. Air bubble will move
to the peak of the higher tube. Remove the air bubble up to the manometer
glass tube.
6. 5(five) suitable flow-rates Q is determined. The values of H1 and H2 in
millimeter (mm) of the inlet and the outlet of the water manometer flowing
pressures are recorded as Q is changed.
7. All the following types of flow is operated.

15 Experiment 1 Friction Losses in Pipe

5.0.1 Experiment with Pipe I : friction losses at sudden enlargement and
sudden contraction

a) Only the inlet valve for Pipe I is left open and all other inlet valves of pipes II, III,
IV and V are all fully closed.
b) The manometer rubber tubes are both installed at sections of entrance and exit of
parts of sudden enlargement and sudden contraction in order to measure the values
of H1 and H2 for both sections.
c) The first set of data is recorded in the table. The flow-rate of the first set of data is
measured by measuring the volume of specific amount of water per time taken to
flow through the outlet valve.
d) The flow-rate is recorded in the table.
e) The steps are repeated but with the outlet valve being turned in clockwise direction
in order to close the valve bit by bit in order to have data with different flow-rate
until a total of 5 sets of data is collected.

5.0.2 Experiment with Pipe I and II : friction losses in different sizes of pipes
a) The inlet valve for pipe I is fully opened and all other inlet valves of pipes II, III,
IV and V are all fully closed.
b) The manometer rubber tubes are both installed at sections of entrance and exits of
parts of 32mm pipe.
c) The values of H1 and H2 are recorded in the table.
d) The flow-rate of the data is measured and recorded.
e) The steps are repeated with the outlet valve closing bit by bit to get total 5 sets of
data with different flow-rates.
f) All the steps are repeated for 20mm pipe and inlet II is opened and all other inlet
valves of pipes I, III, IV and V are all fully closed.
g) The data collected are recorded in table.

16 Experiment 1 Friction Losses in Pipe

5.0.3 Experiment with Pipe III and IV: friction losses in pipe branches (T-down)

a) The inlet valve for pipe I is closed fully and the inlet valve for pipe III is slowly
opened.
b) The manometer rubber tubes are both installed at sections of entrance and exits of
parts of T-down branch pipe.
c) The values of H1 and H2 are recorded in the table.
d) The flow-rate of the data is measured and recorded.
e) The steps are repeated with the outlet valve closing bit by bit to get total 5 sets of
data with different flow-rates.
f) The data collected are recorded in table.

5.0.4 Experiment with Pipe V: 90o angle pipe, 45o angle pipe, 90o bend

a) The inlet valve for pipe III and IV are fully closed and the inlet valve for pipe V
is opened.
b) The manometer rubber tubes are installed at the entrance and exit of the 90o angle
section and also 45o angle section.
c) The values of H1 and H2 are recorded in table and flow-rate is measured and also
recorded.
d) The steps are repeated to obtain total 5 sets of readings with different flow-rate.
All data are recorded.
e) The experiment is repeated by changing the position of rubber tubes to parts of
entrance and exit of 90o bend section.
f) The data are recorded in table.

17 Experiment 1 Friction Losses in Pipe

5.0 RESULT
Table 6.1 Elbow regular 90 threaded (A=3.142x10-4 m2; kth=1.5)

h  10-3 V Re hLexp
Q 0-3 (m3/s) v2/2g (m) (hL)th (m)
(m) (m2/s) 103 (m)
0.623 45.0 1.98 44.4 0.045 0.200 0.300
0.335 15.0 1.07 24.0 0.015 0.058 0.087
0.295 10.6 0.94 21.1 0.011 0.045 0.068
0.249 8.9 0.79 17.7 0.009 0.032 0.048
0.174 5.0 0.55 12.3 0.005 0.015 0.023

Table 6.2 Elbow regular 45 threaded (A=3.142x10-4 m2; kth=0.4)

h  10-3 V Re hLexp
Q 0-3 (m3/s) v2/2g (m) (hL)th (m)
(m) (m2/s) 103 (m)
0.623 40.0 1.98 44.4 0.040 0.200 0.080
0.335 13.4 1.07 24.0 0.013 0.058 0.023
0.295 8.7 0.94 21.1 0.009 0.045 0.018
0.249 7.2 0.79 17.7 0.007 0.032 0.013
0.174 4.6 0.55 12.3 0.005 0.015 0.006

Table 6.3 Elbow long radius 90 threaded (A=3.142x10-4 m2; kth=0.7)

h  10-3 V Re hLexp
Q 0-3 (m3/s) v2/2g (m) (hL)th (m)
(m) (m2/s) 103 (m)
0.613 30.1 1.95 43.7 0.030 0.194 0.136
0.513 21.2 1.63 36.5 0.021 0.135 0.095
0.375 11.8 1.19 26.7 0.012 0.072 0.050
0.290 7.4 0.91 20.4 0.007 0.042 0.029
0.160 2.5 0.51 11.4 0.003 0.013 0.009

Table 6.4 Tee piece threaded (branch flow; A=3.142x10-4 m2; kth=2)

h  10-3 V Re hLexp
Q 0-3 (m3/s) v2/2g (m) (hL)th (m)
(m) (m2/s) 103 (m)
0.581 35.1 1.85 41.4 0.035 0.174 0.348
0.302 14.3 0.96 21.5 0.014 0.047 0.094
0.207 5.5 0.66 14.8 0.006 0.022 0.044
0.189 4.8 0.60 13.4 0.005 0.018 0.036
0.132 2.4 0.42 9.4 0.002 0.009 0.018

18 Experiment 1 Friction Losses in Pipe

Table 6.5 Sudden enlargement (from Ø20mm to Ø32mm; A1=3.142x10-4m2;
A2=8.042x10-4m2)

Q 0-3 (m3/s) v1 v2 h  10-3 (m) Re 103 hLexp (m) v12/2g (hL)th (m)
0.588 1.87 0.73 -3.0 41.9 0.148 0.178 0.066
0.581 1.85 0.72 -2.6 41.4 0.145 0.174 0.065
0.461 1.47 0.57 -1.8 32.9 0.092 0.110 0.041
0.410 1.30 0.51 -1.2 29.1 0.072 0.086 0.032
0.370 1.18 0.46 -1.1 26.4 0.059 0.071 0.026

Table 6.6 Sudden contraction (from Ø32mm to Ø20mm; A1=8.042x10-4m2;

A2=3.142x10-4m2)

Q 0-3 (m3/s) v1 v2 h  10-3 (m) Re 103 hLexp (m) v22/2g (hL)th (m)
0.588 0.73 1.87 0.048 26.2 0.104 0.178 0.433
0.581 0.72 1.85 0.04 25.8 0.108 0.174 0.424
0.461 0.57 1.47 0.030 20.4 0.064 0.110 0.268
0.410 0.51 1.30 0.019 18.3 0.054 0.086 0.209
0.370 0.46 1.18 0.010 16.5 0.051 0.071 0.173

Table 6.7 Ø20mm pipe (A=3.142x10-4m2)

Q 0-3 h  10-3 V Re hfexp (hf)th

fth fexp log hf log v
(m3/s) (m) (m2/s) 103 (m) (m)
0.32 38.6 1.02 22.9 0.039 0.026 0.055 0.018 -1.40894 0.0086
0.22 26.2 0.71 15.9 0.026 0.028 0.029 0.025 -1.58503 -0.1487
0.16 14.2 0.52 11.7 0.014 0.030 0.017 0.026 -1.85387 -0.2840
0.15 12.3 0.47 10.5 0.012 0.031 0.014 0.027 -1.92082 -0.3279
0.12 10.6 0.39 8.74 0.011 0.033 0.010 0.034 -1.95861 -0.4089

Table 6.8 Ø32mm pipe (A=8.042x10-4m2)

Q 0-3 h  10-3 V Re hfexp (hf)th

fth fexp log hf log v
(m3/s) (m) (m2/s) 103 (m) (m)
0.018 0.003
0.6 2.8 0.75 26.9 0.0028 0.025 -2.55284 -0.12494
0 9
0.010 0.003
0.44 1.3 0.54 19.4 0.0013 0.027 -2.88606 -0.26761
0 5
0.003 0.010
0.22 1.0 0.28 10.0 0.0010 0.032 -3.00000 -0.55284
0 0
0.002 0.013
0.18 0.8 0.22 7.89 0.0008 0.034 -3.09691 -0.65758
1 0
0.001 0.009
0.17 0.5 0.21 7.53 0.0005 0.034 -3.30103 -0.67778
9 0

19 Experiment 1 Friction Losses in Pipe

6.0 DISCUSSIONS

Graph of f vs Re for Ø20mm pipe

0.04
0.035
0.03
frictional factor, f

y = -0.0327x + 0.0359
0.025
0.02
fth
0.015 y = -0.0665x + 0.0389
fexp
0.01
0.005
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Re x 10-3

Graph 6.1

According to Graph 6.1, fexp and ftheo, both decrease linearly with the Reynolds
Number. It shows that fexp decrease steeper compared to fth. The experimental
results are not the same as the theory because some errors might occur during
conducting the experiment.

Graph of f vs Re for Ø32mm pipe

0.04
0.035
frictional factor, f

0.03
y = -0.0216x + 0.0373
0.025
0.02
fth
0.015
0.01 fexp

0.005
y = -0.0189x + 0.014
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Re x 10-3

Graph 6.2

According to Graph 6.2, fexp and ftheo, both decrease linearly with the
Reynolds Number. It shows that fexp values are lower compared to the values of fth .
The experimental readings are low in precision because due to the experimental
errors that occur.

20 Experiment 1 Friction Losses in Pipe

 Graph of hL vs Q for elbow regular 90°
0.35
0.3 y = 0.6435x - 0.1107
0.25
0.2
hL

0.15 hLexp (m)

0.1 (hL)th (m)
y = 0.0927x - 0.0141
0.05
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Qx 10-3

Graph 6.3

According to Graph 6.4, HLexp and HLtheo, both increases with the flow rate ‘Q’.
HLth is more steeper compared to HLexp . The experimental results are not the same
as the theory because some errors might occurred during conducting the
experiment.

Graph of hL vs Q for elbow regular 45°

0.09
0.08 y = 0.1716x - 0.0295
0.07
0.06
0.05
hL

0.04 y = 0.0826x - 0.0129 hLexp (m)

0.03 (hL)th (m)
0.02
0.01
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Qx 10-3

Graph 6.4

According to Graph 6.5, HLexp and HLtheo, both increases linearly with the
flow rate ‘Q’. HLth straight line is steeper compared to HLexp. The experimental results
are not the same as the theory because some errors might occurred during
conducting the experiment. Both straight line seem to intercept at the x-axis.

21 Experiment 1 Friction Losses in Pipe

 Graph of hL vs Q for elbow long radius 90°
0.16
0.14
y = 0.281x - 0.0456
0.12
0.1
0.08
hLexp (m)
hL

0.06
(hL)th (m)
0.04
y = 0.0599x - 0.0087
0.02
0
-0.02 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Q x 10-3

Graph 6.5

According to Graph 6.6, HLexp and HLtheo, both increases with the flow rate
‘Q’. HLth straight line is steeper compared to HLexp. The experimental results are not
the same as the theory because some errors might occur during conducting the
experiment. Both straight line seem to intercept at the x-axis.

Graph of hL vs Q for Tee piece

0.4

0.35

0.3 y = 0.7622x - 0.1071

0.25

0.2
hLexp (m)
hL

0.15
(hL)th (m)
0.1

0.05
y = 0.0752x - 0.0088
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
-0.05
Qx 10-3

Graph 6.6

According to Graph 6.7, HLexp and HLtheo, both increases with the flow rate ‘Q’.
HLth straight line is steeper compared to HLexp. The experimental results are not the
same as the theory because some errors might occur during conducting the
experiment. Both straight line seem to intercept at the x-axis.

22 Experiment 1 Friction Losses in Pipe

 Graph of hL vs Q for sudden enlargement
0.16
0.14 y = 0.4162x - 0.0974

0.12
0.1
0.08
hL

y = 0.1876x - 0.0444 hLexp (m)

0.06
(hL)th (m)
0.04
0.02
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Qx 10-3

Graph 6.7

According to Graph 6.8, HLexp and HLtheo, both increases with the flow rate
‘Q’. Straight lineHLexp is more steeper compared to HLth. Values of HLexp is higher
compared to HLth.The experimental results are not the same as the theory because
some errors might occured during conducting the experiment.

Graph of hL vs Q for sudden contraction

0.5
0.45
y = 1.2198x - 0.2865
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
hL

hLexp (m)
0.2
0.15 (hL)th (m)
y = 0.2748x - 0.0562
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Qx 10-3

Graph 6.8

According to Graph 6.9, HLexp and HLtheo, both increases with the flow rate ‘Q’.
Straight line HLth is steeper compared to HLexp. Values of HLth are higher compared to
HLexp.The experimental results are not the same as the theory because some errors
might occured during conducting the experiment.

23 Experiment 1 Friction Losses in Pipe

 Graph of (hL)exp vs v2/2g
0.16

y = 0.8307x + 0.0004
0.14

0.12

0.1
y = 0.5516x + 0.0079
T piece
v2/2g

Bend 90°
0.08
Elbow 90°
Elbow 45°

0.06 Sudden Enlargement

Sudden Contraction
y = 0.2158x + 0.0019
0.04
y = 0.1937x + 0.0019 y = 0.1932x + 0.0013

y = 0.1493x + 0.001
0.02

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
(hL)exp

Graph 6.9

According to Graph 6.10, HLexp of all experiments increases with V2/2g.

Values of HLth is higher in sudden enlargement and contraction compared to
others.

24 Experiment 1 Friction Losses in Pipe

 Graph of log hf vs log v
0
-0.8 -0.7 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1
-0.5

-1

y = 1.4301x - 1.4134
-1.5
log hf

Ø20mm pipe
-2 Ø32mm pipe

-2.5
y = 1.0472x - 2.4897
-3

-3.5
log v

Graph 6.11

a.
ɸ20 mm Pipe
n = 1.4301
Log K = -1.4134
K = 0.03860
ɸ32 mm Pipe
n = 1.0472
Log K = -2.4897
K = 0.0032

Theoretically, the head loss to friction is proportional to the velocity of the flow. This
is proven in this experiment due to the positive gradient of the graph. The gradient(n)
of the graph in the range around 1 to 1.43 which is lower than the normal ranges of
1.7 to 2.0 shows that some errors might occur during the experiment.

25 Experiment 1 Friction Losses in Pipe

 L V2
b. hf  f , h f  K.V n
D 2g

L V2
K.V n  f
D 2g

Based on the equation compared above, we can deduce that the fluid velocity is directly
proportional to value of loss coefficient(K) . Hence increased fluid velocity causes the value
of loss coefficient(K) to increase resulting in increase in friction loss in pipe. Increased pipe
roughness also causes the value of loss coefficient(K) to increase due to increased friction
between the internal of the pipe and the flowing fluid. Therefore, increased pipe roughness
causes increase in friction loss in pipe. Next, pipe diameter is inversely proportional to the
value of loss coefficient(K). Hence, increased pipe diameter causes the value of loss
coefficient(K) to be reduced resulting in lower friction loss in pipes.

iii. The graphs for both (hL)th vs Q and (hL)exp vs Q are linear graphs. When the flow
rate (GPM) increases, the velocity of the liquid increases at the same rate. The friction
or resistance to flow (due to viscosity) also increases. The head loss is related to the
square of the velocity so the increase in loss is very quick.

iv. For sudden enlargement, from the graph HL vs (V1-V2)2/2g, a straight line with a
positive slope is obtained. This also fulfill the theory that shows

hL  (V1-V2)2/2g

- The water flow directly from a pipe which has a small cross sectional area
pipe to a big cross sectional area pipe. The changes of the area of the pipe
cause the pressure in pipe increase and increase the water flow rate.
- The estimated value of loss coefficient (K) is 1.001.

26 Experiment 1 Friction Losses in Pipe

 For sudden contraction, from the graph HL vs (V2)2/2g, a straight line with a
positive slope is obtained, this fulfill the theory
hL  (V2)2/2g

- The water flow directly from a pipe which has a big cross sectional area pipe
to a small cross sectional area pipe. The changes of the area of the pipe cause
the pressure in pipe to decrease and decrease the water flow rate.
- The estimated value of K is 1.0184.

For 90⁰ bent, from the graph HL vs (V)2/2g, a straight line with a positive
slope is obtained, this fulfill the theory

HL  (V)2/2g

- The 90⁰ bent has a large change of turn. The 90⁰ bent causes the water take a
longer time to cross it. And cause the flow rate of water decrease.
- The estimated value of K is 1.002.

For 90⁰ elbow, from the graph HL vs (V)2/2g, a straight line with a positive slope
is obtained, this fulfill the theory

HL  (V)2/2g

-The estimated value of K is 1.004.

27 Experiment 1 Friction Losses in Pipe

 This experiment was prone to many sources of error, especially from its
measuring instrument. The flowmeter used was a variable-area type with accuracy of
typically ±5 %. Although manometer was suitable for measuring pressure drop across
a horizontal flow section due to any resistance to flow, its accuracy was decreased by
the presence of air bubbles inside rubber tubing, small pressure drop and fluctuation
of water level inside manometer due to not so constant flowrate.

As mentioned by Cengel (2010), equivalent roughness values for pipes were

for new pipes only. Actual operating conditions must be considered in the calculation
of f. Also, the Moody chart and its equivalent family of equations involved several
uncertainties (roughness size, error, curve fitting, etc.), and thus the theoretical results
obtained should not be treated as “exact”. They were usually considered to be
accurate to ±15 % over the entire range in the figure.

A recommendation to improve understanding on the concept of head loss

would be to use transparent pipes and fittings so that flows can be observed if dye was
added. Laminar and turbulent flows could be observed and contrasted. Flow
separation and vena contract should be observed as well. Any fouling can also be
noticed and removed prior to experiment in order to obtain a more accurate result.

Valve has to be made sure is tide so that no leakage happen during the flow and
also to make sure that the flow rate through the pipe is the same as the flow rate from
the water meter. Flow rate must be always constant during experiment. Smaller scale
on water meter should be used. Make sure that there is no air bubble in the tube.
Reading should be taken twice or more to make sure there is no errors. Reading must
be taken at the correct eyes level. All water flow must be turn off before pipe
changing. This is to make sure that water level does not exceed maximum level in the
tube.

28 Experiment 1 Friction Losses in Pipe

7.0 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, there are some differences in the experimental value and the
theoretical value. So, we can conclude that there are several factors that might
influence them. First, rough surface pipe has more friction which consumes more
energy to overcome the friction than smooth surface pipe which consume less energy.
Besides, losses in pipe are also depends on the diameter of the pipe. The smaller the
diameter, the more friction it will contain and more energy will loss. Losses in pipe
are also dependent on the flow rate. If the flow rate is high, the friction loss in pipe is
greater. Furthermore, losses in sudden enlargement in pipe are greater than sudden
contraction in pipe and 90° bend pipe. Losses in 90° bend pipe are greater than losses
in sudden contraction in pipe. Finally, the experimental value and the theoretical value
might also slightly different because of the errors that exist such as the presence of air
bubbles in the tube, unstable flow rate, and parallax error. Therefore in order to get
higher accuracy of reading, initial setting up of the water fluid before the experiment
must be done carefully to prevent the existence of air bubbles inside the piping system.
The calibration of manometer is done precisely in order to get the most accurate result.
Lastly, the flow rate of the water must not be too small as such that the water must
flow occupy all the spaces in the pipe.

29 Experiment 1 Friction Losses in Pipe

8.0 REFERENCES

- Bansal R. K. (2008). A Textbook of Fluid Mechanic. (pp. 293-307). New Delhi,

ND: Laxmi Publication.

- Cengel, Y. A. (2010). Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Application.

(pp.364-

370). New York, NY: McGrew-Hill Publication.

- Monsun B. R.(1994).Fundamendals of Fluid Mechanics. USA: John Wiley &

Sons, Inc.

- Michell S. J. (1970).Fluid and Particle Mechanics. Hungary: Pergamon Press

30 Experiment 1 Friction Losses in Pipe