RUNWAYS-INTRODUCTION

• According to the ICAO, a runway is a "defined

as a rectangular area on the aerodrome
prepared for the landing and takeoff of aircraft
 RUNWAYS-INTRODUCTION
• In the early days of aviation, there were no runways, it
was just a field and there was a wind sock to show
wind direction. Earlier airports were located by means
of air marks provided at hilltops
and buildings.
• As air traffic increased, fields
turned into airports with a number of
permanent paved runways.
• To differentiate , runways are numbered
from 1 to 36 and in some cases adjoining to the number,
lettersL,R,C are added(LEFT, CENTRE AND RIGHT)
• Runways have two ends and each end is
considered as different runway, even though it is
the same actual runway surface.
• Runways are numbered according the magnetic
compass direction they are oriented to.
• They consist of two numbers, one at each end of
the runway, each being the reciprocal of the
other on the magnetic compass (180° opposite
from each other).
 RUN WAY ORIENTATION
• Factors considered in the orientation of
runway:
1. Preliminary information
2. Head wind
3. Cross wind component
4. Wind coverage
5. Wind rose
1. Preliminary information
• Need map of the area in the vicinity of the
airport showing contours at regular intervals
• Past record of direction, duration and force of
wind and fog characteristics of the area
2.Head wind
Runway should be oriented along the direction of
head way due to the following advantages:
1. During landing, it provides a breaking effect
and aircraft comes to stop within a short length
of the runway
2. During take off, it provides greater lift on the
wings of the aircraft
Thus landing and take off takes place within a short
distance of the runway (reduction in runway
length by 10%) than if its in the direction of wind
3. Cross wind component
Cross wind component if in excess interrupt the
safe landing and take off operations.
The orientation of runway should be such that
cross wind component is min
For light and med aircraft, cross wind
component should not exceed 25kmph
4.Wind coverage
• Wind coverage is defined as the percentage of
time in a year during which crosswinds are within
the limit of 25kmph
• According to the FAA standards (FAA AC
150/5300-13), the minimum wind coverage
considering all the observations is 95 percent.
This means that for the 95% of the time, the
crosswind component must be smaller than the
maximum crosswind component of the aircrafts
landing in a specific airport.
 Wind components in terms of
direction
Head wind: wind blowing
opposite to aircraft motion

Cross wind: wind blowing

right angle to flight path
causing the aircraft to drift to
the right or left of the
intended path

Tail wind: wind blowing

along aircraft motion
 Wind Analysis
Start with defining the diff components of wind with a figure
• Wind analysis is of fundamental importance for
determining runway orientation.
• Ideally a runway should be aligned with the prevailing wind
in order to minimise the crosswind components.
• ( just imagine the crosswinds that occurs when travelling on
roads, especially on large bridges and highways, which can be
dangerous for motorists causing the vehicle to change
direction of travel)
• In aviation, a crosswind is the component of wind that is
blowing across the runway making the landing and take off
more difficult than if the wind were blowing straight down
the runway
• Each aircraft has a uniquely stated maximum
crosswind component derived from flight test
experiments. For example a Boeing 727-200 has a
maximum crosswind component of 35 knots
(17.8 m/s), while a Cessna 172 has a maximum
crosswind component of 17 knots (8.7 m/s).
• If a crosswind is strong enough it may exceed an
aircraft's crosswind limit and any attempt to land
under such conditions could cause structural
damage to the aircraft
• When an aircraft is cruising in the sky, a tailwind is
preferred as the aircraft moves faster because of smaller
air resistance and thereby saving of fuel
• Head wind is preferred in landing or taking off. Here a
headwind is preferred because it produces more lift and
the aircraft can be better controlled whereas a tailwind
works the other way round; an aircraft is harder to control
and an accident may occur during landing or taking off.
• During landing, head wind provides a breaking effect and
the aircraft comes to a stop in a short length of the runway
 5. Wind rose
• Past 5 to 10 years of wind data is collected and
represented graphically in the form of a chart
known as wind rose.
– Study of wind rose helps to determine the most
suitable orientation of runway
– Useful device for estimating runway capacity
 Wind rose Diagrams
• Two Types:
Type 1. Showing the direction & duration of
wind
Type II: Showing the direction, duration and
intensity of wind
 Change in Direction of Runway
Direction of runway fixed from the wind rose diagram may
get altered due to the following factors
• Excessive grading: if the selected direction of runway
requires excessive grading and earth work,then the
orientation will be modified even though its satisfactory
with respect to safe approaches(no obstructions) and wind
coverage
• Noise nuisance:Runway orientation chosed should not
create excessive noise nuisance to surrounding residential
areas and public places
• Obstructions: Runway direction should have no
obstructions in the approach zone and that is preferred
than the greater wind coverage
 Basic Runway Length
• No wind is blowing on the runway
• The aircraft is loaded to its full loading capacity
• The airport is situated at sea level
• There is no wind blowing on the way to the destination
• The runway is levelled in the longitudinal direction or
in other words, it has zero effective gradient
• The standard temperature is maintained along the way
at a temperature of 15degree celsius exists at the
airport
 Three cases
Case 1:Normal landing
Aircraft come to a stop within 60 percent of the landing distance assuming that the
pilot makes an approach at the proper speed and crosses the threshold of runway
at a height of 15m
Case 2:Normal take off
The take off distance (TOD) IS 115% of the actual distance required to reach a
height of 10.5m.
The distance to reach the height of 10.5m should be equal to 115% of the lift off
distance, lift off distance disatance from the threshold to start of lift off
The normal take off requires a clear way which is defined as an area beyond the
runway which is 150 m wide, centrally located about the extended centre line of
runway
Clearway should not be more than one-half the difference between 115 percent of the
LOD and TOD and THE CLEARWAY SHOULD BE FREE FROM OBSTRUCTION
• Case 3:Stopping in emergency:
• In case of an emergency, sufficient distance should be available to stop the
airplane rather than continue the take off. The distance is known as accerlerate –
stop distance
 Three corrections
• Correction for elevation
Basic runway length should be increased at the
rate of 7% per 300 m rise in elevation of airport
above mean sea level. Correction is required
because the air density reduces as the elevation
increases which in turn reduces the lift on the
wings. Aircraft requires more ground speed to
rise to air and for achieving more speed longer
length of runway is required.
• Correction for temperature
The rise in airport reference temperature has the same effect as the
elevation.
After basic length is increased for elevation, its further increased at the
rate of 1% for every one degree rise in temperature above the standard
temperature at that elevation.
Airport reference temperature is computed to be = T1+((T2-T1)/3)
T1 = monthly mean of the average daily temperature for the hottest
month of the year
T2 = monthly mean of the maximum daily temperature for the same
month
The standard mean sea level temperature = 15 degree celsius
The standard temperature at the airport is determined by reducing 15
degree celsius at the rate of 6.5 degree celsius per 1000m rise in elevation
• Correction for gradient
As the gradient becomes steep, more consumption of energy
take place and longer length of runway will be required to
attain desired ground speed.
The maximum difference in elevation between highest and
lowest points of runway divided by the total length of run way
is known a s effective gradient.
Runway length after corrected for elevation and temperature
should be increased at the rate 20% for every 1% of effective
gradient
• Qn.5 The longitudinal section of the runway
provides the following data:

End to end of runway (m) Gradient (%)

0 to 200 +1
200 to 600 -1
600 to 1200 +0.8
1200 to 1600 +0.2
• Effective gradient = (maximum difference in elevation
between highest and lowest point )/ total length of
runway, total length of run way given = 1600m
Maximum difference in elevation = 103.6-98= 5.6m
Therefore effective gradient = 5.6*100/1600 = 0.35%

End to end of Gradient (%) Chainage

runway (m)

0 100
0 to 200 +1 200 100+0.01*200=102
200 to 600 -1 600 102-0.01*400=98.0

600 to 1200 +0.8 1200 98.0+0.008*600=102.8

1200 to 1600 +0.2 1600 102.8+0.2*400= 103.6

 Geometric Design of Runways
1. Length
2. Longitudinal and effective gradient
3. Rate of change of Longitudinal gradient
4. Safety area
5. Sight distance
6. Transverse gradient
7. Width
 Length
• basic runway length depend upon the
category of airport as per ICAO classification
• The actual runway is obtained by making
adjustments for elevation, temperature and
gradient
2. Longitudinal gradient and effective gradient

Type of Airport Maximum longitudinal Maximum effective

gradient gradient

A,B and C 1.5 1.00

D and E 2.00 2.00

3. Rate of change of longitudinal gradient
Abrupt change in the longitudinal gradient is
undesirable because it may restrict height
distance and may cause premature lift -off of
the aircraft during the take-off operation
If the change in slope is more than 0.4%, then
vertical curves are provided
 4.Safety area
• Safety area includes structural pavement,
shoulders on either side of runway and the
additional length.
• Safety area should be cleared,drained and
graded.
• Shoulders are unpaved, can be turfed or prepared
of stabilised soil, and they are used only in case of
emergency
• The length of safety area should extend 60m
beyond the runway on its either end.
• The total length of safety area = length of runway
+120m.
 5.Sight distance
• If adequate sight distances are not provided,
collision of aircrafts occur at points where
runways intersect each other or runway and
taxiway intersect each other.
Transverse gradient
 Transverse gradient
• Provided for quick disposal of surface water
• The transverse gradient should not be less
than 0.5 % for satisfactory drainage
• Shoulders are provided with steeper gradient
as the material of shoulder is more absorbant
than that of runway.
 7.Width of the runway
• It varies from 45m to 18m depending upon the type of
airport. Loading distribution on the pavement:
• Central portion of 12m on either side carry maximum
loading and then decreases towards the edges, So total
24m of central portion carries more concentrated air
traffic load
• Outer most edge of aircraft should not extend beyond
the pavement; shoulders should be either stabilised or
turfed. If this precaution is not taken, loose material
from the shoulder is likely to enter into machine and
damage it
 Runway pattern
Four basic patterns
1. Single runway
2. Intersecting runways
3. Parallel runways
4. Divergent or open-V runways
• Single runway
The simplest
Adopted when prevailing wind blows in one direction for
most time of the year and air-traffic is not much
They are optimally placed based on the factors like noise,
prevailing wind,land uses that affect runway
orientation
Under the visual flight rules, a single runway can handle
45 to 60 operations per hour
Under instrument flight rules, 20 to 40 operations per
hour
 Parallel runway

• Its capacity depends on the number of

runways and the spacing between them
• The spacing between them can be
– Close (210m to 750m)
– Intermediate(750m to 1300m)
– Far (greater than 1300m)
 Parallel runway

• According to IFR,
– close spacing….operation of one depends on the
operation of other
– Intermediate…..arrival of one is independent of
departure of another.so can be operated as one
for departure and other for arrival
– Each act as separate ones
 Intersecting Runways
• They are provided when prevailing wind exist
more than one direction
• It is also provided when wind in one particular
direction do not provide the required wind
coverage of 95%
• With relatively light winds, both runways can be
used simultaneously and improving the capacity
• But if wind is predominantly one direction,
operations are limited to one runway
 Divergent Runways
• Two runways that diverge from different directions but do
NOT intersect form a shape that looks like an "open-V" are
called open-V runways.
• This configuration is useful when there is little to no wind
as it allows for both runways to be used at the same time.
When the winds become strong in one direction, then only
one runway will be used.
• When takeoffs and landings are made away from the two
closer ends, the number of operations per hour
significantly increases.
• When takeoffs and landings are made toward the two
closer ends, the number of operations per hour can be
reduced by 50%.
 Runway pattern-comparison
• Single runway pattern is most desirable, their routing is
less complex and it gives the highest capacity all other
things being equal
• If intersecting runways are unavoidable, following
conditions are maintained
– Operate the aircraft away from intersection
– Place the intersections of both runways as close as
possible to their thresholds
• Divergent or V-patterns are more desirable than the
intersecting runways. The routing of aircraft away
from v yield more capacity than if operations are
reversed