Multiplexing and T Carriers

--Multiplexing is the transmission of information from more than one source to more than one destination
over the same transmission medium (facility)
--Although transmissions occur on the same facility, they do not necessarily occur at the same time
--The transmission medium may be a metallic wire pair, a coaxial cable, or a satellite microwave system
--There are many domains in which multiplexing can be accomplished including space, time, frequency
and wavelength
--The most predominant methods are time-division multiplexing (TDM), frequency-division multiplexing
(FDM), wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM),

TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

--TDM ALLOWS TRANSMISSION FROM MULTIPLE SOURCES ON THE SAME FACILITY BUT
NOT AT THE SAME TIME
--TRANSMISSIONS FROM VARIOUS SOURCES ARE INTERLEAVED IN THE TIME DOMAIN
--PCM IS THE MOST COMMON TYPE OF MODULATION USED WITH TDM (PCM-TDM
SYSTEM)
--IN TDM, EACH SIGNAL OCCUPIES A SUBSET OF THE TRANSMISSION FACILITY
BANDWITH FOR A SLICE OF TIME (TIME SLOT)
DIGITAL SIGNAL – LEVEL 0 (DS-0)

SINGLE CHANNEL DS-0 PCM TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

--THE FUNDAMENTAL BUILDING BLOCK FOR ANY TDM SYSTEM IS DS -0.
--THE DS-0 CHANNEL OCCUPIES
--A 64 Kbps BANDWITH
8000 samples 8 bits
x  64 Kbps
sec ond sample
1 CHANNEL SYSTEM à OCCUPIES 64 Kbps BANDWITH
2-CHANNEL SYSTEM à OCCUPIES 128 Kbps BANDWITH
--- ---
--- ---
n-CHANNEL SYSTEM à OCCUPIES n*64 Kbps BANDWITH
--In this modulation technique, an analog signal is digitized, and interleaved with other digitized voice
signal to create a single bit stream
--At the receiving end, the bit stream is decomposed into separate digital streams of lower frequencies,
each stream is then converted back into what resembles the original voice signal.
 2 CHANNEL PCM-TDM SYSTEM (a)block diagram (b)TDM frame
--2-CHANNEL SYSTEM à OCCUPIES 128 Kbps BANDWITH
--The sampling rate used for voice = 8000 samples/sec
--Therefore, Sampling Interval = 1/8000 = 125µs
--This means that the time between two consecutive samples (from the same source) is 125µs. TDM
systems exploit this fact and utilize this interval to sample signals from other subscribers. In T1 systems
the signals from 24 subscribers is sampled in 125µs.
--The samples are quantized and then converted into a bit-stream for transmission over the channel.
--The PCM code for each channel occupies a fixed time slot (epoch) within the total TDM frame
T1 Digital Carrier System
--The T1 carrier system multiplexes binary code-words corresponding to samples of each of the 24
channels in a sequence. A segment containing one codeword (corresponding to one sample) from each of
the 24 channels is called a FRAME.
Each frame has 24x8 = 192 data bits and takes 125µs.
--As mentioned previously, sampling rate used for voice = 8000 samples/sec
--Every sample is represented by 8 bits
Therefore,
Data rate of 1 voice channel = 8x8000 = 64kbps
--In the T1 system 24 voice channels are multiplexed in time
Data rate of a T1 stream should be = 24x64kbps = 1.536 Mbps
--At the receiver it is also necessary to know where a frame starts in order to separate information bits
correctly. For this purpose, a Framing bit is added at the beginning of each frame.
Framing Bits: Indicate start of frames.
Total number of bits/ frame = 193
the actual data rate = 1.544Mbps
D-type channel banks
--Early TDM systems used D1 digital channel banks (PCM encoders) with a seven bit sign magnitude
only PCM code, analog companding, and a µ=100
--The framing bit sequence was simply a 1/0 pattern with the early digital channel banks
 --Later version digital channel banks (D2 and D3) added an eight bit called the signaling bit to each PCM
code for the purpose of interoffice signaling (On-Hook/ off-Hook signals, Alarm signals)
--Modern versions use digitally companded, eight-bit sign magnitude compressed PCM codes, with a
µ=100
Superframe TDM format
Each frame has 24x8 = 192 data bits and takes 125µs.

Total number of bits/ frame = 193

the actual data rate = 1.544Mbps
Frame- Frame- Frame- Frame- Frame- Frame- Frame- Frame- Frame- Frame- Frame- Frame-
1(125µs) 2(125µs) 3(125µs) 4(125µs) 5(125µs) 6(125µs) 7(125µs) 8(125µs) 9(125µs) 10(125µs) 11(125µs) 12(125µs)
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0
Framing bit sequence for the T1 superframe format using D2 and D3 channel banks
Composite frame alignment

DS-1

T1 Line Signaling

EXTENDED SUPERFRAME (ESF)

--ANOTHER FRAMING FORMAT RECENTLY DEVELOPED FOR NEW DESIGNS OF T1
CARRIER SYSTEMS IS THE EXTENDED SUPERFRAME FORMAT
--CONSISTS OF 24 FRAMES
--EACH FRAME CONSISTS OF 24 DS-0 64 Kbps CHANNELS
--EACH FRAME HAS A FRAMING BIT (F-BIT)
--EACH FRAME CONSISTS OF 193 BITS
--THE ESF CONSISTS OF 193 x 24 = 4632 BITS OF WHICH 24 ARE FRAMING BITS
4632bits/1.544Mbps = 3ms
--ONLY 6 OUT OF THE 24 F-BITS ARE USED FOR SYNCHRONIZATION (FRAMES: 4, 8, 12, 16,
20 and 24)

Extended Superframe

1 1 0 1 0 0
f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f f
f f f f f f
24 20 16 12 8 4

Figure 2.40: Frame Pattern Sequence in the T1

extended superframe format.
 FRAMING BIT SEQUENCE = 0 0 1 0 1 1

-- ANOTHER 6 OF THE FRAMING BITS ARE USED FOR CYCLIC CHECK REDUNDANCY (CRC-
6).
--THE CRC-6 BITS OCCUR IN FRAMES: 1, 5, 9, 13, 17, 21
--CRC-6 IS USED FOR ERROR DETECTION
--THE 12 REMAINING F-BITS OCCUR IN FRAMES:
2, 3, 6, 7, 10, 11, 14, 15, 18, 19, 22, 23
--THESE 12 F-BITS PROVIDE FOR A MANAGEMENT CHANNEL CALLED THE FACILITIES
DATA LINK (FDL)
--IN ESF: 6TH FRAME LSB à A-BIT
12TH FRAME LSB à B-BIT
18TH FRAME LSB à C-BIT
24TH FRAME LSB à D-BIT
--THESE SIGNALING BIT STREAMS ARE SOMETIMES CALLED THE A,B,C AND D SIGNALING
CHANNELS OR SIGNALING HIGHWAYS

FRAME Number F-BIT FRAME Number F-BIT

1 CRC-6 13 CRC-6
2 FDL 14 FDL
3 FDL 15 FDL
4 S=0 16 S=0
5 CRC-6 17 CRC-6
6 FDL 18 FDL
7 FDL 19 FDL
8 S=0 20 S=1
9 CRC-6 21 CRC-6
10 FDL 22 FDL
11 FDL 23 FDL
12 S=1 24 S=1
EXTENDED SUPERFRAME FORMAT

Fractional T Carrier Service

128 kbps

256 kbps

1.544Mbps
384 kbps (Users 1,2,3,and 4)

8 kbps framing
768 kbps bits

--T1 carriers provide a higher bit rate than most users require.
--Fractional T1 systems distribute the channel in a standard T1 system among more than one user, allowing
several subscribers to share one T1 line.
--Bit rates offered are 64 kbps (1 channel), 128 kbps (2 channels), 256 kbps (4 channels), 384 kbps (6
channels), 512 kbps (8 channels) 768 kbps (12 channels) being the most common.
--The minimum data rate necessary to propagate video information is 384 kbps.
--The data service unit/channel service unit (DSU/CSU) is a digital interface that provides the physical
connection to a digital carrier network.
--User 1 is allocated 128 kbps, 256 kbps for user 2, 384 kbps for user 3, and 768 kbps for user 4 for a total
of 1.536 kbps (8 kbps is reserved for the framing bit).

North American Digital Multiplexing Hierarchy

--The American Telephone and Telegraph Company’s (AT&T’s) North American Digital Hierarchy for
multiplexing digital signals into a single higher-speed pulse stream suitable for transmission on the next
higher level of the hierarchy
--To upgrade from one level in the hierarchy to the next higher level, a special device called muldem
(multiplexer/demultiplexer) is required.
--Muldems can handle bit-rate conversions in both directions. The muldem designations (M12, M23, and
so on) identify the input and output digital signals associated with that muldem.
--The DS-1 may be further multiplexed or line encoded and placed on specially conditioned cables called
T1 lines.
-- The DS-2, DS-3, DS-4 and DS-5 digital signals are placed on T2, T3, T4M, or T5 lines, respectively.
--Digital signals are routed at central locations called digital cross-connects.
--A digital cross-connect (DSX) provides a convenient place to make patchable interconnects and to
perform routine maintenance and troubleshooting.
--Each type of digital signals (DS-1, DS-2, and so on) has its own digital switch (DSX-1, DSX-2, and so
on).
--The output from a digital switch may be upgraded to the next higher level of multiplexing or line
encoded and placed on its respective T lines (T1, T2, and so on).

Digital Line Encoding

1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0

Unipolar
NRZ

Polar NRZ

NRZ-inverted
(differential
encoding)

Bipolar
encoding

Manchester
encoding

Differential
Manchester
encoding
1) Transmission voltages and dc component
2) Duty cycle
3) Bandwidth considerations
4) Clock and framing bit recovery
5) Error detection
6) Ease of detection and decoding
7) Digital biphase
T Carrier Systems
-- T carriers are used for the transmission of PCM-encoded time division multiplexed digital signals
T1 Carrier System
--Transmission of 24, 64-kbps channels, T1 line speed 1.544 Mbps
--Lengths from about 1 mile to over 50 miles
--Binary eight zero substitution, B8ZS--- (+-0-+000) or (-+0+-000)
T2 Carrier System
--Transmission of 94, 64-kbps channels, T2 line speed 6.312 Mbps
--Lengths upto 500 miles
--Binary six zero substitution, B6ZS--- (0-+0+-) or (0+-0-+)
T3 Carrier System
--Transmission of 672, 64-kbps channels, T3 line speed 44.736 Mbps
--Binary three zero substitution, B3ZS
T4M Carrier System
--Transmission of 4032, 64-kbps channels, T4 line speed 274.176 Mbps
--Lengths upto 500 miles
T5 Carrier System
--Transmission of 8064, 64-kbps channels, T5 line speed 560.160 Mbps

European Time-Division Multiplexing

--In Europe, a different version of T carrier lines is used called E lines
--A high speed digital communications link that enables the transmission of voice, data, and video signals
at a rate of 2.048 Mbps
--Initially designed for transmission of 30 telephone channels
--Basis for design: PCM voice digitizing using 64 kbps for each channel
-- The E1 frame consists of 32 8-bit channels (timeslots)

32 time slots X 8 bits = 256 bits/frame

frame time slots
-- E1 frames are transmitted at the rate of 8,000 frames/s

256 bits X 8,000 frames = 2,048 kbps or 2.048 Mbps

frame second

Statistical Time Division Multiplexing (STDM)

--STDM is designed to make use of the idle time created when terminals are not using the multiplexed
circuit.
--Like regular TDM, STDM uses time slots, but the time slots are not fixed. Instead, they are used as
needed by the different terminals on the multiplexed circuit.
--Since the source of a data sample is not identified by the time slot it occupies, additional addressing
information must be added to each sample.
--If all terminals try to use the multiplexed circuit intensively, response time delays can occur. The
multiplexer also needs to contain memory to store data in case more data samples come in than its
outgoing circuit capacity can handle.
Beginning Address Control Statistical FCS Ending
flag field field TDM field Flag
Address Control
Subframe
field field
Statistical TDM frame one source per frame

Address Length Data field ……… Address Length Data field

field field field field
Multiple sources per frame
Frame synchronization
-- To acquire frame synchronization, a certain amount of overhead must be added to the transmission
1) Added-Digit Framing:
-- Initial frame synchronization depends on the total frame time, the number of bits per frame, and the
period of each bit
synchronization time = 2NT = 2 N2 tb
N = number of bits per frame
T = frame period of N * tb
tb = bit time
-- For T1 carrier, N= 193, T=125µs, and tb=0.468µs; for 74,498 bits, maximum average synchronization
time is 48.25ms
2) Robbed-Digit Framing
-- When a short frame is used, added-digit framing is inefficient.
-- This occurs with single-channel PCM systems
-- Replace the least significant bit of every nth with a framing bit called robbed-digit framing
-- For n=10, the SQR is impaired by only 1 dB
3) Added-Channel Framing
-- Same as added-digit framing except that digits are added in groups or words instead of as individual
bits
-- The average number of bits to acquire frame synchronization using added-channel framing is
Number of synchronization bits= N2 N= number of bits per frame
k
2(2 -1) K= number of bits in the synchronizing word
4) Statistical Framing
--The second bit is a logic 1 in the central half of the code range and a logic 0 at the extremes
-- Second digit of a given channel can be used for the framing bit
5) Unique-Line Code Framing
-- Some property of the framing bit is different from the data bits
-- The framing bit is either made higher or lower in amplitude or with different time duration
-- Either added-digit or added-word framing can be used, or specified data bits can be used to simultaneously
convey information and carry synchronizing signals

Frequency Division Multiplexing

--With FDM, multiple sources that originally occupied the same frequency spectrum are each converted to
a different frequency band and transmitted simultaneously over a single transmission medium
--Each narrowband channel is converted to a different location in the total frequency spectrum
--Channel 1 signals amplitude modulate a 100-kHz carrier in a balanced modulator, which inherently
suppresses the 100-kHz carrier
--The output of the balanced modulator is a double-sideband suppressed carrier waveform with a
bandwidth of 10 kHz
--The double-sideband waveform passes through a bandpass filter (BPF) where it is converted to a single-
sideband signal
--The lower sideband is blocked for this example, the output of BPF occupies the frequency band between
100kHz and 105 kHz.
--The total combined bandwidth is equal to 20 kHz and each channel occupies a different 6-kHz portion of
the total 20-kHz bandwidth.
--The applications for FDM are commercial FM, television broadcasting, high-volume telephone and data
communications systems, cable television and data distribution networks.
AT & T’s FDM Hierarchy

Voice-
band data
modem
Channel1

Message Channel—the message channel is the basic building block of the FDM hierarchy
The message signal was originally intended for analog transmission of voice signals, although it now
includes any transmissions that utilize voce-band frequencies (0 kHz to4 kHz) such as data transmission
using voice-band data modems
Basic group— A group is the next higher level in the FDM hierarchy above the basic message channel
and consequently is the first multiplexing step for combining message channels
--Twelve 4 kHz voice-band channels occupy a combined bandwidth of 48 kHz (4 * 12)
Basic supergroup— The next higher level in the FDM hierarchy is the supergroup, formed by frequency-
division multiplexing five groups containing 12 channels each, for a combined bandwidth of 240-kHz (5
groups * 48 kHz/group)
Basic mastergroup-- The next higher level of multiplexing, is the mastergroup, which is formed by
frequency-division multiplexing 10 supergroups together for a combined capacity of 600 voice-band
message channels occupying a bandwidth of 2.4 MHz (600 channels * 4 kHz/channel)
--Three mastergroups are frequency-division multiplexed together and placed on a single microwave or
satellite radio channel. The capacity is 1800 VB channels utilizing a combined bandwidth of 7.2 MHz (3
mastergroups * 600 channels/mastergroup)
--Mastergroups can be further multiplexed in mastergroup banks to form jumbogroups (3600 VB
channels), multijumbogroups (7200 VB channels) and superjumbo groups (10,800 VB channels).

Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
-- Different wavelengths carry separate signals
-- Multiplex into shared optical fiber
-- Each wavelength like a separate circuit
-- The wavelength spectrum used is in the region of 1300 nm or 1500 nm
-- WDM is a process in which different sources of information (channels) are propagated down an optical
fiber on different wavelengths where the different wavelengths do not interfere with each other

optical optical
couplers couplers

λ1 λ1

λ2 λ1 λ2 λ
,,, λm 1 2
,,,,,,
m ,,,
,,, optical ,,,
fiber
optical optical
λm mux λm
demux
m
Laser m
Laser
sources detectors

Synchronous Optical Network

• The Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) is a multiplexing system similar to
conventional TDM except SONET was developed to be used with optical fibers
• SONET has some standards