June 2013 Cover2_4/06 Cover 5/16/13 3:11 PM Page C1

June 2013
WELDING JOURNAL • VOLUME 92 NUMBER 6 • JUNE 2013

PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY TO ADVANCE THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND APPLICATION OF WELDING
AND ALLIED JOINING AND CUTTING PROCESSES WORLDWIDE, INCLUDING BRAZING, SOLDERING, AND THERMAL SPRAYING
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June 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 3:54 PM Page 3

CONTENTS June 2013 • Volume 92 • Number 6

AWS Web site www.aws.org

Features Departments
54 Cladding Faces the Challenges of Oil and Natural Gas Drilling Editorial ............................4
Advice is offered on setting up a cladding operation to
Washington Watchword ..........6
combat corrosion of oil and gas equipment
WM. J. Hoffart Press Time News ..................8

54 58 Technology Drives U.S. Heat Exchanger Resurgence

Tube-to-tubesheet fabrication is being lured back to the
News of the Industry ............10
Aluminum Q&A ..................20
Brazing Q&A ......................24
homeland with technology and efficient performance
M. Leska Product & Print Spotlight ......26
64 Improving Aluminum Resistance Spot Welding in Automotive AWS Financial Report ..........32
Structures Coming Events....................80
A new patented resistance welding electrode penetrates the Certification Schedule ..........84
oxides on aluminum to produce sound spot welds Conferences ......................86
D. R. Sigler et al.
Society News ....................89
74 Maximizing Pipeline Welding Efficiency Tech Topics ......................90
Technology to improve welding efficiency is described Guide to AWS Services ......111
J. Nelson
Personnel........................112
American Welder
The American Welder Learning Track ................124
Fact Sheet......................130
116 Ladder Safety: Staying Steady
Common sense advice helps prevent accidents Classifieds ......................135
D. Francis Advertiser Index ................136

58 120 The Secret to Fusion Welding Success

Thorough preparation can be the key to successful welding
W. C. LAPLANTE

Welding Research Supplement

167-s Full Reality vs. Integrated Virtual Reality Training in
Welding
Virtual reality is shown to be an effective method of teaching
when combined with traditional welder training
R. T. Stone et al.

74
175-s Sources of Variation in Ferrite Number Predictions vs.
Measurements
Chemical analysis variability is shown to be a critical factor in
ferrite prediction
D. J. Kotecki and Z. Zhang
182-s Shunting Effect in Resistance Spot Welding Steels —
Part 1: Experimental Study
The most influential variables on shunting in resistance welding are
pinpointed
B. Wang et al.
190-s Monitoring and Control of Penetration in GTAW and
Pipe Welding
A novel method is proposed that uses arc voltage to predict
penetration based on the dynamic development of the weld pool
X. R. Li et al.
On the cover: When using a mechanized pipe welding system such as the one
shown here, the welder monitors and adjusts the weld through the use of the
pendant by steering the welding arc left or right, while automatic height sensing
keeps the torch at the proper height. (Photo courtesy of Bug-O Systems, Canons-
burg, Pa.)
Welding Journal (ISSN 0043-2296) is published
monthly by the American Welding Society for
$120.00 per year in the United States and posses-
sions, $160 per year in foreign countries: $7.50
per single issue for domestic AWS members and
$10.00 per single issue for nonmembers and
$14.00 single issue for international. American
Welding Society is located at 8669 Doral Blvd., Ste.
130, Doral, FL 33166; telephone (305) 443-9353.
Periodicals postage paid in Miami, Fla., and addi-
tional mailing offices. POSTMASTER: Send address
changes to Welding Journal, 8669 Doral Blvd.,
Suite 130, Doral, FL 33166. Canada Post: Publi-
cations Mail Agreement #40612608 Canada Re-
turns to be sent to Bleuchip International, P.O. Box
25542,London, ON N6C 6B2
Readers of Welding Journal may make copies of
articles for personal, archival, educational or
research purposes, and which are not for sale or
resale. Permission is granted to quote from arti-
cles, provided customary acknowledgment of
authors and sources is made. Starred (*) items
excluded from copyright.

WELDING JOURNAL 3
Editorial June 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 3:13 PM Page 4

EDITORIAL
Founded in 1919 to Advance the Science,
Technology and Application of Welding

Financial Strength Lets AWS Officers

President Nancy C. Cole
‘Give Back’ NCC Engineering

Vice President Dean R. Wilson

As shown in the Financial Report beginning on page 32 of this issue of the Welding Journal, Well-Dean Enterprises
the American Welding Society is in excellent financial shape. Fiscal Year 2012 yielded
unprecedented financial performance, with both record revenues and a solid 9.5% increase in Vice President David J. Landon
budget surplus. AWS is now in the healthiest financial position in its 93-year history. Vermeer Mfg. Co.
The most important thing AWS can do with strong revenue surpluses is “give back”
Vice President David L. McQuaid
to the industry that has supported it over the years. The idea is to offer unprecedented
benefits both to the industry as a whole, and to individual AWS members. OK, so what D. L. McQuaid and Associates, Inc.
have we done lately? Here are a few examples, all undertaken during the past year: Treasurer Robert G. Pali
Scholarships. The Society has been able to transfer almost $3 million to the AWS J. P. Nissen Co.
Foundation to provide welding-related scholarships. This includes an exceptional new
matching fund for all new Named Scholarships, as well as all additions made to existing Executive Director Ray W. Shook
Named Scholarships. The matching program brought in approximately $870,000 in con- American Welding Society
tributions during 2012, and the AWS operating fund has matched this amount dollar for
dollar. In addition, the AWS Foundation provided $1.1 million for District Scholarships
and $500,000 for educator scholarships. There has never been a better time to apply for Directors
educational support for new or enhanced careers in welding. T. Anderson (At Large), ITW Global Welding Tech. Center
Workforce Development. As a result of widespread publicity, the welding community U. Aschemeier (Dist. 7), Miami Diver
and the general public are aware of the immediate shortage of trained welding personnel J. R. Bray (Dist. 18), Affiliated Machinery, Inc.
in North America — largely the result of skilled welding professionals retiring and too few
young people entering the field to replace them. AWS has been using part of the surplus R. E. Brenner (Dist. 10), CnD Industries, Inc.
to promote workforce development in many ways, and positive results can be seen G. Fairbanks (Dist. 9), Fairbanks Inspection & Testing Services
throughout the industry. Welder training programs are operating at near-full capacity, and T. A. Ferri (Dist. 1), Victor Technologies
job placement rates for graduates are extremely high. We have also been able to fund lead-
D. A. Flood (At Large), Tri Tool, Inc.
ership development and educator training through our annual Leadership Symposium and
Instructors’ Institute, which attract participants from all 22 AWS Districts. S. A. Harris (Dist. 4), Altec Industries
A key part of our workforce development program is the mobile Careers in Welding K. L. Johnson (Dist. 19), Vigor Shipyards
trailer jointly sponsored by AWS and The Lincoln Electric Co. The mobile exhibit visit- J. Jones (Dist. 17), The Harris Products Group
ed 23 events in 13 states and Canada during 2012, and hosted approximately 37,000 vis-
W. A. Komlos (Dist. 20), ArcTech, LLC
itors. In all, some 55,000 virtual welds were performed in the trailer.
AWS World Headquarters. In 2012, AWS completed and moved into its new World T. J. Lienert (At Large), Los Alamos National Laboratory
Headquarters building in Doral, Fla. Our strong financial performance enabled us to J. Livesay (Dist. 8), Tennessee Technology Center
purchase the building for cash and invest additional funds to improve the building. We M. J. Lucas Jr. (At Large), Belcan Engineering
had a successful open house and ribbon-cutting ceremony in late November attended by
more than 200 guests, including industry leaders, dignitaries, political figures, and mem- D. E. Lynnes (Dist. 15), Lynnes Welding Training
bers of counterpart organizations. What does the new Headquarters give us? It enhances C. Matricardi (Dist. 5), Welding Solutions, Inc.
our position as one of the world’s premier professional/technical societies in welding, J. L. Mendoza (Past President), Lone Star Welding
allowing space and exceptional facilities for future growth in both programs and person- S. P. Moran (At Large), Weir American Hydro
nel. It also provides state-of-the-art meeting rooms and classroom facilities, giving us the
ability to host many committee meetings and educational events. This provides signifi- K. A. Phy (Dist. 6), KA Phy Services, Inc.
cant savings and an improved environment for such meetings. W. A. Rice (Past President), OKI Bering
American Welding Online. Recognizing that online education is the wave of the R. L. Richwine (Dist. 14), Ivy Tech State College
future, AWS has invested strongly in the development of its own American Welding
D. J. Roland (Dist. 12), Marinette Marine Corp.
Online course program. This includes building a staff of curriculum developers and pro-
moting our online programs all over the world. Look for a growing catalog of course N. Saminich (Dist. 21), Desert Rose H.S. and Career Center
offerings in the months ahead, as well as online programs in several languages. This will K. E. Shatell (Dist. 22), Pacific Gas & Electric Co.
meet the needs of those wishing to improve their educational backgrounds in welding, T. A. Siewert (At Large), NIST (ret.)
and will contribute significantly to our workforce development
H. W. Thompson (Dist. 2), Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
efforts.
The Future. In 2013 and beyond, AWS plans to continue R. P. Wilcox (Dist. 11), ACH Co.
transferring funds to the AWS Foundation for scholarships. We J. A. Willard (Dist. 13), Kankakee Community College
have also planned significant expenditures on the latest infor- M. R. Wiswesser (Dist. 3), Welder Training & Testing Institute
mation technology/computer systems to keep the Society at the
forefront of this rapidly changing field. And, perhaps most D. Wright (Dist. 16), Zephyr Products, Inc.
important of all, we will continue to invest in welding workforce
development, which will benefit both individuals and all the
industries worldwide that utilize welding and cutting.
Robert G. Pali
AWS Treasurer

4 JUNE 2013
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WASHIGNTON June_Layout 1 5/17/13 10:44 AM Page 6
WASHINGTON BY HUGH K. WEBSTER
WATCHWORD AWS WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT AFFAIRS OFFICE
New Congressional Web Site Provides
Regulatory Alerts
The U.S. House Committee on Small Business has established
a Web site designed to alert small businesses of proposed and
final regulations that may affect them. Small Biz Reg Watch,
http://smallbusiness.house.gov/resources/regulatory-watch.htm, col-
lects the proposed and final rules and other notices and docu-
ments published in the Federal Register and posts those that are
especially relevant to small businesses. The U.S. Small Business
administration estimates the cost of regulatory compliance is
36% higher for small businesses than for large firms.
New Energy Secretary Approved
The new secretary of the U.S. Department of Energy is
Dr. Ernest Moniz, a professor of physics and engineering sys-
tems at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, as well as the
director of the MIT Energy Initiative. Dr. Moniz also served in
the Clinton administration, first as the associate director for sci-
ence in the Office of Science and Technology Policy and later as
the under secretary of energy at DOE.
Congress Reviews Industry/Nonprofit
STEM Collaborations
The House Subcommittee on Research of the House Sci-
ence Committee recently held a hearing on science, technol-
ogy, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) efforts by industry
and nonprofit organizations working together. Based on the
premise that finding ways to improve STEM education activi-
ties beyond the scope of the federal government, including best
practices, is key to the future technical and economic competi-
tiveness of the United States, the hearing focused on the role
that industry-nonprofit collaborations play in making STEM
careers attractive and accessible to students.
The subcommittee heard testimony regarding how many in-
dustry sectors and nonprofit organizations are working together
in a variety of ways in order to bolster their own workforce
pipeline. Involvement in K-12 initiatives and support for un-
dergraduate and graduate work falls within the broad scope of
those STEM initiatives. Partnerships with education providers,
STEM-focused competitions, and other opportunities have be-
come important pieces of private sector efforts to strengthen
the STEM workforce. Industry and philanthropic organiza-
tions may offer financial or technical support for students, pro-
fessional development opportunities for teachers, and tech-
nology for classrooms as a way to encourage interest in and
support of STEM education.
United States Reaches H-1B Cap for
Fiscal Year 2014
For the first time since 2008, U.S. Citizenship and Immigra-
tion Services (USCIS) has reached the statutory H-1B cap of
65,000 for fiscal year (FY) 2014 within the first week of the fil-
ing period. The USCIS has also received more than 20,000 H-
1B petitions filed on behalf of persons exempt from the cap
under the advanced degree exemption. The H1-B is a nonim-
6 JUNE 2013
migrant visa that allows U. S. employers to temporarily em-
ploy foreign workers in specialty occupations.
USCIS received approximately 124,000 H-1B petitions dur-
ing the filing period, including petitions filed for the advanced
degree exemption. On April 7, 2013, USCIS used a computer-
generated random selection process to select a sufficient num-
ber of petitions needed to meet the cap of 65,000 for the general
category and 20,000 under the advanced degree exemption limit.
For cap-subject petitions not randomly selected, USCIS will re-
ject and return the petition.
Feds to Keep Focus on Employee
Misclassification
The Administration’s 2014 fiscal year budget identifies as a
“funding highlight,” “maintain[ing] support for agencies that pro-
tect workers’ wages, benefits, health and safety, and invest in pre-
venting and detecting the misclassification of employees as inde-
pendent contractors.”
According to the budget proposal, “when employees are mis-
classified as independent contractors, they are deprived of bene-
fits and protections to which they are legally entitled, such as
overtime and unemployment benefits.” The budget also provides
an increase in funding for the Wage and Hour Division of the
Department of Labor for increased enforcement of the Fair Labor
Standards Act and the Family and Medical Leave Act, which reg-
ulate the minimum wage, overtime pay, and the right to take job-
protected leave for family and medical purposes.
Even if these proposed budget amounts are not approved
by Congress, these proposals are an indication of the Admin-
istration’s priorities in this area.
Private Sector Compensatory Time
Bill Introduced
Legislation that would allow private sector employers to offer
their employees compensatory time off in lieu of overtime has
been introduced in the House of Representatives. The Working
Families Flexibility Act of 2013 (H.R. 1406) would allow private-
sector workers to receive paid time off or “comp time” for over-
time hours worked. In addition, this bill would:
• Allow employers to offer employees a choice between cash
wages and comp time for overtime hours worked. Employees
who want to receive cash wages would continue to do so.
• Require the employer and the employee to complete a writ-
ten agreement to use comp time, entered into knowingly and vol-
untarily by the employee.
• Allow employees to accrue up to 160 h of comp time each
year. An employer would be required to pay cash wages for any
unused time at the end of the year, and workers would be free
to ‘cash out’ their accrued comp time whenever they choose to
do so.♦
Contact the AWS Washington Government Affairs Office at
1747 Pennsylvania Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20006; e-mail
hwebster@wc-b.com; FAX (202) 835-0243.
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PTN June 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 3:47 PM Page 8

PRESS TIME
NEWS
Publisher Andrew Cullison
Manganese Fume Exposure Limit Lowered by ACGIH
Editorial
The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), Cincin- Editorial Director Andrew Cullison
nati, Ohio, has adopted lower, 8-h time weighted average (TWA) threshold limit values Editor Mary Ruth Johnsen
(TLVs) for manganese, elemental, and inorganic compounds. Associate Editor Howard M. Woodward
This action, referenced in its annual reports for 2012 with threshold limit values and Associate Editor Kristin Campbell
biological exposure indexes, reduced the TLV from a TWA limit of 0.2 to 0.02 mg/m3 Editorial Asst./Peer Review Coordinator Melissa Gomez
for respirable manganese. Also, a TLV-TWA limit of 0.1 mg/m3 was added for inhalable
manganese. Publisher Emeritus Jeff Weber
For more information, read 3M’s Technical Data Bulletin, #211 – Manganese Up-
date, or visit www.acgih.org. Design and Production
Production Manager Zaida Chavez
Senior Production Coordinator Brenda Flores
FABTECH Enters Exhibition Partnership in India Manager of International Periodicals and
Electronic Media Carlos Guzman
The first FABTECH India exposition will be co-located with the Indian Institute of
Welding’s Weld India, from April 10 to 12, 2014, in New Delhi. It will be presented every Advertising
National Sales Director Rob Saltzstein
three years, and the first is timed to coincide with the 2014 International Congress of
Advertising Sales Representative Lea Paneca
the International Institute of Welding. FABTECH India and Weld India will be held at
Advertising Sales Representative Sandra Jorgensen
New Delhi’s Pragati Maidan exhibition complex.
Senior Advertising Production Manager Frank Wilson
“More and more buyers from India have been coming all the way to FABTECH to
see U.S. welding and manufacturing technologies,” said Ray Shook, executive director Subscriptions
of the American Welding Society, one of FABTECH’s sponsors. “Now we can take U.S. Subscriptions Representative Tabetha Moore
technology exhibitors right to the Indian market in an easy, affordable way.” tmoore@aws.org
About 250 international exhibitors and 10,000 attendees are projected to exchange
challenges and solutions at the exposition. Attendees will represent India’s fast-growing American Welding Society
industries, such as energy, refining, infrastructure, and manufacturing. 8669 Doral Blvd., Ste. 130, Doral, FL 33166
Companies wanting to exhibit their welding and fabrication technologies to the In- (305) 443-9353 or (800) 443-9353
dian industrial community should visit www.fabtechexpoindia.com or contact Joe Krall at
(800) 443-9353, ext. 297, or jkrall@aws.org. Publications, Expositions, Marketing Committee
D. L. Doench, Chair
Hobart Brothers Co.
Chinese Automotive Supplier to Build $45 Million S. Bartholomew, Vice Chair
Manufacturing Facility in Kansas City ESAB Welding & Cutting Prod.
J. D. Weber, Secretary
The Kansas City Area Development Council recently announced Yanfeng USA Au- American Welding Society
D. Brown, Weiler Brush
tomotive Trim Systems will construct a new, 258,000-sq-ft manufacturing plant in the
T. Coco, Victor Technologies International
Kansas City area. The Michigan-based subsidiary of Yanfeng Visteon of China, a Gen- L. Davis, ORS Nasco
eral Motors (GM) supplier, plans to build the $45 million manufacturing/sequencing fa- D. DeCorte, RoMan Mfg.
cility that is expected to create 263 new jobs. J. R. Franklin, Sellstrom Mfg. Co.
The company’s Riverside plant will manufacture interior trim components, including F. H. Kasnick, Praxair
door panels, floor consoles, and instrument panels for GM’s assembly plants in Kansas D. Levin, Airgas
City, Kan., and Wentzville, Mo. It is expected to be operational in early 2014. E. C. Lipphardt, Consultant
“Our Kansas City region is seeing significant job creation from automotive industry R. Madden, Hypertherm
suppliers due to the massive reinvestment from our local auto manufacturers, including D. Marquard, IBEDA Superflash
Ford and GM,” said Bob Marcusse, president and CEO of the Kansas City Area Devel- J. F. Saenger Jr., Consultant
opment Council. S. Smith, Weld-Aid Products
D. Wilson, Well-Dean Enterprises
N. C. Cole, Ex Off., NCC Engineering
MesoCoat to Work with EWI on Clad Pipes J. N. DuPont, Ex Off., Lehigh University
L. G. Kvidahl, Ex Off., Northrup Grumman Ship Systems
Abakan Inc., Miami, Fla., recently announced its subsidiary, MesoCoat, has engaged D. J. Landon, Ex Off., Vermeer Mfg.
EWI to accelerate manufacturing scale up of its CermaClad™ clad pipes. EWI will bring S. P. Moran, Ex Off., Weir American Hydro
its expertise to the project, plus provide simulation and controls development services E. Norman, Ex Off., Southwest Area Career Center
to support developing manufacturing process specifications and nondestructive exami- R. G. Pali, Ex Off., J. P. Nissen Co.
nation procedures, followed by bimetallic pipe welding and joining process qualifica- N. Scotchmer, Ex Off., Huys Industries
tion. The high-speed, large-area clad pipe technology produces a metallurgical clad pipe R. W. Shook, Ex Off., American Welding Society
product for the oil and gas industry using a high-intensity plasma light source to rapidly
fuse anticorrosion and antiwear materials to large areas of steel, including pipes. Copyright © 2013 by American Welding Society in both printed and elec-
In addition, Abakan has entered a memorandum of understanding with Cone S.A. tronic formats. The Society is not responsible for any statement made or
opinion expressed herein. Data and information developed by the authors
to construct a manufacturing facility for large-scale clad pipes inside the new Suape Ex- of specific articles are for informational purposes only and are not in-
port Processing Zone in Pernambuco State, Brazil. It will help meet the demand for cor- tended for use without independent, substantiating investigation on the
part of potential users.
rosion-resistant clad pipe to enable safe and efficient oil production in Brazil. The large-
scale, four-line clad pipe manufacturing plant will be capable of producing up to $200
million of clad products annually.◆

MEMBER
8 JUNE 2013
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NEWS OF THE
INDUSTRY

Bosch Rexroth Opens Its Largest Hydraulics Production Campus in North America

On March 20, South Carolina Governor Nikki Haley joined Bosch

Rexroth Americas President Berend Bracht and executives from
Robert Bosch LLC to mark the production start at the company’s
newly expanded hydraulics manufacturing campus in Fountain Inn,
S.C.
Bosch Rexroth, headquartered in Charlotte, N.C., is investing
$80 million over five years to expand campus production and con-
vert an existing 260,000-sq-ft industrial warehouse into a manufac-
turing facility that will initially produce the A10VO hydraulic pump.
It is used in mobile construction and agricultural machinery, min-
ing, materials handling, and heavy industries, such as steel and au-
tomotive production.
“We celebrate the 160 new jobs the company will create with this
campus and look forward to its continued success,” said Governor
Haley.
With Building 103, the company has doubled its production ca- Pictured at the formal opening for the $80 million site in
pabilities at the location, making the Fountain Inn campus its largest Fountain Inn, S.C., are (from left) Mike Mansuetti, presi-
hydraulics manufacturing site in the Americas. So far, five assembly dent, Robert Bosch LLC; Berend Bracht, president and
lines and multiple machining centers have been installed for the CEO, Bosch Rexroth Americas; Nikki Haley, governor,
pump’s production, along with one line for vane motor assembly. In South Carolina; Mike McCormick, vice president and tech-
addition, the entire facility operates utilizing a lean manufacturing nical plant manager, Bosch Rexroth in Fountain Inn; and
and continuous quality improvement system. Dr. Werner Struth, chairman, Robert Bosch LLC.

Tulsa Welding School Hosts Annual

Welding Competitions
Tulsa Welding School’s (TWS) Jacksonville, Fla., campus
hosted its 9th annual competition on March 16. Around 120 high
school seniors traveled from nine states to complete.
First place, a full-tuition TWS scholarship, went to Bradley
Bramel. In second and third place with half-tuition TWS schol-
arships were Levi Wells and Thomas Fassler. Fourth and fifth
place, quarter-tuition TWS scholarships went to Dustin Long
and Joseph Andracsek. All other contestants received a $500
TWS scholarship. Honorable mentions went to Logan Morgan,
Corey Tibbs, Donald Cox III, Warren Hardy, and Cordell
Wagoner.
The competition is a timed arc welding test that requires using
various positions and techniques to complete. Grades are given
on procedure adherence, weld quality, and final completion time.
The event also serves as a student orientation for those inter-
ested in attending one of the school’s programs in Florida or
Oklahoma. Included were a tour of the facilities, demonstrations,
and talks from many sources, including prospective employers.
Attendees included Doug Yates, chair of the American Weld-
ing Society’s (AWS) North Florida Section, and Carl V. Matri-
cardi, AWS District 5 director. Many others donated services.
In related news, the TWS campus in Tulsa, Okla., also held
its 9th Annual High School Senior Welding Competition on Feb-
ruary 23. More than 1000 people attended, 255 of which were
high school seniors representing 14 states. Students competed Displayed at the Tulsa Welding School’s 9th annual high school
for more than $55,000 in scholarships and prizes. All of them, welding competition at its Jacksonville, Fla., campus is a welder
regardless of place, were awarded a $500 TWS scholarship. Ad- performing shielded metal arc welding on pipe.
ditional scholarships and prizes were given to the top 25 winners.
Twenty vendors participated. Its arc welding test and grades also went to Levi Wells. In third and fourth place with a quarter schol-
operated like the previously listed event. arship to TWS were Tyler Yard and Zach Sackman. Achieving
Earning first place with a full-tuition TWS scholarship was fifth place with a TWS gear package and scholarship was Bradley
Nick Lerma. Second place with a half-tuition TWS scholarship Bramel.

10 JUNE 2013
NI June 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 2:01 PM Page 11

Nick Lerma, first-place winner of Tulsa Welding School’s 9th

Annual High School Senior Welding Competition in Tulsa, Okla.,
is shown with Loretta Alvarado, a high school admissions
representative.

Additionally, TWS introduced its Pipefitting training program

last year. Available only at the Tulsa, Okla., campus, it takes as
little as 61⁄2 months to complete. Hands-on training is offered in
many courses, including underground and aboveground pipe in-
stallation, advanced pipe fabrication, and more. Three National
Center for Construction Education and Research (NCCER) Cer-
tified Craft Instructors, each with at least 20 years of field expe-
rience teach the program’s classes. There have been 17 gradu-
ates to date with all receiving NCCER Level 4 pipefitter train-
ing credentials. For more details, visit www.weldingschool.com.

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WELDING JOURNAL 11
NI June 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 2:01 PM Page 12

ABB Robotics Wins Award from Ford

The new system allows Ford Sterling Axle to manufacture to the

necessary volumes, plus eliminate overcapacity and underutiliza-
tion of equipment. Captured here is a view inside the arc welding
cell.

A Tube Press and Weld System by ABB Robotics for the Ford
Sterling Axle Plant, Sterling Heights, Mich., has won the 2012
Ford Global Powertrain Technical Maturity Model Excellence
Award. Installed last year, the system was selected for the 2012
Top Award out of 126 global submissions.
The system is part of the subassembly automation for the 9.75
and 8.8 rear axles in the Ford F-150 pickup truck and transit util-
ity van. A complete changeover from one axle type to the other
is possible in less than 43 s. It features three IRB 6600 material
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FERITSCOPE® FMP30 Measurement

of the Ferrite Content in Austenitic
and Duplex Steel

Fischer’s Feritscope® FMP30

is the ideal solution for fast,
precise measurement of ferrite
content of constructional steels,
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stainless steels and duplex steels.
• Non-destructive measurement
in the range of 80% Fe or 0-120
WRC number.
• Battery or AC powered
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• Statistical evaluation
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• FISCHER DataCenter Software

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12 JUNE 2013
NI June 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 2:02 PM Page 13

handling robots and two electromechanical press stations.

In other company news, ABB Robotics and Fronius Interna-
tional, a worldwide welding equipment company, have entered a
global agreement to collaboratively develop equipped robotic
welding packages, and support users with advanced technology.

Boy Scouts Descend upon Lincoln Electric

HQ for Welding Merit Badge Training
Lincoln Electric, Cleveland, Ohio, is teaming with the Boy
Scouts of America to help Scouts earn the Welding Merit Badge.
As part of this new partnership, 100 Scouts received hands-on

Lincoln Electric has teamed with the Boy Scouts of America to ad-
dress the skills gap and inspire the next welder generation. Shown
is a group of Scouts with their welded eagles created at a recent
event.
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WELDING JOURNAL 13
NI June 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 2:02 PM Page 14
welding training at the company’s headquarters on April 13.
“Lincoln Electric is helping Scouts get excited about such ca-
reer options as welding, engineering, and manufacturing in a
hands-on way, while earning their badges,” said Carl Peters, Lin-
coln Electric’s director of technical training. “They get to explore
different career pathways by trying something new. And, they’ll
get a sense of accomplishment when they walk away with their
own welding project — a specially designed eagle.”
Scouts from the following Ohio Councils participated in the
recent training: Greater Cleveland Council, Greater Western Re-
serve Council, and The Heart of Ohio Council.
Labor Commissioner Tours Georgia
Trade School
Georgia Labor Commissioner Mark Butler (second from left), pre-
sented with a Georgia Trade School shirt during his tour of the
premises, poses with the school’s staff.

Georgia Trade School, a welding school in Kennesaw, Ga.,
and an American Welding Society Educational Institution, wel-
comed Georgia Labor Commissioner Mark Butler on March 12.
He toured the school, meeting welding students and staff mem-
bers, and saw how it is playing a role in helping to ease the state
and region’s certified welder shortage. Graduates are working in
shipbuilding, energy, manufacturing, and construction industries.
“The demand for welders in Georgia is booming, and the
Georgia Trade School is doing a great job at training people to
meet the needs of this growing occupation,” said Butler.
Industry Notes
• Nicolet College, Rhinelander, Wis., is expanding its welding
lab to 23 stations, plus it was able to upgrade welding equip-
ment and hire an extra instructor and academic advisor, due
to two grants totaling $1.2 million from state and federal
governments.
• ThomasNet®, New York, N.Y., launched its North American
Manufacturing Scholarship Program. Up to 30 graduating high
school seniors will each receive a $1000 scholarship to pursue
studies at a two- or four-year college, or vo-tech school. The
deadline is July 1. Visit www.thomasnetscholarship.com.
• Universal Tube & Rollform’s tube mill line has arrived at its
Perrysburg, Ohio, location. The 7.5-in.-OD pipe welding line
manufactures and welds round, square, and rectangular pipes.
• A laser micromachining applications lab has opened at
TRUMPF Inc.’s headquarters in Farmington, Conn. More than
125 people recently met at its Laser Technology Center in Ply-
mouth, Mich., for a laser joining of aluminum seminar.♦


 


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Counselor Letter 2013_Layout 1 5/15/13 3:35 PM Page 16

Friends and Colleagues:

The American Welding Society established the honor of Counselor to recognize individual
members for a career of distinguished organizational leadership that has enhanced the image and
impact of the welding industry. Election as a Counselor shall be based on an individual’s career of
outstanding accomplishment.

To be eligible for appointment, an individual shall have demonstrated his or her leadership in the
welding industry by one or more of the following:

• Leadership of or within an organization that has made a substantial contribution to the welding
industry. The individual’s organization shall have shown an ongoing commitment to the industry, as
evidenced by support of participation of its employees in industry activities.

• Leadership of or within an organization that has made a substantial contribution to training and
vocational education in the welding industry. The individual’s organization shall have shown an
ongoing commitment to the industry, as evidenced by support of participation of its employees in
industry activities.

For specifics on the nomination requirements, please contact Wendy Sue Reeve at AWS
headquarters in Miami, or simply follow the instructions on the Counselor nomination form in this
issue of the Welding Journal. The deadline for submission is July 1, 2013. The committee looks
forward to receiving these nominations for 2014 consideration.

Sincerely,

Lee Kvidahl
Chair, Counselor Selection Committee
 Critical: If this box appears yellow turn the Overprint Preview setting on in Acrobat

Base Copy: 02
Copy Changes:
Code Color:
275031 _503F

PO#:
Flat Size: 8.375 X 11.0
Blk, PANTONE 468 C
Nomination of AWS Counselor
V. 02
I. HISTORY AND BACKGROUND
In 1999, the American Welding Society established the honor of Counselor to recognize indi-
vidual members for a career of distinguished organizational leadership that has enhanced the
image and impact of the welding industry. Election as a Counselor shall be based on an
individual’s career of outstanding accomplishment.
To be eligible for appointment, an individual shall have demonstrated his or her leadership in
the welding industry by one or more of the following:
• Leadership of or within an organization that has made a substantial contribution to the
welding industry. (The individual’s organization shall have shown an ongoing
commitment to the industry, as evidenced by support of participation of its employees
in industry activities such as AWS, IIW, WRC, SkillsUSA, NEMA, NSRP SP7 or other
similar groups.)
• Leadership of or within an organization that has made substantial contribution to training
and vocational education in the welding industry. (The individual’s organization shall
have shown an ongoing commitment to the industry, as evidenced by support of partici
pation of its employees in industry activities such as AWS, IIW, WRC, SkillsUSA, NEMA,
NSRP SP7 or other similar groups.)
II. RULES
A. Candidates for Counselor shall have at least 10 years of membership in AWS.
3/8” BINDING STUB

B. Each candidate for Counselor shall be nominated by at least five members of

BLIND PERF
1/8” SPINE TRIM

1/8” FACE TRIM

the Society.
C. Nominations shall be submitted on the official form available from AWS
headquarters.
D. Nominations must be submitted to AWS headquarters no later than July 1
of the year prior to that in which the award is to be presented.
E. Nominations shall remain valid for three years.
F. All information on nominees will be held in strict confidence.
G. Candidates who have been elected as Fellows of AWS shall not be eligible for
election as Counselors. Candidates may not be nominated for both of these awards
at the same time.
III. NUMBER OF COUNSELORS TO BE SELECTED
Maximum of 10 Counselors selected each year.

Return completed Counselor nomination package to:

Wendy S. Reeve
American Welding Society
Senior Manager
Award Programs and Administrative Support
8669 Doral Blvd., Suite 130
Doral, FL 33166
Telephone: 800-443-9353, extension 293

SUBMISSION DEADLINE: July 1, 2013

1/8” FOOT TRIM PAGE 1

 Critical: If this box appears yellow turn the Overprint Preview setting on in Acrobat

Base Copy: 02
Copy Changes:
(please type or print in black ink) Code Color:
275031 _504B
CLASS OF 2014
COUNSELOR NOMINATION FORM PO#:
Flat Size: 8.375 X 11.0
Blk, PANTONE 468 C
DATE_________________NAME OF CANDIDATE________________________________________________________________________

AWS MEMBER NO.___________________________YEARS OF AWS MEMBERSHIP____________________________________________

V. 02
HOME ADDRESS____________________________________________________________________________________________________

CITY_______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE________________________

PRESENT COMPANY/INSTITUTION AFFILIATION_______________________________________________________________________

TITLE/POSITION____________________________________________________________________________________________________

BUSINESS ADDRESS________________________________________________________________________________________________

CITY______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE_________________________

ACADEMIC BACKGROUND, AS APPLICABLE:

INSTITUTION______________________________________________________________________________________________________

MAJOR & MINOR__________________________________________________________________________________________________

DEGREES OR CERTIFICATES/YEAR____________________________________________________________________________________

LICENSED PROFESSIONAL ENGINEER: YES_________NO__________ STATE______________________________________________

SIGNIFICANT WORK EXPERIENCE:

COMPANY/CITY/STATE_____________________________________________________________________________________________

POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________

3/8” BINDING STUB

BLIND PERF

1/8” SPINE TRIM

COMPANY/CITY/STATE_____________________________________________________________________________________________
1/8” FACE TRIM

POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________

SUMMARIZE MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS IN THESE POSITIONS:

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
IT IS MANDATORY THAT A CITATION (50 TO 100 WORDS, USE SEPARATE SHEET) INDICATING WHY THE NOMINEE SHOULD BE
SELECTED AS AN AWS COUNSELOR ACCOMPANY THE NOMINATION PACKET. IF NOMINEE IS SELECTED, THIS STATEMENT MAY
BE INCORPORATED WITHIN THE CITATION CERTIFICATE.

**MOST IMPORTANT**
The Counselor Selection Committee criteria are strongly based on and extracted from the categories identified below. All in-
formation and support material provided by the candidate’s Counselor Proposer, Nominating Members and peers are considered.

SUBMITTED BY:
PROPOSER_______________________________________________
AWS Member No.___________________
The proposer will serve as the contact if the Selection Committee requires further information. The proposer is encouraged to include a
detailed biography of the candidate and letters of recommendation from individuals describing the specific accomplishments of the can-
didate. Signatures on this nominating form, or supporting letters from each nominator, are required from four AWS members in addition
to the proposer. Signatures may be acquired by photocopying the original and transmitting to each nominating member. Once the sig-
natures are secured, the total package should be submitted.

NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________Print Name___________________________________

AWS Member No.______________
NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________Print Name___________________________________
AWS Member No.______________
NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________Print Name___________________________________
AWS Member No.______________
NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________Print Name___________________________________
AWS Member No.______________
SUBMISSION DEADLINE JULY 1, 2013

PAGE 2 1/8” FOOT TRIM

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ALUMINUM Q AND A JUNE 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 3:22 PM Page 20
ALUMINUM
Q&A
Q: I am new to aluminum welding but fa-
miliar with hydrogen embrittlement,
which is a serious cause of cracking in
carbon and low-alloy steels. Is aluminum
susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement?
What is the primary reason for aluminum
welds to crack, and what should I know
to avoid getting into cracking problems
when arc welding aluminum?
A: First, I would like to state that the ma-
jority of aluminum-base alloys can be suc-
cessfully arc welded without cracking-re-
lated problems; however, it is important
to understand the nature of weld crack-
ing when arc welding aluminum.
There is often the potential for en-
countering solidification-type cracking
problems because of the metallurgical
characteristics of aluminum alloys. Fortu-
nately, most often, cracking problems are
avoided by using the correct filler metal,
and conducting the welding operation
with an appropriately developed and
tested welding procedure. To appreciate
the potential for problems associated with
cracking, it is necessary to understand the
different aluminum alloys and their vari-
ous characteristics.
Is Aluminum Susceptible to
Hydrogen Embrittlement?
There are a number of cracking sce-
narios associated with welding metallic al-
loys. One of the most notorious is hydro-
gen cracking, also referred to as hydrogen
embrittlement and/or cold cracking. Hy-
drogen cracking is often a major concern
Fig. 1 — Crack sensitivity curves showing the effect of adding
silicon (Si), copper (Cu), magnesium (Mg), and magnesium
silicide (Mg2Si) on the crack sensitivity of aluminum alloys.
20 JUNE 2013
BY TONY ANDERSON
when welding some carbon steels and
high-strength, low-alloy steels. However,
when welding aluminum alloys, hydrogen
cracking cannot occur. Unlike hardenable
steels, aluminum does not develop hard
or brittle metallurgical structures when
rapidly cooled from an elevated tempera-
ture. The predominate cause of cracking
in aluminum weldments is hot cracking.
Hot cracking — also known as hot short-
ness, liquation cracking, or solidification
cracking — is a high-temperature crack-
ing mechanism and mainly a function of
how metal alloy systems solidify.
Hot cracking does not occur in pure
unalloyed metals. However, when alloy-
ing elements are added to a pure metal, a
material is created that will experience a
number of different phases during solidi-
fication. One of these particular phases is
the lowest melting point composition of
an alloy known as the eutectic composi-
tion, which freezes at one specific temper-
ature; it is this eutectic phase that can pro-
mote hot cracking. In most metals, hot
cracking is initiated by impurities in the
base material. Sulfur in steel is a good ex-
ample where low melting point sulfide eu-
tectics are formed.
In aluminum, however, it is the delib-
erately added alloying elements that form
a range of eutectics with freezing points
substantially lower than the bulk metal. If
the difference in the melting point be-
tween the low melting point eutectic and
bulk of the metal is sufficiently large, the
liquid film along the grain boundaries
(which forms during solidification) may
part as the metal cools and contracts —
the result of this is hot cracking.
Fig. 2 — The approximate chemistry of most 6xxx series base met-
als have high crack sensitivity.
What Is the Primary Reason
for Aluminum Welds to
Crack?
There are a number of issues that can
influence the probability for hot cracking
in an aluminum welded structure, includ-
ing the following:
• The crack sensitivity of the base
metal chemistry
• The correct selection and use of filler
metal conducive to the base material
being welded
• The most appropriate joint design to
ensure adequate dilution between
the base metal and filler metal when
necessary.
The aluminum crack sensitivity curves
(see Fig. 1) are a useful tool for under-
standing why aluminum welds crack and
how the choice of filler alloy and joint de-
sign can influence crack sensitivity. The
crack sensitivity curves show the effects
of four different alloy additions — silicon
(Si), copper (Cu), magnesium (Mg), and
magnesium silicide (Mg2Si) on the crack
sensitivity of aluminum. The crack sensi-
tivity curves reveal that with the addition
of small amounts of alloying elements, the
crack sensitivity becomes more severe,
reaches a maximum, and then falls off to
relatively low levels with the further addi-
tion of an alloying element.
After studying the crack sensitivity
curves, it is easy to recognize that most of
the aluminum-base alloys considered un-
weldable autogenously (without a filler
alloy addition) have chemistries at or near
the peaks of crack sensitivity. Addition-
ALUMINUM Q AND A JUNE 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 3:22 PM Page 21
Fig. 3 — How the 6xxx series base metals can be susceptible to hot cracking unless the chem-
istry of the weld is changed by adding a filler metal.
ally, Fig. 1 shows alloys that display low
cracking characteristics have chemistries
well away from the crack sensitivity peaks.
Based on these facts, it is clear that the
crack sensitivity of an aluminum-base
metal is primarily dependent on its chem-
istry. Utilizing the same principle, it can
be concluded that the crack sensitivity of
an aluminum weld, which is generally
comprised of both base metal and filler
metal, is also dependent on its chemistry.
What Should I Know to
Avoid Cracking Problems
When Arc Welding
Aluminum?
With knowing the chemistry impor-
tance on the crack sensitivity of an alu-
minum weld, two fundamental principles
apply that can reduce the incidence for
hot cracking. When welding base metals
that have low crack sensitivity, always use
a filler metal of similar chemistry. When
welding base metals that have high crack
sensitivity, use a filler metal with a differ-
ent chemistry than that of the base metal
to create a weld metal chemistry (which
is a mixture of the base and filler metal)
that has low crack sensitivity. When con-
sidering welding the more commonly used
5xxx series (Al-Mg) and 6xxx series (Al-
Mg-Si) aluminum-base metals, these prin-
ciples are clearly illustrated.
The 5xxx Series Alloys
(Al-Mg)
The majority of the 5xxx base metals,
which contain around 5% Mg, show low
crack sensitivity. They could be welded
autogenously (without a filler metal) with-
out cracking problems but are more ide-
ally welded with a filler metal featuring
almost identical chemistry or slightly more
Mg than the base metal. This can provide
a weld with excellent crack resistance and
solidification temperature a little lower
than the base metal. There are base met-
als within the 5xxx series group, such as
5052, with Mg content that falls fairly close
to the crack sensitivity peak. In the case
of the 5052 base metal, which has around
2.5% Mg, it is wise to avoid autogenous
welding. The Mg base metals with below
2.5% Mg, such as 5052, can be welded with
both the 4xxx filler metals, such as 4043,
4943, or 4047 and the 5xxx filler metals
such as 5356. When welding base metals
with below 2.5% Mg, it is necessary to
change the chemistry of the solidifying
weld from the near hot cracking peak lev-
els of the base metal to a lower crack sen-
sitive weld metal. This is achieved by se-
lecting a filler metal alloy with a substan-
tially higher Mg content than that of the
base metal, such as 5356 (5.0% Mg), or
selecting a filler metal with the addition
of silicon, such as 4043.
The 6xxx Series Alloys
(Al-Mg-Si)
The aluminum/magnesium/silicon-
base alloys (6xxx series) have a chemistry
that is crack sensitive. These alloys con-
tain approximately 1.0% Mg2Si, which
falls close to the peak of the solidification
crack sensitivity curve (see Fig. 2).
Using a 6xxx series filler metal (if there
were such a thing) or autogenously weld-
ing the 6xxx series base metals would in-
variably produce cracking problems in the
weld (see Fig. 3).
During arc welding, the cracking ten-
dency of these alloys is adjusted to accept-
able levels by diluting the base material
with excess magnesium (by use of the 5xxx
series Al-Mg filler metals) or excess sili-
con (by use of the 4xxx series Al-Si filler
metals). In the majority of arc welding ap-
plications, the addition of filler material
is required to create consistent, crack-free
welds with these base materials.
One other consideration when weld-
ing this group of alloys (6xxx) is the effect
of joint design on base metal and filler
metal dilution. Square groove welds in this
material are extremely susceptible to
cracking because little filler metal mixes
with the base metal during welding. It is
frequently necessary to evaluate the use
of a V-groove weld preparation, which will
introduce more filler metal to the weld
metal mixture and lower crack sensitivity.
There are some other potential prob-
lems with hot cracking when welding and
cutting the 6xxx series alloys. If excessive
amounts of heat are applied together with
deep weld penetration to a relatively thin
material, partial melting can occur that is
away from the weld pool on the back side
of the weld. As noted earlier, the chem-
istry of this material, without dilution with
a filler metal, is almost certain to create
hot cracking upon solidification. The sus-
ceptibility of the 6xxx series alloys to hot
cracking is also recognized by AWS D1.2,
Structural Welding Code — Aluminum,
which requires that 1⁄8 in. [3 mm] of mate-
rial to be removed from plasma arc cut
edges by machining when the cut edge is
to be incorporated into the immediate
weld area. The heat of the plasma cutting
melts this area, and cracking develops
upon solidification.
Other Cracking-Related
Considerations
Machinability. There is a small selec-
tion of aluminum-base metals designed
for their machinability, not weldability.
Such alloys are 2011 and 6262, which con-
tain bismuth and/or lead. The addition of
the elements bismuth and lead to these
materials provides excellent chip forma-
tion in these free-machining base metals.
However, because of the low solidifica-
tion temperatures of these elements, the
weldability of these base metals is poor.
Weld Termination and Crater Crack-
ing. Termination cracking, or crater crack-
ing as it is also known, can be a serious
problem when welding aluminum. One
technique used to prevent this type of
cracking is extension bars (also known as
run-on or run-off plates). When it is not
possible to terminate a weld on an exten-
WELDING JOURNAL 21
ALUMINUM Q AND A JUNE 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 3:23 PM Page 22
sion bar or run-off plate, it is good prac-
tice to try to plan weld terminations in a
low-stress area whenever possible.
AWS D1.2, Structural Welding Code —
Aluminum, provides several methods that
may help prevent termination cracking
and suggests one of them or a combina-
tion thereof be used (see Fig. 4).
The Heat Treatable 2xxx
Series – Al-Cu-Mg Alloys
and the 7xxx Series –
Al-Zn-Cu-Mg Alloys
Some of the 2xxx and 7xxx series base
metal alloys are quite susceptible to hot
cracking if arc welded. In some cases, the
combination of the required alloying ele-
ments has produced materials with high
crack sensitivity.
The 2xxx series base metals containing
Al-Cu-Mg such as 2017 and 2024, which
are often used in aerospace applications,
can be susceptible to stress corrosion
cracking (SCC) and premature failure if
arc welded. There are other 2xxx series
base metals such as 2219, which are Al-
Cu alloys with no Mg added that are con-
sidered weldable.
The 7xxx series base metals containing
Al-Zn-Cu-Mg such as 7075, 7178, 7050,
and 7150 also used in aerospace applica-
tions can be susceptible to SCC and pre-
mature failure if arc welded. There are
other 7xxx series base metals such as 7005,
which are Al-Zn-Mg alloys with no cop-
per added that are considered weldable.
The reason for this problem is that in
the heat-affected zone (HAZ) of the
nonarc-weldable 2xxx and 7xxx series al-
loys mentioned above, low melting point
elements are preferentially precipitated
into the grain boundaries, which lowers
and widens the solidification temperature
range of the grain boundary. Conse-
quently, when arc welding these materi-
als, the grain boundaries become the last
to solidify and can easily crack due to so-
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22 JUNE 2013
Fig. 4 — Often, terminating a weld in a manner conducive to preventing crater cracking is
totally dependent on the technique used by the welder during weld termination. The objec-
tive should be to fill the termination to the full cross section of the weld, thereby preventing
a shallow throat with low strength that is susceptible to cracking from the shrinkage stress
during solidification. Using GMAW equipment with a crater fill feature can help the welder
eliminate termination craters and prevent this type of cracking.
lidification shrinkage stresses. filler metal for the specific base metal,
In addition, the difference in galvanic thereby avoiding the critical chemistry
potential between the grain boundaries ranges (crack sensitivity ranges) in the
and remainder of the grain structure in weld.
these alloys is increased, making them • Select a filler metal with a solidifica-
more susceptible to stress corrosion crack- tion point close to or below that of the
ing. These base metals are typically me- base metal.
chanically fastened rather than arc • When welding the more crack-
welded. sensitive base metals, select the most ap-
propriate edge preparation and root
Summary opening to permit sufficient filler metal
material addition, thus creating a weld
Avoid hot cracking in aluminum alloys metal chemistry outside the critical chem-
by applying one or more of the following istry range.
principles: • Use a reputable filler metal that has
• Avoid the extremely crack-sensitive grain refiners added, such as titanium or
base metals that are generally accepted as zirconium.
being nonweldable with the arc welding • Try to use welding and assembly se-
processes. quences and techniques that minimize re-
• Use a suitable filler metal selection straint, reduce residual stress, and pro-
chart for selecting the most appropriate duce welds of acceptable profile without
excessive concavity.
• Apply a compressive force on the
welded joint during welding and cooling
to counteract the cracking mechanism.♦
TONY ANDERSON is director of aluminum
technology, ITW Welding North America. He is
a Fellow of the British Welding Institute (TWI),
a Registered Chartered Engineer with the British
Engineering Council, and holds numerous posi-
tions on AWS technical committees. He is chair-
man of the Aluminum Association Technical
Advisory Committee for Welding and author of
the book Welding Aluminum Questions and
Answers currently available from the AWS.
Questions may be sent to Mr. Anderson c/o Weld-
ing Journal, 8669 Doral Blvd., #130, Doral, FL
33166, or via e-mail at tony.anderson@
millerwelds.com.
harris products_FP_TEMP 5/15/13 8:42 AM Page 23

For Info go to www.aws.org/ad-index

Brazing Q+A June_Layout 1 5/16/13 2:14 PM Page 24
BRAZING
Q&A
Q: We manufacture an aluminum heat ex-
changer for an automotive application. It
is of a round tube-to-fin design. The open
ends of the tubes in the circuit are joined
with a U-bend, and are brazed with a flux
bearing aluminum-zinc braze alloy. We
use a relatively simple fixture with four
torches. We have set up to use natural gas
and oxygen. The design of the heat ex-
changer includes a mounting bracket that
makes it difficult to heat the entire cir-
cumference of one of the braze joints. We
are having significant leak issues in the
area where accessibility is hindered. Is
there equipment available or some tech-
nique that will allow us to get a quality
braze in this joint? We are considering
switching to an aluminum-silicon braze
alloy, which we understand is a higher
temperature, but which we are hearing is
a better braze alloy to use. Early trials
with it, however, have resulted in melting
of the tubing. A photo of the joint in ques-
tion is shown in Fig. 1.
A: To state the obvious, the best situation
would be to not have the bracket in the
way in the first place. You mentioned
that it is an automotive application, so
the odds of removing it from the design
are probably quite low. An alternative
would be to redesign the assembly to
have the bracket able to be out of the way
prior to brazing and bent into place after
brazing. Using perforations that allow
bracket bending is one method. This is
common practice in a variety of heat ex-
changer applications. This type of ap-
proach is perhaps obvious, and you prob-
ably would have done it already if a de-
sign change was possible. For the pur-
pose of the remainder of my response, I
will assume that no design change is
possible.
By not being able to get heat onto the
back side of the joint where the bracket
is located, you are relying on the thermal
conductivity of the aluminum to transfer
heat to obtain proper melting and wet-
ting of the braze alloy on that side of the
joint. I can’t determine from Fig. 1 or the
information provided what the joint
clearances are. The problem is that the
aluminum-zinc braze alloy requires a
loose fit and a rather deep joint. The rea-
son for this is that these joints tend to be
porous due to the zinc content. Zinc is a
high vapor pressure element that will
boil off at these braze temperatures.
Since the braze alloy requires a loose fit,
the heat transfer characteristics will be
poor. You usually end up overheating
one part of the joint to get another part
hot enough to accept the braze alloy
24 JUNE 2013
BY TIM P. HIRTHE
properly. Even if you can achieve mini-
mally acceptable brazing temperatures
around the circumference of the joint,
you will most likely overheat it such that
you will get zinc vaporization.
Another difficulty I see is that you are
using natural gas and oxygen. Using oxy-
gen to combust the natural gas results in
a flame that is relatively hot and difficult
to control when brazing aluminum.
When brazing aluminum, we prefer the
fuel gas be combusted with air rather
than oxygen. It produces a cooler, more
controllable flame. We suggest a blower
be used rather than plant compressed air
as the latter typically contains a lot of
moisture. If you are going to use plant
air, you must assure that it is being dried
before combusting the fuel gas. I am con-
cerned about using natural gas also. Nat-
ural gas fluctuates greatly in Btu content
from the supplier and, depending on the
time of year, it also can contain a great
deal of moisture. Propane or a similar
fuel is preferred.
You mention you are considering
moving to the aluminum-silicon braze
alloy because you believe it is a better
choice. It is attractive because it does not
have the vapor pressure problem, and it
is a stronger material than the alu-
minum-zinc. There are several issues,
though, that must be addressed in con-
sidering switching to an aluminum-sili-
con braze alloy. The most obvious one is
that the aluminum-silicon braze alloy
melts at a significantly higher tempera-
ture. I am not sure which aluminum-zinc
braze alloy you are using, but for refer-
ence, the 98% zinc/2% aluminum braze
alloy has a melt range of 715° to 725°F
(379° to 385°C). The aluminum-silicon
alloy most commonly used is the 88%
aluminum/12% silicon, which has a melt
range of 1070° to 1080°F (577° to 582°C).
I don’t know which aluminum tubing ma-
terial you are using, but I am sure it melts
in the vicinity of 1200°F/649°C. There is
significantly less room for overheating
with the aluminum-silicon.
If you are trying to use the aluminum-
silicon on a joint designed for aluminum-
zinc, you will have a substantial problem.
As mentioned earlier, aluminum-zinc re-
quires a loose fitting joint (~0.005 in./
0.127 mm) that has considerable depth
(~0.250 in./6.4 mm). The way to com-
pensate for the tendency to vaporize the
zinc is to provide this very deep joint.
The aluminum-silicon requires a tight
fitting joint (~0.001 in./0.025 mm) with
less depth (~3.0 mm). Your trials with
aluminum-silicon ran into the fit prob-
lem. You are having a struggle getting
Fig. 1 — View of the customer’s brazed
aluminum heat exchanger.
heat to the back side of the joint with alu-
minum-zinc because of the loose fit since
you must overheat the front to get
proper heat transferred to the back. You
get away with this due to the low melting
point of the aluminum-zinc. When you
use aluminum-silicon, you do not have
that margin of error with the tempera-
ture. The result is melting of the alu-
minum tube as the difference between
the melting point of the tubing and that
of the braze alloy is too small to tolerate
this overheating.
Assuming again that no design
changes can be made, it would seem that
changing to the 88% aluminum/12% sil-
icon alloy is not feasible. Considering
that the bracket cannot be taken out of
the equation, overheating will occur and
most likely result in tube melting. If the
joint could be redesigned to accept this
alloy, i.e., tighter fit and shallower depth,
it may be possible; but I have ruled out
the option of changing the prints. Going
forward then it seems the alloy must re-
main aluminum-zinc.
I would look at modifying your exist-
ing brazing setup to find a way to get
more heat into the joint blocked by the
bracket. Switching to air to combust the
fuel will help. Using different torch tips
that have a softer, broader, and longer
flame condition that will allow heat to
reach the backside of the joint will help.
Adding more torches may help. In order
to heat this particular joint, it may re-
quire a longer cycle time as you are al-
Brazing Q+A June_Layout 1 5/16/13 2:18 PM Page 25

lowing for the heat to transfer to the

problematic area of the joint. You may
also want to contact induction heating
manufacturers as they may have heating
Education That Works
coils that can preferentially heat differ-
ent locations on the joint circumference.
The lesson to be learned here is to take
into account the joint accessibility when
designing the assembly.♦
COMMERCIAL
DIVE TRAINING
This column is written sequentially by
TIM P. HIRTHE, ALEXANDER E.
AIM HIGH. DIVE DEEP. Call Today!
SHAPIRO, and DAN KAY. Hirthe and
Shapiro are members of and Kay is an ad-
visor to the C3 Committee on Brazing and
Soldering. All three have contributed to the
5th edition of AWS Brazing Handbook.
Hirthe (timhirthe@aol.com) currently
serves as a BSMC vice chair and owns his
own consulting business.
Shapiro (ashapiro@titanium-braz-
ing.com) is brazing products manager at
Titanium Brazing, Inc., Columbus, Ohio.
Kay (Dan@kaybrazing.com), with 40
years of experience in the industry, operates
his own brazing training and consulting 1.800.238.DIVE (3483)
business. www.diversacademy.com
Readers are requested to post their
questions for use in this column on the Near Atlantic City, New Jersey
Brazing Forum section of the BSMC Web
site www.brazingandsoldering.com.
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WELDING JOURNAL 25
P and P June 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 2:45 PM Page 26

PRODUCT & PRINT

SPOTLIGHT Pipe and Tube Update

Software Designed for Tube and Pipe Processing

FX Tube, a PC-based software system for tube and pipe processing,
works on the company’s Fabri Gear machine. It creates complex pipe
shapes via imported solid models, 2D CAD data, or internal drafting
features. The input system defines geometric features and adds hole/cut
shape patterns to reduce drawing time. Also, the system features high-
speed nesting functions to cut multiple parts on many pipe materials.
The software maximizes error reduction due to its advanced preview
function that automatically optimizes processing by matching to the
material shape. In addition, it offers an interactive, 3D simulation mode
to check for torch, chuck, and workpiece interference.

Mazak Optonics Corp.

www.mazakoptonics.com
(847) 252-4500

Pressure Vessel Line Catalog Showcases Pipe

Includes Pipe Cutting Tool Cutting Machines

With a 3D steel profile cutting capa-

bility that combines plasma and oxyfuel
processes, the company’s pressure vessel
machinery reduces grinding, fitting, and
welding time while reducing layout time.
It is suited to manufacturers and fabrica-
tors of pressure vessels, spools, and noz-
zles. Included are the chuck-type Station-
ary Pipe Cutter with a patented biaxial
cutting head, providing maximum speeds
and accuracy for all ranges of wall thick-
nesses; a column and boom Shell Profil-
ing Machine for cutting large as well as
small holes; and the Vessel Robot Profiler
for cutting pressure vessels from the side,
regardless of dimensional irregularities.
The Profiling Equipment machinery en-
ables users to cut angles from plus 70 to
minus 70 deg.
HGG Profiling Equipment
www.hgg-group.com
(330) 461-6855
Electropolishing Process
Yields High-Purity Tubes
The True15™ electropolished tubing
offers a 15 μ-in. radius ID maximum fin-
ish, while True10™ electropolished tub-
ing achieves a 10 μ-in. radius ID maximum
finish. The production process begins with
a proprietary raw material melt criteria
that is continuously roll formed, welded,
and 100% borescope inspected before in-
house electropolishing. In the industry’s
ISO 14644-1 Class 5 clean room, the com-
pany visually inspects 100% to the ASME
BPE Standard guidelines, purges with
99.9999% pure nitrogen, packages the
tubing in 6-mil poly sleeves, and ships in
wood boxes. Line markings, as well as la-
bels that contain the heat and batch num-
bers, help ensure traceability.
RathGibson
www.rathgibson.com
(800) 367-7284
The company’s new full-color product
catalog showcases standard, band-type,
and chain-type pipe cutting and beveling
machines, pipe clamps, torch holders, at-
tachments, and accessories. Provided are
detailed product specifications along with
relevant reference information, including
pipe size specifications, model, and part
numbers. Also included are product net
weights, shipping weights, and shipping di-
mensions in both U.S. standard and met-
ric sizes. The catalog may be requested
from the contact information below.
H&M Pipe Beveling Machine Co., Inc.
www.hmpipe.com
(918) 592-9984

26 JUNE 2013
P and P June 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 2:45 PM Page 27

Fusion System Made

for Nonmetallic Piping

The Sani-Tech® SIB®3 fusion welding

tool is for fabricating and installing high-
purity water piping systems. It is engi-
neered to join polypropylene for Sani-
Pro® K PVDF — accommodating oper-
ating temperatures up to 80°C and is a ma-
terial for pharmaceutical, high-purity
chemical, with semiconductor applica-
tions — or Sani-Pro T, a durable choice
for most moderate service applications.
The company’s smooth inner bore tech-
nology has a smooth inner surface free of
weld beads, crevices, or intrusions. The
PC-based system allows users to store and
print weld cycle data for piping system val-
idation. Cost-effective installation lets
owners take advantage of nonmetallic pip-
ing system benefits.

Saint-Gobain Performance Plastics

www.saint-gobain.com
(610) 341-7000

Tubing Intended for

Industrial Applications

Spatter Guard SRT is a jacketless spat-

ter-resistant tubing made from a 94V0
polyurethane resin. The tubing can be
used in any application where the jack-
eted version is currently used but is bet-
ter suited for industrial applications. The
resin resists oils, greases, heat, aging, ul-
traviolet light, and is silicone and halogen
For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index

WELDING JOURNAL 27
P and P June 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 2:45 PM Page 28

free. It is also kink resistant, abrasion re- DVDs and an Instructor Guide. It is rec-
sistant, and can be bonded and formed ommended for curriculums that include
into retractable coils. pipe welding as well as for continuing ed-
ucation for those in industries that are in-
Freelin-Wade Co. volved in pipefitting and pipe welding.
www.freelin-wade.com The training package includes two DVDs
(888) 373-9233 and Instructor Guide, along with a stu-
dent learning packet and answer keys to
Pipe Welding Training the tests. Orders may be placed online or
Package Features New DVD by phone.

Hobart Institute of Welding Technology

The company’s Pipe Layout for Pipefit- www.welding.org
ters and Welders course now includes (800) 332-9448

Heavy Plate Manufacturer

Launches New Web Site
The company recently announced the

MORE POWER
launch of its new Web site. With an easy-
to-navigate layout, the site provides infor-
mation on the company’s one-stop-shop
offering as-is plate products and cus-
tomized finished part fabrications. The

TO BUILD
site is designed to streamline searches.
Key specifiers can quickly access and find
what they’re looking for by searching by
product or service categories listed on
dedicated landing pages. Product cate-
gories include carbon plate, alloy plate,
and PVQ. The company’s service offer-
Introducing the Powermax105® –
ings include flame cutting, saw cutting,
get through metal cutting and gouging milling, grinding, plate rolling, quality as-
jobs faster with the toughest, most surance testing, heat treatment, and shot
blasting. Visitors unsure of their exact
versatile air plasma system in its class. needs can also search by application.

Artco Group International

www.artcosteel.com
(888) 662-7826

Air-Powered Saw Cuts with

No Heat-Affected Zone

Learn
Lear
rn more at
at hyper
hypertherm.com/morepower
rtherm
t .com/morepower

Powermax10 5
For handheld and mechanized
cutting and gouging.

The APS-438 is an air-powered saw

P L A S M A | L A S E R | W AT E R J E T | A U TO M AT I O N | S O F T W A R E | C O N S U M A B L E S
and pipe trolley system that cuts all ma-
terials and pipe schedules up to 60 in. di-
ameter to produce square cuts with no
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28 JUNE 2013
P and P June 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 2:46 PM Page 29

heat-affected zone. The system allows op-

erators to rapidly cold cut pipe with ±1⁄16
in. accuracy to permit better end-prep
bevels for welding. Suitable for cutting all
pipe schedules of P-91, superduplex stain-
less steel, and other hard materials, the
saw comes with fiberglass-reinforced
abrasive or diamond-tipped carbide
blades, and the stainless steel band assem-
bly clamps around pipe from 6 to 60 in.
diameter. The saw has a 3-hp pneumatic
motor and cuts pipe walls up to 43⁄4 in.
thick. Featuring four V-grooved stainless
steel roll guides, the saw mounts rigidly
on the WrapTrack® pipe trolley, sup-
ported to reduce strain on the operator,
and glides smoothly around the pipe.
ESCO Tool
www.escotool.com
(800) 343-6926

Angle Grinder Useful

for Pipeline Installation

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The W1080 RT 5-in. angle grinder fea- SAVE MONEY —

GET BETTER RESULTS
tures a rubberized grip that dampens vi-
bration and increases slip resistance. It is
useful for pipeline installation/mainte-
nance along with tank and structural steel
fabrication. Advanced ergonomics enable SuperFlash® 2-Gas Adjustable Mixer
operation for prolonged periods of time
with reduced fatigue. The product fea-
Provides customized mixed gases for
tures a high overload capacity, 10-A motor welding machines and other operations
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Available for all popular 2-gas mixtures
and a no-load speed of 10,000 rev/min. It
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Metabo Corp.
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(800) 638-2264

Plasma Cutting, Gouging Mixer model 0801-4410

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System Suited for Pipelines
The MAXPRO200®, a 200-A Superflash Compressed Gas Equipment / IBEDA Inc.
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WELDING JOURNAL 29
P and P June 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 2:46 PM Page 30

and scrapping. The combination of tech- Pipe Alignment Clamps

nology, plus air/air and O2/air cut quality,
enables users to cut more parts/h and min- Offer Spatter Resistance
imizes the need for secondary operations.
Other features include a one-step inter-
face and automatic gas control, optional
quick disconnect torches, two handheld
and two mechanized torch options,
patented consumable designs, and
CoolFlow™ with TrueFlow™ technology.

Hypertherm®
www.hypertherm.com
(800) 643-0030

The INT Series of pipe alignment

clamps cover a range of 3⁄4- to 12-in. pipe.
The three clamps feature a heavy-duty
forged steel design and electroplating for
rust and spatter resistance. The models

6 6 6 are INT 1-3, INT 2-6, and INT 6-12, and

cover the respective pipe sizes.

Intercon Enterprises Inc.

6 6 66 www.intercononline.com
(800) 665-6655

6 6 6 6 Catalog Contains Robotic

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weld engineering_FP_TEMP 5/15/13 10:17 AM Page 31

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2012 Financial Report Layout_2005 Financial Report 5/15/13 3:03 PM Page 32

AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY AND AWS FOUNDATION FINANCIAL REPORT

Fiscal 2012 year in review —

Officers
Gesana Villegas, Chief Financial Officer President Nancy C. Cole
The American Welding Society had an extraordinary year in terms of financial per- NCC Engineering
formance. Fiscal Year 2012 was another record-setting year. When looking at the num- Vice President Dean R. Wilson
bers from a strictly operational standpoint (excluding the revenues from the IIW 2012 Well-Dean Enterprises
Annual Assembly), our revenues surpassed the $30 million mark, growing by 10.3% over
2011. We had the highest surplus in our history of $8.8 million, an increase of 9.5% over Vice President David J. Landon
the previous year. We have been able to maintain a net surplus above $7 million and we Vermeer Mfg. Co.
have managed to keep, on average, 25 cents out of every dollar received. Total assets were
$79.4 million, increasing by $14.8 million or 22.9%. Total net assets (net worth) were at Vice President David L. McQuaid
an all-time high of $75 million, an increase of $14.7 million or 24.4%. Fiscal 2012 has, by D. L. McQuaid and Associates, Inc.
far, been the year where we have added the highest amount to our net assets, and wor- Treasurer Robert G. Pali
thy of particular mention is our surplus, the gain we realized from the sale of our old
J. P. Nissen Co.
building and the market gains in our investment portfolio.
The positive results of operations funded the build-out of our facility, the buy-out of Executive Director Ray W. Shook
the AWS Weldmex Show in Mexico and the matching of $870,000 in scholarship funds. American Welding Society
We also supported the mobile Careers-in-Welding exhibit with operational costs in ex-
cess of $400,000, and invested funds to develop American Welding Online (AWO). De-
spite all of the cash outflows, we were able to transfer $1.7 million into our Reserves. The Directors
transfer, coupled with favorable market conditions, allowed us to bring back our Reserves T. Anderson (At Large), ITW Global Welding Tech. Center
to the level prior to the purchase of our Doral facility, which was paid for in cash in 2010.
U. Aschemeier (Dist. 7), Miami Diver
We had an exciting and eventful year. After two-and-a-half years in the making, we
moved into our new five-story 122,000-square-foot World Headquarters building in J. R. Bray (Dist. 18), Affiliated Machinery, Inc.
Doral, Florida. Our new office building suits us well, accommodating current and future R. E. Brenner (Dist. 10), CnD Industries, Inc.
needs as we continue to grow. We occupy 67% of the building and have taken on a land-
G. Fairbanks (Dist. 9), Fairbanks Inspection & Testing Services
lord role with 23.5% currently leased out to tenants, including a restaurant. It is nice to
see the vibrancy in the building, which was once a failed condo conversion project vacant T. A. Ferri (Dist. 1), Victor Technologies
for quite some time. The new facility provides state-of-the art meeting rooms and class- D. A. Flood (At Large), Tri Tool, Inc.
rooms, giving us the ability to conduct multiple meetings simultaneously in a great at- S. A. Harris (Dist. 4), Altec Industries
mosphere. Over 200 guests attended our open house and ribbon-cutting ceremony, in-
cluding industries leaders, local dignitaries, neighbors, international guests, and K. L. Johnson (Dist. 19), Vigor Shipyards
counterparts. We hope to see you in our new office building in the near future. J. Jones (Dist. 17), The Harris Products Group
In 2012, we hosted the 65th International Institute of Welding Annual Assembly in W. A. Komlos (Dist. 20), ArcTech, LLC
Denver, an event with a $1 million exposure. We were able to more than break-even on
T. J. Lienert (At Large), Los Alamos National Laboratory
this event. It was a great venue and helping with the bottom line was $279,000 raised in
sponsorships. We appreciate those who supported us. The event gave us nice exposure J. Livesay (Dist. 8), Tennessee Technology Center
to prominent international welding professionals in the technical arena. M. J. Lucas Jr. (At Large), Belcan Engineering
We continue to expand our position in the marketplace. We are working on achieving
D. E. Lynnes (Dist. 15), Lynnes Welding Training
new opportunities and combatting challenges identified through our global strategy. Our
international activities increased by 18% over 2011. We are beginning to get momentum C. Matricardi (Dist. 5), Welding Solutions, Inc.
in our global activities with the help of our international salesperson and our in-country J. L. Mendoza (Past President), Lone Star Welding
representative covering India and the regions nearby. We continue to explore the possi- S. P. Moran (At Large), Weir American Hydro
bility of new agents abroad. During 2012, our main focus was on products available via
our online platform, including online educational courses, podcasts, mobile apps, and vir- K. A. Phy (Dist. 6), KA Phy Services, Inc.
tual conferences. We are working diligently designing a virtual welding museum to cre- W. A. Rice (Past President), OKI Bering
ate the ultimate historical experience, and our goal is to become a one-stop shop. The R. L. Richwine (Dist. 14), Ivy Tech State College
museum will draw in students, instructors, and industry members. Social media channels
D. J. Roland (Dist. 12), Marinette Marine Corp.
including Facebook, Twitter, and LinkedIn are being actively used by members. We en-
courage you to reach us via these tools, stay abreast of what is happening in the welding N. Saminich (Dist. 21), Desert Rose H.S. and Career Center
industry, and let us know how we can assist with your career path. K. E. Shatell (Dist. 22), Pacific Gas & Electric Co.
T. A. Siewert (At Large), NIST (ret.)
AWS Foundation Highlights for 2012
H. W. Thompson (Dist. 2), Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
The AWS Foundation is in its seventh year of the Welding for the Strength of America R. P. Wilcox (Dist. 11), ACH Co.
and the AWS Welder Workforce Development Program Capital Campaign, raising more J. A. Willard (Dist. 13), Kankakee Community College
than $7.8 million. The Foundation focuses its efforts on recruitment to the welding work-
force and enhancing the image of welding as a career. M. R. Wiswesser (Dist. 3), Welder Training & Testing Institute
Our 53-foot mobile Careers-in-Welding trailer – unveiled in 2011 and containing vir- D. Wright (Dist. 16), Zephyr Products, Inc.
tual welding machines – was well-received in 2012 with 37,000 visitors. There were 55,000
virtual welds performed. The trailer gives us visibility and helps attract younger people
to the field.
In June 2012, we announced an exceptional opportunity, a matching fund for all new
Named Scholarships and all additions made to existing Named Scholarships. The match-
ing amount is dollar-for dollar. To qualify for the matching funds, a $10,000 donation to
establish a new endowed scholarship is required. The program has generated great in-

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AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY AND AWS FOUNDATION FINANCIAL REPORT

terest. We are pleased to announce the matching program brought in approximately $870,000 in contributions for Fiscal Year 2012, and
the AWS Operating Fund has matched those funds.
With our new building, we took the opportunity to create an American Welding Society Scholarship Wall that we will cover with
named bricks available for purchase. The bricks are individualized and the proceeds from the sale will go towards scholarships for fu-
ture welding students. The bricks project has brought in over $10,000. The intent is to raise $100,000. Your name can be added to this
monumental wall.
We continue to be very involved with Weld-Ed, a network of educational institutions, business and industry and government, funded
by the National Science Foundation. To date, we have received a total of $795,000 in funding to support Special Projects at AWS with
a focus on Welder Workforce Development. We are very thankful for their support.
During recent months, we started to put an emphasis on “women welders” starting with the trailer and via our social media outlets.
A “Women in Welding” video is in the works to celebrate women in the various careers available throughout the field of welding. Many
women are finding rewarding and exciting careers in the welding industry. Three national scholarships focused on women in welding
were just announced and we are seeking additional scholarships; you, too, can help with this initiative.
Since 1991, when the AWS Foundation began offering scholarships, more than $5.5 million has been awarded. In 2012, the AWS
Foundation awarded $400,000 in scholarships to more than 400 students. AWS has been a great support to the Foundation, providing
for the Foundation’s operating expenses more than $500,000 annually. Other funding includes $1.1 million to increase District Schol-
arship awards, $500,000 to establish the Educator Scholarship Fund, and $300,000 toward the purchase of the mobile Careers trailer,
as well as operational costs related to the trailer in excess of $400,000 annually. We continue to seek additional dollars for educational
scholarships and to support our efforts under the Workforce Development program. AWS continues to be committed to lead the ef-
fort to provide trained workers at all levels for the welding profession. Make sure you explore our career website at www.careersin-
welding.com and www.jobsinwelding.com.
To find out how you can help in the mission of alleviating the welder workforce shortage, please contact Sam Gentry at
sgentry@aws.org.

AWS Highlights for 2012

Convention – FABTECH outperformed the previous three years in terms of square footage and revenues. The welding square
footage was 174,279 with 524 welding exhibitors. Exhibit space in the entire show was 465,330 square feet with 25,903 attendees and
1,257 exhibitors, including welding, forming/fabrication, tube and pipe, finishing and stamping. Show revenues for 2012 set a record
high, increasing by 3% in comparison to the 2011 Chicago Show. In comparison to the last Las Vegas show, held in 2008, the increase
in revenues was 16%. Our show in Mexico (AWS WELDMEX) has shown steady growth, generating 90% more in earnings when com-
pared to 2011. Attendance was close to 10,952 up 54.3%. We continue to explore taking the FABTECH brand with our partners to other
countries, including Canada and India.
Educational Services – CWI seminar revenues were at an all-time high, increasing by 14.8% over 2011. Departmental surplus in-
creased by 41.1%. We are committed to investing in educational products. Great efforts are being devoted to online development to
allow people to learn at their own pace, time and location. We have hired a talented team of developers. Our online paid content hours
have surpassed other organizations in online welding and joining services. Free content is also being developed.
Membership – Member dues revenues were in line with the prior year. We continue to work on developing a presence on social net-
working sites. Efforts are being devoted to recruit individual and corporate level members via marketing initiatives, such as expositions,
collaborating with educational institutions, using collateral in various languages to reach different regions, and promoting member affin-
ity programs. We are also focusing on student membership. AWS student members programs are now in place in other educational fa-
cilities. Our overall membership count was 68,438. International and student membership represents 20.9% and 14.3% of the Society’s
member base, respectively.
Certification – This operating unit continues to be the top revenue-producing business unit, generating $11.5 million in revenues,
an increase of 16.8% when compared to 2011. Renewal revenues were up 12.9% when compared to 2011. Welder certification revenues
were ahead by 29.1% over last year. Exam and renewal revenues generated by international agents approximated $2.8 million. Total de-
partmental surplus increased by 21.2%. In 2012, four new agents were added in UAE, Qatar, Bolivia and China. We now have a total
of 36 agents. Our present focus is on establishing agents in Australia and Indonesia with some additional agents in China and India. We
hired an AWS representative within India to help us strengthen our operations in India and the nearby regions.
Technical – The 2010 D1.1 Structural Welding Code – Steel edition is now on a five-year cycle as opposed to a two-year cycle. In its
third year of the cycle, technical hard copy book sales and electronic/subscription sales of document revenues ended up with a slight in-
crease of 0.8% in comparison to 2011. This is very encouraging to see, since a decrease was anticipated. We are focusing on translations
(24 standards) and reviewing opportunities that will help us boost our royalty revenues. We are working with our order fulfillment part-
ner to further our publications in India by adding an additional partner. We are also working with resellers to help with book/electronic
sales.
Publications – Total departmental revenues were $3.4 million, a decrease of 1.9% when compared to 2011. We experienced a small
decline in Welding Journal advertising, down 0.9% when compared to 2011. We hired an additional sales representative and are focus-
ing on digital ads.

In Summary

It was, indeed, another outstanding year for the Society in terms of financial performance and great achievements. However, there
still an immense amount of work ahead of us to maintain and grow our position as the world’s premier professional and technical soci-
ety. We will continue to invest in future AWO flagship products for education, training, and certification, and we are focusing on global
expansion to satisfy our mission and grow world presence. I foresee much work ahead of us, including raising awareness of our
— Continued on page 34

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AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY AND AWS FOUNDATION FINANCIAL REPORT

— Continued from page33
product offerings and services. We will be investing in a robust information system that can support our continued growth and that will
enable us to keep up with technology, a fast-changing field. We are on the lookout for opportunities via acquisition, mergers, and col-
laboration with other organizations where strategically feasible.
We are cautiously optimistic that fiscal year 2013 will achieve positive financial results. Our financial strength gives us the ability to
provide and fund future programs and opportunities for our members, volunteers, and the welding industry. With our prudent prac-
tices we will ensure that we are fiscally responsible and that we continue to make sound financial decisions.
The AWS Board of Directors and AWS Foundation Trustees would like to express their appreciation to all of our members, volun-
teers, industry leaders, and cooperating organizations that share our goals in helping us make this another successful year. Apprecia-
tion is also extended to our capable staff, who helped make 2012 a success.

Growth at a Glance
Five year comparisons

Dec-08 Dec-09 Dec-10 Dec-11 Dec-12*

Operating Revenue 25,541,336 26,049,776 26,446,348 27,774,105 31,683,943

Total Assets 31,506,599 44,665,409 56,415,395 64,622,045 79,391,335
Net Assets 28,164,569 41,306,406 52,290,944 60,250,495 74,944,155
Membership 55,072 60,050 66,847 69,566 68,438
Convention (sq. ft.) 178,700 146,400 151,700 169,100 174,300

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INDEPENDENT AUDITOR’S REPORT

To the Board of Directors

American Welding Society, Inc. and AWS Foundation

We have audited the accompanying combined financial statements of American Welding Society, Inc. and AWS Foundation (the
“Organizations”), which comprise the combined statement of financial position as of December 31, 2012, and the related combined
statements of activities and cash flows for the year ended and the related notes to the financial statements.

Managementʼs Responsibility for the Financial Statements

Management is responsible for the preparation and fair presentation of these combined financial statements in accordance with
accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America; this includes the design, implementation, and mainte-
nance of internal control relevant to the preparation and fair presentation of combined financial statements that are free from
material misstatement, whether due to fraud or error.

Auditorʼs Responsibility

Our responsibility is to express an opinion on these combined financial statements based on our audits. We conducted our audits in
accordance with auditing standards generally accepted in the United States of America. Those standards require that we plan and
perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the financial statements are free from material misstatement.

An audit involves performing procedures to obtain audit evidence about the amounts and disclosures in the financial statements.
The procedures selected depend on the auditor’s judgment, including the assessment of the risks of material misstatement of the
financial statements, whether due to fraud or error. In making those risk assessments, the auditor considers internal control relevant
to the entity’s preparation and fair presentation of the combined financial statements in order to design audit procedures that are
appropriate in the circumstances, but not for the purpose of expressing an opinion on the effectiveness of the entity’s internal con-
trol. Accordingly, we express no such opinion. An audit also includes evaluating the appropriateness of accounting policies used and
the reasonableness of significant accounting estimates made by management, as well as evaluating the overall presentation of the
combined financial statements.
We believe that the audit evidence we have obtained is sufficient and appropriate to provide a basis for our audit opinion.

Opinion

In our opinion, the combined financial statements referred to above present fairly, in all material respects, the financial position of
American Welding Society, Inc. and AWS Foundation as of December 31, 2012, and the changes in their net assets and their cash
flows for the year then ended in accordance with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America.

Morrison, Brown, Argiz & Farra, LLC

Certified Public Accountants
Miami, Florida
April 4, 2013

8669 Doral Blvd., Ste. 130

8669 Doral Blvd., Ste. 130 Doral, Florida 33166
Doral, Florida 33166
800-443-9353, ext. 293
800-443-9353 305-445-6628
305-443-9353 305-443-7559 FAX
305-443-7559 FAX e-mail: found@aws.org
e-mail: info@aws.org www.aws.org/foundation/index.html
www.aws.org

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AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY, INC. AND AWS FOUNDATION

COMBINED STATEMENT OF FINANCIAL POSITION

DECEMBER 31, 2012 (WITH COMPARATIVE TOTALS FOR THE YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31, 2011)
ASSETS 2012 2011

Cash and cash equivalents $ 3,189,231 $ 5,209,344

Accounts and other receivables, net of allowance for
doubtful accounts of approximately $256,000
and $300,000 respectively 2,918,733 2,075,903
Pledges receivable, net 192,700 202,100
Inventory 24,996 46,008
Prepaid expenses 587,739 541,029
Deposits and other receivables 265,800 397,363
Note receivable 3,680,000 -
Other assets 2,394,000 644,000
Investments 40,048,238 32,726,192
Property and equipment, net 26,089,898 22,780,106
TOTAL ASSETS $ 79,391,335 $ 64,622,045

LIABILITIES AND NET ASSETS

LIABILITIES
Accounts payable, accrued expenses and other liabilities $ 1,581,550 $ 1,530,872
Deferred membership, subscription and seminar income 2,865,630 2,840,678
TOTAL LIABILITIES 4,447,180 4,371,550

COMMITMENTS

NET ASSETS
Unrestricted 62,468,193 50,077,915
Temporarily restricted 7,605,256 5,348,700
Permanently restricted 4,870,706 4,823,880
TOTAL NET ASSETS 74,944,155 60,250,495
TOTAL LIABILITIES AND NET ASSETS $ 79,391,335 $ 64,622,045

The accompanying notes are an integral part of these combined financial statements.

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AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY, INC. AND AWS FOUNDATION

COMBINED STATEMENT OF ACTIVITIES
FOR THE YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31, 2012 (WITH COMPARATIVE TOTALS FOR THE YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31, 2011)

Temporarily Permanently
Restricted Restricted Total Total
Revenues Expenses Net Net Assets Net Assets 2012 2011

OPERATING ACTIVITIES:
Convention $ 2,719,673 $ 606,641 $ 2,113,032 $ - $ - $ 2,113,032 $ 1,896,451
Educational services 4,778,179 3,606,383 1,171,796 - - 1,171,796 860,499
Marketing and corporate communications - 626,536 (626,536) - - (626,536) (555,943)
International activities 1,065,652 1,305,145 (239,493) - - (239,493) (238,411)
AWS Foundation - 987,998 (987,998) - - (987,998) (645,878)
WEMCO 120,721 195,046 (74,325) - - (74,325) (124,240)
RWMA 139,189 200,421 (61,232) - - (61,232) (85,027)
ITSA 315,041 325,140 (10,099) - - (10,099) -
Membership 3,066,768 1,683,509 1,383,259 - - 1,383,259 1,459,563
Certification 11,467,132 2,840,139 8,626,993 - - 8,626,993 7,116,787
Technical 4,564,753 1,877,567 2,687,186 - - 2,687,186 2,953,227
Publications 3,422,012 3,025,591 396,421 - - 396,421 652,494
Administration 21,864 4,977,611 (4,955,747) - - (4,955,747) (4,684,599)
Building operations 2,959 577,562 (574,603) - - (574,603) (501,726)
Board approved programs - 55,462 (55,462) - - (55,462) (70,336)
TOTAL OPERATING FUND
BEFORE TRANSFER AND GAIN 31,683,943 22,890,751 8,793,192 - - 8,793,192 8,032,861
Gain on the sale of property 2,771,945 313,971 2,457,974 - - 2,457,974 -
INTER-FUND TRANSFER 42,201 (6,678,660) (6,636,459) - - (6,636,459) (7,494,868)
TOTAL OPERATING FUND
AFTER TRANSFER AND GAIN 34,498,089 16,526,062 4,614,707 - - 4,614,707 537,993
RESERVE:
Gain (loss) on investments 1,922,124 - 1,922,124 - - 1,922,124 (426,913)
Interest and dividends 754,870 - 754,870 - - 754,870 595,346
TOTAL RESERVE FUND
BEFORE TRANSFER 2,676,994 - 2,676,994 - - 2,676,994 168,433
INTER-FUND TRANSFER 1,700,000 (1,600) 1,698,400 - - 1,698,400 5,000,000
TOTAL RESERVE FUND
AFTER TRANSFER $ 4,376,994 $ (1,600) $ 4,375,394 $ - $ - $ 4,375,394 $ 5,168,433

The accompanying notes are an integral part of these combined financial statements.

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AMERICAN
FOR WELDING
THE YEAR ENDED SOCIETY,
DECEMBER INC.
31, 2010 AND
(WITH AWS FOUNDATION
COMPARATIVE TOTALS FOR THE YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31, 2009)
COMBINED STATEMENT OF ACTIVITIES (Continued)
FOR THE YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31, 2012 (WITH COMPARATIVE TOTALS FOR THE YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31, 2011)

Temporarily Permanently
Restricted Restricted Total Total
Revenues Expenses Net Net Assets Net Assets 2012 2011

AWS FOUNDATION:
Donations $ 322,674 $ - $ 322,674 $ 995,955 $ 46,826 $ 1,365,455 $ 939,126
Interest 220,075 - 220,075 102,278 - 322,353 274,020
Gain (loss) on investments, net 541,529 - 541,529 407,420 - 948,949 (151,148)
Net assets released from
restrictions by satisfaction
of purpose restrictions 199,093 - 199,093 (199,093) - - -
Operating expenses - 199,688 (199,688) - - (199,688) (126,939)
Scholarships - 242,410 (242,410) - - (242,410) (245,183)
Fellowship - 50,000 (50,000) - - (50,000) (50,000)
Fundraising and other - 187,323 (187,323) - - (187,323) (169,542)
TOTAL AWS FOUNDATION
FUND BEFORE TRANSFER 1,283,371 679,421 603,950 1,306,560 46,826 1,957,336 470,334
INTER-FUND TRANSFER - (66,505) (66,505) 949,996 - 883,491 625,000
TOTAL AWS FOUNDATION
FUND AFTER TRANSFER 1,283,371 612,916 537,445 2,256,556 46,826 2,840,827 1,095,334
PROPERTY FUND:
Building operations 359,089 1,591,526 (1,232,437) - - (1,232,437) (712,077)
TOTAL PROPERTY FUND
BEFORE TRANSFER 359,089 1,591,526 (1,232,437) - - (1,232,437) (712,077)
INTER-FUND TRANSFER 4,095,169 - 4,095,169 - - 4,095,169 1,869,868
TOTAL PROPERTY FUND
AFTER TRANSFER 4,454,258 1,591,526 2,862,732 - - 2,862,732 1,157,791
Change in Net Assets - - 12,390,278 2,256,556 46,826 14,693,660 7,959,551
NET ASSETS, BEGINNING - - 50,077,915 5,348,700 4,823,880 60,250,495 52,290,944
NET ASSETS, ENDING $ - $ - $ 62,468,193 $7,605,256 $ 4,870,706 $ 74,944,155 $ 60,250,495

The accompanying notes are an integral part of these combined financial statements.

38 JUNE 2013
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AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY, INC. AND AWS FOUNDATION

COMBINED STATEMENT OF CASH FLOWS

FOR THE YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31, 2012 (WITH COMPARATIVE TOTALS FOR THE YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31, 2011)

2012 2011

CASH FLOWS FROM OPERATING ACTIVITIES:

Change in net assets $ 14,693,660 $ 7,959,551

Adjustments to reconcile change in net assets to

net cash provided by operating activities:
Depreciation 628,896 332,880
(Gain) loss on investments, net (2,871,073) 578,061
Gain on sale of property (1,027,774) -
Write-off fixed assets - 128,492
Changes in assets and liabilities:
(Increase) decrease in accounts receivables (842,830) 221,996
Decrease (increase) in pledges receivable, net 9,400 (119,950)
Decrease in inventory 21,012 19,418
Increase in prepaids and other assets (46,710) (171,761)
Decrease (increase) in deposits and other receivables 131,562 (335,660)
Increase (decrease) in accounts payable,
accrued expenses and other liabilities 50,678 (22,799)
Increase in deferred membership, subscription
and seminar income 24,952 269,898

NET CASH PROVIDED BY OPERATING ACTIVITIES 10,771,773 8,860,126

CASH FLOWS FROM INVESTING ACTIVITIES:

Redemption of certificate of deposit - 202,744

Acquisition of Weldmex (1,750,000) -
Proceeds from sale of property (920,000) -
Purchases of property and equipment (5,670,914) (2,336,941)
Purchase of investments, net (4,450,972) (6,074,706)

NET CASH USED IN INVESTING ACTIVITIES (12,791,886) (8,208,903)

NET (DECREASE) INCREASE IN CASH AND CASH EQUIVALENTS (2,020,113) 651,223

CASH AND CASH EQUIVALENTS, BEGINNING OF YEAR 5,209,344 4,558,121

CASH AND CASH EQUIVALENTS, END OF YEAR $ 3,189,231 $ 5,209,344

SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES OF NON-CASH TRANSACTIONS:

Non-Cash Investing Activities
Note receivable sale of property (NOTE 6) $ 3,680,000 $ -

The accompanying notes are an integral part of these combined financial statements.

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AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY, INC. AND AWS FOUNDATION
NOTES TO COMBINED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS DECEMBER 31, 2012
1. NATURE OF ORGANIZATION AND SIGNIFICANT
ACCOUNTING POLICIES
Organization and Purpose
The accompanying combined financial statements include
the accounts of American Welding Society, Inc. (“AWS”),
and its affiliate, AWS Foundation (“Foundation”) (collec-
tively, the “Organizations”). On October 20, 2012, AWS ac-
quired a 100% interest in Weldmex, LLC (NOTE 12). The
accompanying financial statements include the accounts of
Weldmex, LLC. All material intercompany accounts and
transactions have been eliminated upon consolidation.
All material inter-organization accounts and transactions
have been eliminated in the combination. American Weld-
ing Society, Inc. and AWS Foundation are not-for-profit en-
tities, exempt from income tax under Section 501(c)(3) of
the Internal Revenue Code and are primarily engaged in
welding technology, education and research activities. For
income tax purposes, publication advertising revenue and
rental income are considered "unrelated business income”
and are subject to income tax.
Basis of Accounting
The combined financial statements of the Organizations
are prepared on the accrual basis of accounting. The ac-
counts of the Organizations are maintained for internal re-
porting purposes in accordance with the principles of fund
accounting.
Basis of Presentation
The combined financial statements of the Organizations
have been prepared in accordance with the Financial Ac-
counting Standards Board (“FASB”) Accounting Stan-
dards Codification (“ASC”) 958 Not-for-Profit Entities.
The Organizations are required to classify their resources
into three separate classes of net assets: unrestricted, tem-
porarily restricted and permanently restricted. In addition,
the Organizations are required to present a statement of
cash flows. The three classes of net asset categories are as
follows:
Unrestricted — Net assets which are free of donor-imposed
restrictions; all revenues, gains, and losses that are not
changes in permanently or temporarily restricted net assets.
Temporarily Restricted — Net assets where the use by the
Organizations is limited by donor-imposed stipulations that
either expire by the passage of time or that can be fulfilled
or removed by actions of the Organizations pursuant to
those stipulations.
Permanently Restricted — Net assets where the use by the
Organizations is limited by donor-imposed stipulations that
neither expire with the passage of time nor can be fulfilled
or otherwise removed by actions of the Organizations.
The transactions of the Organizations are categorized into
separate funds. The purpose and net asset classification are
as follows:
40 JUNE 2013
Operating — This fund is used to account for all unre-
stricted net assets of American Welding Society, Inc., ex-
cept for those accounted for in the reserve and property
funds. The operating fund also provides administrative sup-
port to the AWS Foundation.
Reserve — This fund is used to account for Board desig-
nated reserve funds which are to be used to supplement the
cash needs of AWS.
AWS Foundation — AWS Foundation’s temporarily re-
stricted net assets consists of donor-restricted contributions
to be used for awards and scholarships. Permanently re-
stricted net assets consist solely of an endowment fund.
Property Fund — This fund is used to account for the net
assets of American Welding Society, Inc. associated with its
new Headquarter facility located in Doral, Florida.
Deferred Membership Fees and Services
Membership and subscription revenues are deferred when
received and recognized as revenue over the life of the
membership and subscription.
Contributions and Promises to Give
Contributions received or made, including promises to give
or pledges, are recognized at fair value in the period in
which they are received or made.
Support that is restricted by the donor is reported as an in-
crease in unrestricted net assets if the restriction expires in
the reporting period in which the support is recognized. All
other donor-restricted support is reported as an increase in
temporarily or permanently restricted net assets, depend-
ing on the nature of the restriction. When a donor restric-
tion expires (that is, when a stipulated time restriction ends
or purpose restriction is accomplished), temporarily re-
stricted net assets are reclassified to unrestricted net assets
and reported in the Combined Statement of Activities as
“Net assets released from restrictions.”
Contributions are recognized when the donor makes a
promise to give to the Organizations, that is, in substance,
unconditional. All other donor-restricted contributions are
reported as increases in temporarily or permanently re-
stricted net assets depending on the nature of the restric-
tions. The Organizations had unconditional promises to
give of $192,700 as of December 31, 2012 (NOTE 2).
The Organizations use the allowance method to determine
the estimated unconditional promises to give that are
doubtful of collection. Management reviews outstanding
promises to give on an ongoing basis. The allowance is
based on prior years’ experience and management’s analy-
sis of specific promises made. Account balances are charged
off against the allowance after all means of collection have
been exhausted and the potential for recovery is considered
remote.
2012 Financial Report Layout_2005 Financial Report 5/15/13 3:08 PM Page 41
AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY, INC. AND AWS FOUNDATION
NOTES TO COMBINED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS DECEMBER 31, 2012
1. NATURE OF ORGANIZATION AND SIGNIFICANT
ACCOUNTING POLICIES (CONTINUED)
Cash Equivalents
The Organizations consider all highly liquid investments
with an initial maturity of three months or less to be cash
equivalents.
Investments
The Organizations report their investments under FASB
ASC 958 Not-For-Profit-Entities. Under the codification, a
not-for-profit organization is required to report investments
in marketable securities with readily determinable fair values
and all investments in debt securities at fair value in the Com-
bined Statement of Financial Position.
Purchased securities are stated at fair market value based on
the most recently traded price of the security at the financial
statement date. Donated securities are recorded at fair value
and sold immediately. Investment gains and losses including
(realized and unrealized gains and losses on investments, in-
terest and dividends) are included in the accompanying
Combined Statement of Activities.
Inventory
Inventory consists primarily of work-in-process relating to
various publications and is valued at lower cost or market.
Cost is determined by the actual expenditures incurred in
the production process.
Risk and Uncertainties
The Organizations have investments in mutual funds that
are exposed to various risks, such as interest rate, market
and credit risk. Due to the level of risk associated with cer-
tain investment securities and the level of uncertainty re-
lated to changes in the value of investment securities, it is at
least reasonably possible that changes in risks in the near
term would materially affect the Combined Statement of
Activities. The Organizations, through their investment ad-
visor and investment committee, monitor the Organizations’
investments and the risks associated on a regular basis,
which the Organizations believe minimizes these risks.
Property and Equipment, Net
Property and equipment, net are defined by the Organiza-
tions as assets with an initial, individual cost of more than
$1,000 and an estimated useful life in excess of one year.
Property and equipment including building improvements
are stated at cost and depreciated using the straight-line
method over the following estimated useful lives of the re-
spective assets:
Estimated Useful Lives (Years)
Building and improvements 14 – 29
Furniture and equipment 5–7
Software 3
Concentration of Credit Risk
Financial instruments that potentially subject the Organiza-
tions to a concentration of credit risk are cash, investments,
certificates of deposit and accounts receivable. The Organi-
zations place their temporary cash and cash equivalents with
high quality financial institutions. At times, cash deposits may
be in excess of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation
("FDIC") insured limits. The Organizations’ investments are
subject to the normal “market risks” of these types of invest-
ments, which are traded in equity markets. The Organiza-
tions’ customer base is relatively stable; management closely
monitors outstanding balances and relationships with cus-
tomers; collection losses have historically been immaterial.
Volunteer Services
A large number of people have contributed significant
amounts of time to the activities of the Organizations. Since
these contributions do not meet the criteria for revenue
recognition, they are not reflected in the Combined State-
ment of Activities.
Allocation of Expenses
The cost of performing the Organizations’ various activities
have been summarized on a functional basis in the accom-
panying Combined Statement of Activities. Accordingly, cer-
tain costs have been allocated among the activities benefited.
Prepaids Expenses
Prepaid expenses consist primarily of work-in-process costs
relating to various publications that have not yet been re-
leased for distribution. Once publications are complete and
ready for their intended use, the costs are amortized over
the life of the publications, usually between two to three
years. Additionally, expenditures which relate to programs
for the next fiscal year are reported as a prepaid asset and
are expensed during the next year as the related program
function takes place.
Inter-fund Payable/Receivable
Amount principally represents advances received by the
Property Fund from the Operating Fund for operating ex-
penses. Such funds totaled $1,961,824 at December 31,
2012 and may be repaid from Property Fund net assets after
the Property Fund’s assets are placed in service and the
Property Fund generates income.
Accounts Receivable and Other Receivables, net
Accounts receivable consists of balances related to semi-
nars, certification exams, royalties and other miscellaneous
programs and are stated at the amount management ex-
pects to collect from outstanding balances at year-end.
Management provides for probable uncollectible amounts
through a provision for bad debt expense based upon a re-
view of outstanding balances, historical collection informa-
tion and current economic conditions. Balances that are
still outstanding after management has used reasonable
collection efforts are written off through a charge to the al-
lowance.
WELDING JOURNAL 41
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AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY, INC. AND AWS FOUNDATION
NOTES TO COMBINED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS DECEMBER 31, 2012
1. NATURE OF ORGANIZATION AND SIGNIFICANT
ACCOUNTING POLICIES (CONTINUED)
Impairment of Long-Lived Assets
The carrying value of long-lived assets is reviewed if the
facts and circumstances, such as significant declines in rev-
enues, earnings or cash flows, or material adverse changes
in the business climate indicate that they may be impaired.
The Organizations perform their review by comparing the
carrying amounts of long-lived assets to the estimated
undiscounted cash flows relating to such assets. If any im-
pairment in the value of the long-lived assets is indicated,
the carrying value of the long-lived assets is adjusted to re-
flect such impairment.
Use of Estimates
The preparation of financial statements in conformity with
accounting principles generally accepted in the United
States of America requires management to make estimates
and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets
and liabilities and disclosure of contingent assets and lia-
bilities at the date of the financial statements and the re-
ported amounts of revenues and expenses during the re-
porting period. Actual results could differ from those
estimates.
Subsequent Events
The Organizations have evaluated subsequent events
through April 4, 2013, which is the date the combined fi-
nancial statements were available to be issued.
Income Taxes
American Welding Society, Inc. and AWS Foundation are
not-for-profit corporations and are exempt from federal in-
come taxes under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Rev-
enue Code. Accordingly, no provision for federal or state
income tax is required for revenues derived from its tax-ex-
empt function. The Organizations are taxed on unrelated
business income less the related expenses. During the year
ended December 31, 2012, there was no net income gener-
ated from unrelated business activities.
American Welding Society, Inc. and AWS Foundation rec-
ognize and measure tax positions based on their technical
merit and assess the likelihood that the positions will be sus-
tained upon examination based on the facts, circumstances
and information available at the end of each period. Inter-
est and penalties on tax liabilities, if any, would be recorded
in interest expense and other non-interest expense,
respectively.
The U.S. Federal jurisdiction is the major tax jurisdiction
where the Organizations file informational tax returns. The
Organizations are generally no longer subject to U.S. Fed-
eral or State examinations by tax authorities for years be-
fore 2009.
Adoption of Accounting Pronouncements
Amendments to Achieve Common Fair Value Measure-
ment and Disclosure Requirements in U.S. GAAP and
IFRS
42 JUNE 2013
In May 2011, the FASB issued an accounting standard up-
date which works to achieve common fair value measure-
ment and disclosure requirements in U.S. GAAP and In-
ternational Financial Reporting Standards. The update
both clarifies the FASB’s intent about the application of ex-
isting fair value guidance, and also changes certain princi-
ples regarding measurement and disclosure. The update is
effective prospectively and is effective for annual periods
beginning after December 15, 2011. Early application is
permitted for interim periods beginning after December 15,
2011. The adoption of this pronouncement did not have an
impact on the combined financial statements.
Recent Accounting Pronouncement
Testing Indefinite-Lived Intangible Assets for Impairment
In July 2012, the FASB issued an accounting standard up-
date which permits an entity to first perform a qualitative
assessment to determine whether it is more likely than not
that an indefinite-lived intangible asset is impaired. If an
entity concludes that it is not more likely than not the in-
definite-lived intangible asset is impaired, it is not neces-
sary to perform the currently prescribed quantitative im-
pairment test. Otherwise, the quantitative impairment test
is required. The update is effective for interim and annual
impairment tests performed for years beginning after Sep-
tember 15, 2012 with early adoption permitted. The Or-
ganizations are currently evaluating the effect the update
will have on its combined financial statements.
2. PLEDGES RECEIVABLE, NET
Unconditional promises to give that are expected to be col-
lected within one year are recorded at net realizable value.
Unconditional promises to give that are expected to be col-
lected in future years are recorded at the present value of
the estimated future cash flows. Amortization of the dis-
counts is included in donations in the Combined Statement
of Activities.
Pledges receivable include the following unconditional
promises as of December 31, 2012:
Amounts due in:
Less than one year $ 105,000
One to five years 100,000
Total 205,000
Less: Unamortized discount 12,300
Pledges receivable, net $ 192,700
Pledges receivable in the amount of $192,700 as of Decem-
ber 31, 2012, are restricted for awards, scholarships and the
mobile tour trailer. Management believes that all pledges
are fully collectible. Therefore, management has not
recorded an allowance for collection losses.
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AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY, INC. AND AWS FOUNDATION

NOTES TO COMBINED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS DECEMBER 31, 2012

3. INVESTMENTS 4. FAIR VALUE MEASUREMENTS

Investments, which are comprised entirely of mutual funds,
The FASB establishes a framework for measuring fair
are presented in the combined financial statements at their
value. That framework provides a fair value hierarchy that
fair market values and consist of the following at December
prioritizes the inputs to valuation techniques used to meas-
31, 2012:
ure fair value. The hierarchy gives the highest priority to un-
Vanguard Investments – Reserve Fund adjusted quoted prices in active markets for identical assets
or liabilities (Level 1 measurements) and the lowest prior-
Total Stock Market Index Fund $ 5,971,270 ity to unobservable inputs (Level 3 measurements).
Total Bond Market Index Fund 4,786,773
Intermediate-Term Investment Grade Bond 2,950,615 The three levels of the fair value hierarchy are described as
Total International Stock Index Fund 2,997,710 follows:
Windsor II Fund 2,077,844
Short-Term Investment Grade Fund 1,970,967 • Level 1 Inputs to the valuation methodology are
unadjusted quoted prices for identical assets or
U.S. Growth Fund 999,401
liabilities in active markets that the Organizations
Morgan Growth Fund 981,191
have the ability to access.
Explorer Fund 849,891
Strategic Equity Fund 874,051 • Level 2 Inputs to the valuation methodology include:
 quoted prices for similar assets or liabilities
Fidelity Investments – Reserve Fund in active markets;
 quoted prices for identical or similar assets or
Janus Short Term Bond Fund Class T 1,319,189
liabilities in inactive markets;
Pimco Low Duration Class D 1,362,992
 inputs other than quoted prices that are
Reserve Fund Investments $ 27,141,894 observable for the asset or liability;
 inputs that are derived principally from or
Vanguard Investments – AWS Foundation
corroborated by observable market data
Total Bond Market Index Fund $ 3,590,267 by correlation or other means.
Total Stock Market Index Fund 2,902,067 If the asset or liability has a specified (con-
Intermediate-Term Investment tractual) term, the Level 2 input must be ob-
Grade Bond 2,095,827 servable for substantially the full term of the
Short-Term Investment Grade Fund 1,399,324 asset or liability.
Total International Stock Index Fund 1,430,784 • Level 3 Inputs to the valuation methodology are unob-
Windsor II Fund 979,399 servable and significant to the fair value meas-
Explorer Fund 424,073 urement.
Morgan Growth Fund 489,399
U.S. Growth Fund 490,964 The asset’s or liability’s fair value measurement level within
Strategic Equity Fund 424,251 the fair value hierarchy is based on the lowest level of any
Prime Money Market Fund 17,812 input that is significant to the fair value measurement. Val-
AWS Section Investments (1,337,823) uation techniques used need to maximize the use of observ-
able inputs and minimize the use of unobservable inputs.
AWS Foundation Investments 12,906,344
Following is a description of the valuation methodologies
Total Investments $ 40,048,238
used for assets measured at fair value. There have been no
AWS Foundation administers investments on behalf of cer- changes in the methodologies used at December 31, 2012.
tain affiliated sections. The investments aggregated
$1,337,823 at December 31, 2012 and are not included in Mutual funds: Valued at the net asset value (“NAV”) of
the combined financial statements. shares held by the Organizations at year end.
The preceding methods described may produce a fair value
Investment income consisted of the following for the year calculation that may not be indicative of net realizable value
ended December 31, 2012: or reflective of future fair values. Furthermore, although
the Organizations believe the valuation methods are ap-
Reserve AWS propriate and consistent with other market participants, the
Fund Foundation use of different methodologies or assumptions to deter-
mine the fair value of certain financial instruments could re-
Interest and dividends $ 754,870 $ 322,353 sult in a different fair value measurement at the reporting
Realized and unrealized date. The values assigned to certain investments are based
losses on investments, net upon currently available information and do not necessar-
of investment fees of ily represent amounts that may ultimately be realized. Be-
$35,511 and $19,938, cause of the inherent uncertainty of valuation, those esti-
respectively 1,922,124 948,949 mated fair values may differ significantly from the values
that would have been used had a ready market for the in-
$2,676,994 $ 1,271,302 vestments existed and the differences could be material.

WELDING JOURNAL 43
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AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY, INC. AND AWS FOUNDATION

NOTES TO COMBINED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS DECEMBER 31, 2012

4. FAIR VALUE MEASUREMENTS (CONTINUED) performed with the remaining $242,800 being released in
2012.
The following table represents the Organizations' financial in-
struments measured at fair value on a recurring basis at De- The Board of Directors approved $5,305,120 to build out
cember 31, 2012 for each of the fair value hierarchy levels: the exterior façade and the interior space to be occupied by
the Organizations. An additional $562,660 has been allo-
Fair Value Measurement at Reporting Date Using:
Quoted Prices cated for tenant space build out. A substantial portion of
In Active Significant Significant capital improvements were completed in 2012. Capital im-
Markets for Other Other provements for 2012 amounted to $4,893,024 and consisted
Identical Observable Unobservable
Fair Value Assets Inputs Inputs of: $4,825,075 used to build out the Organization’s office
Description 12/31/12 (Level 1) (Level 2) (Level 3) space and exterior façade as well as $67,949 used to build
Assets:
Mutual funds:
out tenant space.
Equity U.S.
Large $ 13,610,339 $ 13,610,339 $ - $ - AWS utilizes the services of a property management and
Equity U.S.
Mid/Small 5,234,267 5,234,267 - -
leasing company for the Doral facility. The term of the con-
Equity- tract was initially for six months and renewable for like pe-
International 4,428,494 4,428,494 - - riods of time unless terminated in writing by either party by
Short-Term
Bonds 3,370,291 3,370,291 - -
providing written notice 30 days prior to the date for such
Intermediate renewal. Under the terms of the agreement, AWS is to pay
Bonds 13,404,847 13,404,847 - - the management company an amount equal to 4% of the
$ 40,048,238 $ 40,048,238 $ - $ - gross income of the building, but in no event less than
$2,500 per month. AWS is to also pay commissions for all
The carrying amounts for cash, cash equivalents, receiv- units leased by the manager in an amount equal to 2% of
ables, accounts payable and certain other assets and liabil- the total lease term. Outside brokers also involved in sell-
ities approximate fair value due to the short-term maturity ing leasing space are paid commissions up to 4% of the total
of these financial instruments. lease term. AWS pays supervisory fees for tenant improve-
ments at 3.5% of the contractor’s price to build out.

5. PROPERTY AND EQUIPMENT, NET
Property and equipment, net consist of the following as of
December 31, 2012:
Property Fund
Property and Equipment
for use in Current
Operations:
Land
Building and improvements
Furniture, software
equipment and other
Less: accumulated
depreciation
AWS completed its move to the new headquarters office in
September 2012. As of December 31, 2012, AWS occupied
67.3% of the office building and 23.5% was leased out to
tenants. Depreciation expense relating to AWS operations
amounted to approximately $170,300 for the year ended
Foundation and December 31, 2012 and is reflected under the Operating
Operating Fund Fund. Depreciation expense relating to the tenant portion
at the new facility amounted to approximately $119,100 for
the year ended December 31, 2012 and is reflected under
the Property Fund.
$ 6,191,574 $ -
18,188,052 - As of December 31, 2012, AWS, as lessor, entered into nine
operating leases with third parties. The operating leases
- 7,066,958 have various terms expiring through 2021. Rental income
24,379,626 7,066,958 from leasing activities is recorded as earned over the terms
of the leases. Rental income of approximately $359,100 was
345,247 5,011,439
earned for the year ended December 31, 2012, and is within
$ 24,034,379 $ 2,055,519
the Combined Statement of Activities Property Fund.

Depreciation expense was $628,896 for the year ended De- Minimum future rentals to be received on leases, subse-
cember 31, 2012. quent to the year ending December 31, 2012 are as follows:

New Headquarters For the years ending December 31,

During 2010, AWS purchased a five story 120,000 square
2013 $ 421,000
feet office building in the City of Doral, Florida for
2014 344,000
$19,000,000. The purchase was made with operating cash as
2015 255,000
well as AWS reserves, hence no financing was involved. In
2016 217,000
connection with the purchase of the new facility, the seller
2017 179,000
agreed at its sole cost and expense, to complete certain re-
Thereafter 744,000
pairs, refurbishment, and replacement at the facility
Total $ 2,160,000
thereby agreeing to have AWS withhold and retain
$1,000,000 of the purchase price. In 2011, approximately
$757,200 of the Holdback amount was released for work

44 JUNE 2013
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AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY, INC. AND AWS FOUNDATION
NOTES TO COMBINED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS DECEMBER 31, 2012
5. PROPERTY AND EQUIPMENT, NET (CONTINUED)
Old Headquarters
On February 2, 2012, AWS entered into an agreement to sell
its current office facility located on 550 NW 42nd Avenue and
the adjacent apartment complex located on 4227 NW 5th
Street for $4,600,000. At time of closing, February 27th, 2012,
AWS received a 20% down payment or $920,000 and the re-
maining balance was financed by AWS. The purchaser gave a
purchase money first mortgage in favor of AWS in the sum of
$3,680,000 (NOTE 6).
At the time of sale, building and related improvements
amounted to $4,772,431 and accumulated depreciation
amounted to $2,944,375. Closing costs including brokerage
commissions were $313,970. A gain was recorded from the
sale of the premises in the amount of $2,457,974.
6. NOTE RECEIVABLE
During the year ended December 31, 2012, AWS entered
into a note receivable with 550 Lejeune, LLC (the “pur-
chaser”) in connection with the sale of the Old Headquar-
ters (NOTE 5). The sum of the purchaser’s note is
$3,680,000 with a ten year balloon at 0% from the closing
date until the move out date or September 30, 2012, and
from the move out date until the date that is 10 years from
the closing date at 5.25% annual interest. The note was
recorded at present value. Monthly interest installments in
the amount of $16,100 began November 15, 2012. A per-
sonal unconditional guaranty of collection in favor of AWS
was received from one of the principals of the holding com-
pany acquiring the office facility at the time of closing.
7. TEMPORARILY RESTRICTED NET ASSETS
Net assets of the AWS Foundation in the amount of
$7,605,256 as of December 31, 2012, are restricted for
awards, scholarships and specific programs. Net assets of
$199,093 were released from donor restrictions by granting
awards, scholarships and funding specific programs for the
year ended December 31, 2012.
8. PERMANENTLY RESTRICTED NET ASSETS
Net assets in the amount of $4,870,706 as of December 31,
2012, are permanently restricted endowments which are to
provide a source of funds predominantly for educational,
research and other charitable purposes.
9. INTERFUND TRANSFER
Funds are periodically transferred from the Operating
Fund to the Reserve Fund and the AWS Foundation Fund.
For the year ended December 31, 2012, the Operating Fund
transferred $1,698,400 to the Reserve Fund, due to positive
financial results and cash flows. The Operating Fund also
transferred $883,491 to AWS Foundation to complete the
funding goal for the Educators Scholarship Fund and to ac-
quire a mobile tour trailer.
For the year ended December 31, 2012, the Operating Fund
advanced $4,095,169 for capital improvements and other re-
lated items for the new facility (NOTE 5). The activities of the
new facility have been reflected under the Property Fund.
10. ENDOWMENT
The AWS Foundation’s (the "Foundation") endowment
consists of two separate investment funds established for
welding education, research and other charitable purposes.
Its endowment includes donor-restricted endowment
funds, board fund and temporarily restricted funds. As re-
quired by accounting principles generally accepted in the
United States of America, net assets associated with en-
dowment funds are classified and reported based on the ex-
istence or absence of donor-imposed restrictions.
In 2011, the State of Florida adopted the Florida Uniform
Prudent Management of Institutional Funds Act (“FUP-
MIFA”). The Foundation has interpreted the FUPMIFA as
requiring the preservation of the fair value of the original
gift as of the gift date of the donor-restricted endowment
funds absent explicit donor stipulations to the contrary. As
a result of this interpretation, the Foundation classifies as
permanently restricted net assets (a) the original value of
gifts donated to the permanent endowment, (b) the origi-
nal value of subsequent gifts to the permanent endowment
and (c) accumulations to the permanent endowment made
in accordance with the direction of the applicable donor gift
instrument at the time the accumulation is added to the
fund. The remaining portion of the donor-restricted en-
dowment fund that is not classified in permanently re-
stricted net assets is classified as temporarily restricted net
assets until those amounts are appropriated for expendi-
ture by the Foundation in a manner consistent with the stan-
dard of prudence prescribed by FUPMIFA.
In accordance with the FUPMIFA, the Foundation consid-
ers the following factors in making a determination to ap-
propriate or accumulate donor-restricted endowment
funds:
(1) The duration and preservation of the fund
(2) The purposes of the Foundation and the donor-
restricted endowment fund
(3) General economic conditions
(4) The expected total return from income and the
appreciation of investments
(5) Other resources of the Foundation
(6) The investment policies of the Foundation
For the year ended December 31, 2012, the Foundation has
elected not to add appreciation for cost of living or other
spending policies to its permanently restricted endowment
for inflation and other economic conditions.
WELDING JOURNAL 45
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AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY, INC. AND AWS FOUNDATION

NOTES TO COMBINED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS DECEMBER 31, 2012

10. ENDOWMENT (CONTINUED) Spending Policy and How the Investment Objectives Relate to
Spending Policy
Summary of endowment net assets at December 31, 2012:
The Foundation has a policy of appropriating for distribu-
Temporarily Permanently
Unrestricted Restricted Restricted Total tion each year 5 percent of its endowment fund's value over
Donor restricted the prior 12 months through the calendar year-end pro-
endowment funds $ 1,421,061 $ 6,721,765 $ 4,870,706 $ 13,013,532 ceeding the fiscal year in which the distribution is planned.
Board restricted
endowment funds - 883,491 - 883,491
In establishing this policy, the Foundation considered the
long-term expected return on its endowment. Accordingly,
Total endowment over the long term, the Foundation expects to maintain the
net assets $ 1,421,061 $ 7,605,256 $ 4,870,706 $ 13,897,023 purchasing power of the endowment assets held in perpetu-
Change in endowment net assets at December 31, 2012: ity or for a specified term as well as to provide additional real
growth through new gifts and investment return.
Temporarily Permanently
Unrestricted Restricted Restricted Total
Endowment net
assets, beginning $ 883,615 $ 5,348,700 $ 4,823,880 $ 11,056,195 11. COMMITMENTS AND CONTINGENCIES
Interest and
dividends 220,075 102,278 - 322,353
Operating Leases
Net investment
income 541,529 407,420 - 948,949
Released from During 2012, the Organizations entered into various oper-
restriction and ating lease agreements involving equipment. Minimum
appropriated for
expenditure (480,327) (199,093) - (679,420) monthly payments are approximately $21,000. Rent expense
Contributions for the year ended December 31, 2012 totaled approxi-
and transfers 256,169 1,945,951 46,826 2,248,946 mately $247,000. Minimum annual payments on the non-
Endowment
net assets, ending $ 1,421,061 $ 7,605,256 $ 4,870,706 $ 13,897,023
cancellable portion of the leases are as follows:

Summary of endowment assets at December 31, 2012: For the years ending December 31,

Temporarily Permanently 2013 $ 238,000

Unrestricted Restricted Restricted Total
2014 212,000
Investments $ 623,082 $ 7,412,556 $ 4,870,706 $ 12,906,344 2015 205,000
Cash 83,909 - - 83,909 2016 40,000
Pledges - 192,700 - 192,700 2017 19,000
Property &
Equipment, net 352,508 - - 352,508
Other assets, net 361,562 - - 361,562 Total $ 714,000
Total endowment
assets $ 1,421,061 $ 7,605,256 $ 4,870,706 $ 13,897,023

Funds with Deficiencies
From time to time, the fair value of assets associated with in-
dividual donor restricted endowment funds may fall below
the level that the donor requires the Foundation to retain as
a fund of perpetual duration. There were no such deficien-
cies in the endowment funds as of December 31, 2012.
Return Objectives and Risk Parameters
The Foundation has adopted investment and spending poli-
cies for endowment assets that attempt to provide a pre-
dictable stream of funding to programs supported by its en-
dowment while seeking to maintain the purchasing power of
the endowment assets. The Foundation expects its endow-
ment funds, over time, to provide a rate of return in excess
of the principal. Actual returns in any given year may vary.
Strategies Employed for Achieving Objectives
To satisfy its long-term rate-of-return objectives, the Foun-
dation relies on a total return strategy in which investment
returns are achieved through both capital appreciation (re-
alized and unrealized) and current yield (interest and divi-
dends).
Royalty Agreement
On October 26, 2005, AWS entered into a Publication Sales
Agreement with World Engineering Exchange (“WEX”),
whereby WEX has been given non-exclusive worldwide
rights to duplicate, package, facsimile transmit, price, pro-
mote, distribute, sell and/or lease AWS’s documents and
technical publications through paper and electronic media
formats and compilations. On May 8, 2007, the term of the
agreement was amended to extend the initial period to sixty
(60) months commencing on January 1, 2006. The agree-
ment can be renewed for two (5) year periods with the same
terms and conditions except for the pricing which shall be
negotiated by the parties in good faith. On September 24,
2010, AWS exercised its renewal option; the term was
amended and restated for an additional 60 months com-
mencing January 1, 2011. On October 14, 2011, the Organ-
ization entered into a second amendment to reflect a
change in royalty percentages for lease and individual doc-
uments. AWS royalties will increase as a result of the
change. WEX will pay AWS royalties based on the per-
centages indicated per the agreement. The agreement is
contingent upon AWS’s continued performance, which
includes the production and release of new and revised

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AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY, INC. AND AWS FOUNDATION
NOTES TO COMBINED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS DECEMBER 31, 2012
11. COMMITMENTS AND CONTINGENCIES
(CONTINUED)
publications periodically. In addition, the list price shall be
no less than the prices as indicated in AWS’s catalog.Under
the terms of the agreement, AWS earned $4,847,360 during
the year ended December 31, 2012. Such amount has been
included in revenues in various departments in the Com-
bined Statement of Activities.
On May 2, 2009, AWS entered into an agreement with The
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (“ASME”),
whereby ASME has the nonexclusive right to reproduce
AWS’s standards. The license applied to all sales from the
2012 edition of the filler metal specifications. ASME will
pay AWS royalties equal to 25% of the net sales per quar-
ter. Under the terms of this agreement, AWS earned ap-
proximately $221,000 during the year ended December 31,
2012. On September 4, 2012, AWS entered into a similar
agreement with ASME to reproduce the 2013 and 2015 edi-
tions of the filler metal specifications. ASME will pay AWS
royalties equal to 30% of the net sales per quarter for the
2013 edition and 35% of the net sales per quarter for the
2015 edition.
12. WELDMEX LLC
On December 5, 2007, AWS entered into an agreement
with Trade Show Consulting, LLC (“TSC”) to create a lim-
ited liability company known as Weldmex LLC (the “LLC”)
to acquire and operate the Weldmex Trade Show, a show
solely owned by TSC.
In consideration for the sale, transfer and assignment of the
Weldmex Trade Show to the LLC, TSC was paid a total of
$644,000. As a result, AWS acquired 55% ownership in the
LLC. The existence of the LLC continued through Octo-
ber 16, 2012 when the LLC purchased the entire percent-
age interest of TSC for $1,750,000. The buyout price was
negotiated based on 45% of the earnings before interest,
taxes, depreciation and amortization (“EBITDA”) calcu-
lated for the 2012 Weldmex show which amounted to
$465,515 multiplied by a factor of 6.5. Reasonable, non-ex-
traordinary expenses normally associated with the LLC not
covered by the budget and as agreed by the members of the
LLC were subtracted from the amount of the EBITDA.
Funds for the purchase of the Weldmex Trade Show came
from AWS.
Total payments made to TSC to purchase the Weldmex
Trade Show amounted to $2,394,000 and is included under
the caption "Other assets," in the Combined Statement of
Financial Position. The acquisition of the LLC was
recorded as a business combination. The purchase price
has been fully allocated to one asset, identified as the rights
to the Weldmex show (“Rights”). Since there is not an ac-
tive market for this purchase, the cost of the purchase was
determined to approximate the fair value of the asset ac-
quired. There were no other assets or liabilities in the LLC
at the time of acquisition. This intangible asset’s useful life
is not limited to legal, regulatory, contractual, competitive,
economic or other factors. Therefore, management has de-
termined the Rights to have an indefinite life as the use of
the asset extends beyond a foreseeable horizon and there
is no time limit on the period of time over which it is ex-
pected to contribute to the cash flows of AWS. Intangible
assets with indefinite lives are not amortized. AWS will re-
view the Rights annually for impairment and evaluate the
remaining useful life if the Rights are determined to be no
longer indefinite.
Earnings received by AWS from the show since inception
totaled $1,168,600. AWS anticipates a return on investment
within two years.
On January 11, 2013, Weldmex, LLC now solely owned by
AWS entered into an agreement with TSC for show man-
agement services. TSC services will include developing an
annual budget subject to approval by AWS, conducting
contract negotiations, overseeing and managing service
vendors, general show marketing and promotion, exhibit
space selling, contracting and floor layout, customer sup-
port and onsite management and logistics. TSC shall be
paid a fixed fee of $170,000 annually and incentive fees as
follows: (1) 5% of exhibit space revenues and (2) 10% of
Fabtech Mexico royalties paid to Weldmex, LLC for up to
30,000 square feet and 15% of Fabtech Mexico royalties
paid to Weldmex, LLC for square footage over 30,000
square feet. The agreement is for five annual WELDMEX
shows from 2013 through the end of the 2017 show. Either
party may terminate without cause no later than twelve
months prior to the commencement of any WELDMEX
show and with cause should any party commit a material
breach within thirty days of receipt of written notice from
the non-breaching party.
13. MANAGEMENT SERVICES
On May 17, 2010, AWS signed an association management
agreement to provide administrative services, office space,
facilities and equipment to the Gases and Welding Distrib-
utors Association (“GAWDA”), a not-for-profit trade asso-
ciation incorporated in Pennsylvania. As consideration for
the professionally contracted services provided under the
agreement, GAWDA pays AWS a management fee based
on the compensation and benefits to be provided by AWS’s
personnel serving as the Executive Director and Coordina-
tor positions, payable in equal monthly installments. Addi-
tionally, GAWDA reimburses AWS for all direct pass-
through costs relating to association specific matters. As of
December 31, 2012, management fees for services provided
amounted to $322,153.
14. EMPLOYEE BENEFIT PLAN
The Organizations have a simplified employee pension
plan for all full-time employees. Full-time employees are
WELDING JOURNAL 47
2012 Financial Report Layout_2005 Financial Report 5/15/13 3:11 PM Page 48

AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY, INC. AND AWS FOUNDATION

NOTES TO COMBINED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS DECEMBER 31, 2012

eligible for participation in the plan the first day of the
month after they are employed. Effective June 1, 2008, the
Organizations will contribute a maximum of 8% of the em-
ployees’ base salary, composed of a 4% initial contribution
and a match up to 4% of an employee’s voluntary contri-
bution. The Organizations made contributions totaling ap-
proximately $512,500 during the year ended December 31,
2012.
15. EMPLOYMENT AGREEMENT
The Organizations entered into an employment agreement
with its Executive Director on November 13, 2012 for a
term of three years; the first year commencing January 1,
2013. The Organizations will provide certain benefits for
the period set forth in the agreement.

48 JUNE 2013
trumpf_FP_TEMP 5/15/13 10:16 AM Page 49

For Info go to www.aws.org/ad-index

Fellow Letter 2013_Layout 1 5/15/13 3:36 PM Page 50

Friends and Colleagues:

I want to encourage you to submit nomination packages for those individuals whom you feel
have a history of accomplishments and contributions to our profession consistent with the standards
set by the existing Fellows. In particular, I would make a special request that you look to the most
senior members of your Section or District in considering members for nomination. In many cases,
the colleagues and peers of these individuals who are the most familiar with their contributions, and
who would normally nominate the candidate, are no longer with us. I want to be sure that we take
the extra effort required to make sure that those truly worthy are not overlooked because no obvious
individual was available to start the nomination process.

For specifics on the nomination requirements, please contact Wendy Sue Reeve at AWS
headquarters in Miami, or simply follow the instructions on the Fellow nomination form in this issue
of the Welding Journal. Please remember, we all benefit in the honoring of those who have made
major contributions to our chosen profession and livelihood. The deadline for submission is July 1,
2013. The Committee looks forward to receiving numerous Fellow nominations for 2014
consideration.

Sincerely,

Thomas M. Mustaleski
Chair, AWS Fellows Selection Committee
 Critical: If this box appears yellow turn the Overprint Preview setting on in Acrobat

Base Copy: 01
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Code Color:
275031 _501F

PO#:
Flat Size: 8.375 X 11.0
Fellow Description Blk, PANTONE 468 C
DEFINITION AND HISTORY
The American Welding Society, in 1990, established the honor of Fellow of the Society to recognize members for
distinguished contributions to the field of welding science and technology, and for promoting and sustaining the professional V. 01
stature of the field. Election as a Fellow of the Society is based on the outstanding accomplishments and technical impact of the
individual. Such accomplishments will have advanced the science, technology and application of welding, as evidenced by:
∗ Sustained service and performance in the advancement of welding science and technology
∗ Publication of papers, articles and books which enhance knowledge of welding
∗ Innovative development of welding technology
∗ Society and chapter contributions
∗ Professional recognition

RULES
1. Candidates shall have 10 years of membership in AWS
2. Candidates shall be nominated by any five members of the Society
3. Nominations shall be submitted on the official form available from AWS Headquarters
4. Nominations must be submitted to AWS Headquarters no later than July 1 of the year prior to that in
which the award is to be presented
5. Nominations will remain valid for three years
6. All information on nominees will be held in strict confidence
7. No more than two posthumous Fellows may be elected each year

NUMBER OF FELLOWS
Maximum of 10 Fellows selected each year.

AWS Fellow Application Guidelines

Nomination packages for AWS Fellow should clearly demonstrate the candidates outstanding contributions to the advance-
ment of welding science and technology. In order for the Fellows Selection Committee to fairly assess the candidates qualifica-
3/8” BINDING STUB
BLIND PERF
1/8” SPINE TRIM

tions, the nomination package must list and clearly describe the candidates specific technical accomplishments, how they con-

1/8” FACE TRIM

tributed to the advancement of welding technology, and that these contributions were sustained. Essential in demonstrating the
candidates impact are the following (in approximate order of importance).

1. Description of significant technical advancements. This should be a brief summary of the candidates most
significant contributions to the advancement of welding science and technology.
2. Publications of books, papers, articles or other significant scholarly works that demonstrate the contributions cited
in (1). Where possible, papers and articles should be designated as to whether they were published in
peer-reviewed journals.
3. Inventions and patents.
4. Professional recognition including awards and honors from AWS and other professional societies.
5. Meaningful participation in technical committees. Indicate the number of years served on these committees and
any leadership roles (chair, vice-chair, subcommittee responsibilities, etc.).
6. Contributions to handbooks and standards.
7. Presentations made at technical conferences and section meetings.
8. Consultancy — particularly as it impacts technology advancement.
9. Leadership at the technical society or corporate level, particularly as it impacts advancement of welding technology.
10. Participation on organizing committees for technical programming.
11. Advocacy — support of the society and its technical advancement through institutional, political or other means.

Note: Application packages that do not support the candidate using the metrics listed above
will have a very low probability of success.

Supporting Letters
Letters of support from individuals knowledgeable of the candidate and his/her contributions are encouraged. These
letters should address the metrics listed above and provide personal insight into the contributions and stature of the
candidate. Letters of support that simply endorse the candidate will have little impact on the selection process.

Return completed Fellow nomination package to:

Wendy S. Reeve
American Welding Society
Senior Manager
Award Programs and Administrative Support
8669 Doral Blvd., Suite 130
Doral, FL 33166

Telephone: 800-443-9353, extension 293

SUBMISSION DEADLINE: July 1, 2013

1/8” FOOT TRIM PAGE 1

 Critical: If this box appears yellow turn the Overprint Preview setting on in Acrobat

Base Copy: 01
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Code Color:
(please type or print in black ink) 275031 _502B
CLASS OF 2014
PO#:
FELLOW NOMINATION FORM
Flat Size: 8.375 X 11.0
Blk, PANTONE 468 C
DATE_________________NAME OF CANDIDATE________________________________________________________________________

AWS MEMBER NO.___________________________YEARS OF AWS MEMBERSHIP____________________________________________

V. 01
HOME ADDRESS____________________________________________________________________________________________________

CITY_______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE________________________

PRESENT COMPANY/INSTITUTION AFFILIATION_______________________________________________________________________

TITLE/POSITION____________________________________________________________________________________________________

BUSINESS ADDRESS________________________________________________________________________________________________

CITY______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE_________________________

ACADEMIC BACKGROUND, AS APPLICABLE:

INSTITUTION______________________________________________________________________________________________________

MAJOR & MINOR__________________________________________________________________________________________________

DEGREES OR CERTIFICATES/YEAR____________________________________________________________________________________

LICENSED PROFESSIONAL ENGINEER: YES_________NO__________ STATE______________________________________________

SIGNIFICANT WORK EXPERIENCE:

COMPANY/CITY/STATE_____________________________________________________________________________________________

3/8” BINDING STUB

BLIND PERF

1/8” SPINE TRIM

POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________
1/8” FACE TRIM

COMPANY/CITY/STATE_____________________________________________________________________________________________

POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________

SUMMARIZE MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS IN THESE POSITIONS:

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
IT IS MANDATORY THAT A CITATION (50 TO 100 WORDS, USE SEPARATE SHEET) INDICATING WHY THE NOMINEE SHOULD BE
SELECTED AS AN AWS FELLOW ACCOMPANY NOMINATION PACKET. IF NOMINEE IS SELECTED, THIS STATEMENT MAY BE IN-
CORPORATED WITHIN THE CITATION CERTIFICATE.

SEE GUIDELINES ON REVERSE SIDE

SUBMITTED BY: PROPOSER_______________________________________________AWS Member No.___________________
Print Name___________________________________
The Proposer will serve as the contact if the Selection Committee requires further information. Signatures on this nominating form, or
supporting letters from each nominator, are required from four AWS members in addition to the Proposer. Signatures may be acquired
by photocopying the original and transmitting to each nominating member. Once the signatures are secured, the total package should
be submitted.

NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________

Print Name___________________________________ Print Name___________________________________
AWS Member No.______________ AWS Member No.______________

NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________

Print Name___________________________________ Print Name___________________________________
AWS Member No.______________ AWS Member No.______________

SUBMISSION DEADLINE July 1, 2013

PAGE 2 1/8” FOOT TRIM

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Hoffart 6-13_Layout 1 5/16/13 1:07 PM Page 54

Cladding Faces the

Challenges of Oil and
Natural Gas Drilling
BY WM. JEFF HOFFART

Consider these the factors before WM. JEFF HOFFART is an automation

specialist with Fronius USA (www.fronius-
usa.com). Fronius International GmbH is an
setting up a cladding operation Austrian-based company with its USA sub-
sidiary headquartered in Portage, Ind. Sales
and Service centers are located in
Chattanooga, Tenn., and Brighton, Mich.

he search for oil and gas has never discontinuities, and straight beam ultra- Equipment Selection Is
T been as intense as it is today; the
easy oil has been found. Today, the
search focuses on previously “too expen-
sonic testing is used to verify the cladding
thickness. If discontinuities are identi-
fied, they must be “surgically” removed,
Critical to Success
sive to obtain” oil and gas, specifically and the area prepped for repair welding. Specialized cladding equipment is
subsea and shale formation drilling. The liquid penetrate examination is then used to deposit the weld overlay. Because
These new discoveries often involve ex- repeated. of its controlled penetration and high
posure of equipment to high levels of H2S
(hydrogen sulfide) gas, which is highly
corrosive to many materials. To prevent
corrosion on valves, pipes, and other oil
field equipment, the exposure zone is
often protected with a high alloy weld
overlay deposit, for example Inconel®
625, through a process known as
cladding. Successful cladding for these
highly corrosive environments requires
near-perfect weld integrity and thorough
weld inspection.
As with all welding, the first yield
quality is extremely important. This is es-
pecially true for cladding because if the
H2S can penetrate the high-alloy cladded
material and contact the carbon steel
backing, the underlying material will cor-
rode and failure will occur in time. The
clad deposit is examined using liquid pen-
etrate to ensure that there are no surface

Cladding a valve body at an intersecting

bore requires tight control of parameters.

54 JUNE 2013
Hoffart 6-13_Layout 1 5/16/13 1:08 PM Page 55

Fig. 1 — Multiaxis control system for

cladding a valve.

arc-on time, a welding process of choice
is gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) uti-
lizing hot wire addition. Most often,
0.045-in. wire is used, but some compa-
nies will also use 0.035- and 1⁄16-in. wire
diameters. To maximize the weld deposit
quality, pulse welding power supplies are
used for both the GTAW process and hot
wire addition. Although many pulse
welding power supplies are available in
the industry, they are not all created
equal, and close attention should be paid
to the selection process. When Inconel®
or austenitic stainless is used for the weld
deposit, the selected pulse power supply
must have a wide range of pulse settings
to enable fine adjustment of the arc. In
addition, the GTAW power supply and
the hot wire power supply are best linked
via software to enable peak performance.
Because of its virtual infinite control, a
digitally designed power supply can pro-
vide the best all-around weld deposit
chemistry and weld bead profile.

WELDING JOURNAL 55
Hoffart 6-13_Layout 1 5/16/13 1:08 PM Page 56

Fig. 2 — Pipe cladding system with

visual monitoring.

Precise Placement and

Intersecting Bores
Require Computer Control
Computer-controlled motion equip-
ment ensures the exact placement of each
weld bead and superior control of the
welding process. The equipment must
also be designed to handle high preheat
and interpass welding temperatures. This
is accomplished by utilizing water cool-
ing systems on all critically exposed
equipment — torches, boom arms, cam-
eras, etc. Further complicating the equip-
ment design is the welding positioning
accuracy needed to clad valves with mul-
tiple intersecting bores and/or differently Fig. 3 — Cladding control system with monitoring and recording capabilities.
shaped bores.
For example, a valve bore is often po-
sitioned vertically for cladding because
the intersecting bores on the outside of Pipe Cladding most applications can be many miles. Re-
the valve prevent easy rotational move- quirements of a few hundred feet to more
ment in the horizontal position. The in- The cladding of pipe provides its own than 40 miles have been completed
tersecting bores require the cladding host of challenges. A variety of pipe and/or contemplated. Cladding equip-
equipment to turn off and on at each in- lengths are often clad, with the longest ment used to clad pipe must use multi-
tersecting point. To handle these differ- being 42 ft. When welding pipe, the ple GTAW arcs working simultaneously.
ently shaped bores, intersecting bores, square feet of weld deposit can be enor- Therefore, the boom arm must be robust,
and/or ring faces, the system must have mous; therefore, throughput must be and a means of visualization is also criti-
a multiaxis control system — Fig. 1. high because the linear requirements in cal — Fig. 2. All aspects of the equipment

56 JUNE 2013
Hoffart 6-13_Layout 1 5/16/13 1:08 PM Page 57
Table 1 — Process Parameter Influence on Weld Quality
Welding Parameter
Welding speed
Step distance
Wire diameter
Wire feed speed
Shielding gas
must be water cooled because weld times
for a single 40-ft pipe can literally be days,
depending on the inside diameter.
Maintaining Quality
Because H2S is highly corrosive, weld
integrity must be good, and weld inspec-
tion must be thorough. To ensure the
maximum level of quality, cladding
equipment should offer constant moni-
toring and recording capabilities of all
the welding parameters — amps, volts,
wire speed, travel speed, and shielding
gas. If oscillation is used, the stroke width
and stroke speed should also be moni-
tored and recorded.
Some cladding equipment offers vi-
sual monitoring and recording capabili-
ties (Fig. 3), which are highly desirable
especially in situations with poor access
to the weld deposit. Although many
things can cause weld quality issues such
as incorrect welding parameters, dirty
wire or weld surface, etc., the most com-
mon problem is operator error in not en-
suring that the tungsten remains clean
enough to allow a well-defined arc pro-
file and ensure proper weld bead tie-in
and overall profile.
Operating Parameters
A complete understanding of welding
process parameters is essential when per-
forming cladding. Depending on the
cladding application, a wide range of
welding process parameters can be de-
ployed. Once the proper equipment has
been chosen, the optimization of the
Influence
Bead profile and throughput
Balancing welding speed with arc amperage and wire feed speed is critical to
achieving optimum results
Bead profile in the “tie-in zone”
Bead profile
Optimizing the wire size to the available heat input provides maximum weld
pool control
Throughput
Higher wire feeds provide more coverage (in.2)
Throughput and bead profile
Some gas mixtures permit higher wire feed speeds because of the melt rate
welding process variables must be estab-
lished and qualified. See Table 1 for an
abbreviated list of welding process pa-
rameters for hot wire GTAW and the in-
fluence they have on weld quality and
throughput. Please note that this is a gen-
eral overview; welding parameters can be
intermixed to achieve a wide variety of
outcomes.
Is Cladding for You?
With a host of variables to consider,
a company that elects to enter the
cladding business must have a thorough
understanding of the products that will
be clad and the throughput that will be
required to meet their market demands.
Here are just a few examples of the
questions that should be addressed while
investigating equipment options:
•What is the desired deposited clad
chemistry?
• Is oscillation required?
• How many square feet must be clad
in a given time period?
• What is the maximum/minimum
bore length?
• What is the maximum/minimum
bore diameter?
• What shapes of bore and ring faces
must be clad?
• What are the number and sizes of
intersecting bores?
For companies contemplating adding
cladding to their capabilities, attention
to detail is imperative to success. Success
or failure will be achieved by how well a
company chooses:
• The required cladding equipment
Throughput capability
Durability
Serviceability
• Responsiveness of the equipment
manufacturer’s service support
• Preventative Maintenance Schedule
• Machine Operators
Minimize turnover
Provide ongoing operator and
maintenance training.
Finally, a company that enters into the
cladding market needs to have someone
available — on staff or via supplier or
consultant — who has an excellent un-
derstanding of welding parameters
so that the maximum throughput and
overall cladding deposit quality can be
optimized.
Growing Need for
Cladding
Because of the changing demands in
oil and gas exploration, the need for
cladding will intensify in the coming
years. Cladding technology has been ac-
cepted by the industry as the standard
when corrosion is a factor in oil field
equipment design. Successfully applying
cladding material is directly related to:
1) the equipment that is used, 2) the skill
level of the operators to ensure the
proper use of the equipment, and 3) the
development of optimum welding pa-
rameters. If these three specific areas are
properly addressed, the cladding com-
pany and their customers can be ensured
that the maximum cladding quality will
always be deposited.♦
WELDING JOURNAL 57
Leska Feature June 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 1:14 PM Page 58

Fig. 1 — The newest generation of tube-to-tube

sheet welding systems are more compact,
durable, faster, and easier to operate.

BY MARK LESKA
(MLeska@ehwachs.com) is
senior marketing coordinator,
ITW Orbital Cutting & Welding,
E. H. Wachs®/Orbitalum
Products, Lincolnshire, Ill.

Technology Drives U.S.

Heat Exchanger Resurgence
T
ube-to-tube sheet mechanized resurgence as newer, larger, and more

Today’s orbital welding is not new. The technology

— originally developed in the
complex exchanger designs have come
online and users have demanded an ever-

welding systems United States — has been utilized in the

heat exchanger fabrication market going
back some 40 years. What is new is the
deliver the speed, evolution of orbital welding technology
and the role it’s playing in bringing heat
quality, and ease exchanger fabrication back to the United
States.
of use that can Largely due to competitive pressures,
U.S. heat exchanger fabrication began
help companies transitioning overseas about 15 years
ago. Lower labor and material costs
stay competitive drove companies to look outside the
United States to build these devices. Re-
cently, however, U.S.-based heat ex-
changer fabrication has undergone a
higher level of performance and quality.
This outsourcing trend took its toll on
tube sheet orbital welding manufactur-
ers. As the outsourcing trend gathered
steam, domestic demand for tube-to-tube
sheet applications dried up, with the first
generation of orbital welding systems
largely disappearing from the market-
place. Now that this fabrication is return-
ing stateside, many progressive compa-
nies are looking at the newest generation
of orbital welding systems to deliver the
speed, quality, repeatability, and rugged
duty cycles needed to remain competi-
tive in a global economy — Fig. 1.

58 JUNE 2013
Leska Feature June 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 1:14 PM Page 59

These orbital welding systems can

help American companies remain com-
petitive in a global marketplace, making
it financially attractive to fabricate in the
United States. This is particularly true
with complex, restricted space or highly
technical exchanger applications. Today’s
orbital welding systems are more com-
pact, powerful, durable, faster, and eas-
ier to program and operate than ever be-
fore.

Orbital Weld Preparation

In both manual and mechanized weld-
ing, the quality of the finished weld is di-
rectly related to the quality of the weld
preparation. Rather than using circular
saws with saw guides or grinding wheels
that leave burrs, uneven wall thickness,
melted tube debris, or a crooked cutline,
a precision tube saw such as one of the
GF series from Orbitalum Tools pro-
duces a finished edge that is ready for
many orbital welding applications.
Some applications require squaring
Fig. 2 — Facing machine tools deliver a perfectly square, burr-free edge with no gaps (or “facing”) the cut edge further. In
or misalignments for orbital welding.

Fig. 3 — Full autofacing machine tools such as shown here speed weld preparation on the hundreds of tube-to-tube sheet welds
used in a typical heat exchanger.

WELDING JOURNAL 59
Leska Feature June 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 1:15 PM Page 60
Fig. 4 — The challenge of producing consistent, repetitive welds
becomes greater if operator fatigue becomes a factor.
these cases, a facing machine tool
is used to create a perfectly square,
burr-free edge, eliminating gaps
and misalignments to ensure the
weld fitup is uniform and consistent
— Fig. 2. When the weld joints are
properly prepped, an orbital weld-
ing operator can minimize the weld
rejection rate, making an orbital
saw, tube facer, and orbital welding
system essential tools for mechani-
cal contractors and fabricators.
In specialized tube sheet appli-
cations, a consistent extension of
the tube (“stickout”) may be re-
quired before the welding process
begins, and here again automation
can be highly beneficial. An exam-
ple is the BRB 2 full autofacing ma-
chine tool, which is designed with
an automatic stop feature to pro-
duce repeatable extension in a pro-
duction setting. This machine au-
tomates the clamping procedure,
rotation speed, and feed rate for
higher productivity than manual
beveling — Fig. 3.
60 JUNE 2013
Fig. 5 — Microprocessor-controlled welding heads shown weld-
ing tube-to-tube sheet on a heat exchanger.
E. H. Wachs and Orbitalum
Tools, divisions of ITW Orbital Cut-
ting & Welding, have joined forces
to be a global supplier of orbital
tube and pipe cutting, beveling, and
welding products.
Orbital Welding
Basics
The basic premise of orbital tube
sheet welding is simple — utilizing
a standard GTAW process, the
welding torch is mechanically ro-
tated around the tube end while
adding welding wire (strength weld)
or fusion only (seal weld). The or-
bital welding system, through its
programming, maintains the opti-
mum arc to ensure a high-quality,
highly repeatable finished weld. Al-
though it’s possible for a skilled
manual welder to achieve similar
results, the challenge of producing Fig. 6 — Split frame rotating ring cutting equipment
consistent, repetitive welds hour sectioning welded shell, leaving a beveled, weld-
after hour and day after day be- ready finish.
Leska Feature June 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 1:15 PM Page 61

Fig. 7 — Flush welds are usually fusion seal welds; recessed and extended
are typically strength welds with wire added.
Fig. 8 — Box header applications require custom
length mandrels based on the reach or R dimen-
sion.

comes greater if operator fatigue be-
comes a factor — Fig. 4.
A key point to remember is that or-
bital welding systems are mechanized,
and not automatic in the truest sense.
They’re not AI (artificial intelligence)
smart like in a science fiction movie.
Even the best orbital welding systems are
not a substitute for a skilled welder — in
fact, skilled welders become the best can-
didates to quickly master the equipment.
Skilled welders have the ability to
“read” a weld pool, allowing them to
make any needed adjustments in the pro-
gram development phase. They adapt
quickly to the equipment, in effect be-
coming a supervisor directly monitoring
and managing the welding process as op-
posed to attempting to replicate exact-
ing, tedious, and repetitive eye, hand, and
arm motions.
All the changes a welder normally
makes in a relatively uncontrollable man-
ner regarding amps, arc voltage, wire
feed, and travel speed while manual
welding becomes easily controllable with
orbital welding systems by using inputs
into a prequalified program.
Tube-to-Tube Sheet
Welding Basics
While tube-to-tube sheet welding can
be complex (particularly in the context
of box header applications), the basic
concept is fairly simple: A series of tubes
is welded to a (typically circular) end
plate called the tube sheet — Fig. 5. The

Fig. 9 — Box header applications

are one of the more difficult
manual welding operations.

WELDING JOURNAL 61
Leska Feature June 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 1:16 PM Page 62

entire tube and tube sheet assembly
(called the bundle) is then enclosed in an
outer vessel (called the shell), creating a
finished heat exchanger.
A significant portion of this work is
repair and refurbishing, taking an exist-
ing device, opening the shell, replacing
some or all the tubes in the bundle, and
reinstalling it back into the shell. This
outer shell can be either bolted together
or welded, and is typically reused on re-
pair and refurbishing projects.
YOU KNOW OUR SAWS & FACERS
NOW EXPERIENCE ORBITALUM
For welded shells, exterior-mounted
split frame rotating ring cutting machines
(Fig. 6) and other types of cutting ma-
chines are useful for sectioning (open-
ing) them for repair. These machines
produce a precision beveled, weld-ready
surface that facilitates quick onsite re-
assembly without the hot work permits
torches and hand grinding may require.
Due to the repetitive nature of the
tube-to-tube sheet welding task, heat ex-
changer fabrication and repair is a prime
candidate for mechanized orbital weld-
ing. In building or refurbishing these
components, hundreds and even thou-
sands of tubes require weld prep and
welding. These tube-to-tube sheet welds
generally fall into one of three types:
flush, recessed, or extended, also known
as protruding or stickout — Fig. 7.
The flush profile is usually a “seal”
weld, an autogenous fusion weld with no
filler metal added. Recessed and ex-
tended are typically “strength” welds,
where filler metal is added for additional
strength or to join dissimilar metals. On
extended profiles, the dimension (D) of
the extension typically must be uniform.
Heat exchanger engineers specify the
weld profile based on the usage and pres-
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Sigler et al Feature June 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 1:20 PM Page 64

Improving Aluminum
Resistance Spot Welding
in Automotive Structures

The fabrication process in produc­

ing the 2014 Corvette Stingray uses
the Multi­Ring Domed electrode
patented by General Motors (GM).
A — Welding this Corvette’s space
frame; B — weld spots on the
space frame; C — the space frame;
and D — body structure. (Photos
courtesy of GM.)

A B C

64 JUNE 2013
Sigler et al Feature June 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 1:20 PM Page 65
BY DAVID R. SIGLER,
BLAIR E. CARLSON, AND
PAUL JANIAK
DAVID R. SIGLER (david.r.sigler@gm.com) and
BLAIR E. CARLSON are with the General
Motors Global Research and Development
Center, Warren, Mich. PAUL JANIAK is with
Swerea KIMAB AB, Stockholm, Sweden.
Based on a presentation at the AWS Detroit
Section’s Sheet Metal Welding Conference XV
held October 2–5, 2012, in Livonia, Mich.
he majority of automotive body shop
T welding consists of resistance spot
welding (RSW) steel sheet due to its
inherently low cost and high speed. With
the introduction of aluminum, it is desir-
able to continue using RSW as the join-
ing process. However, the presence of in-
sulating oxide layers on the aluminum
alloy material surface presents signifi-
cant problems in obtaining consistent
spot welding processes.
This problem has been solved by Gen-
eral Motors (GM) with the invention of
its patented Multi-Ring Domed (MRD)
electrode (Refs. 1, 2). This key process
is currently used by the company in au-
tomotive structures, such as for the 2014
Corvette Stingray — see lead photos.
The electrode design incorporates
several protruding concentric rings on
the weld face that act to deform the alu-
minum sheet surface on contact and
break through oxides on the surface,
which is essential to obtaining a stable
aluminum spot welding process. Devel-
oping dressing blades that cut protrud-
ing rings into the electrode weld face has
been a critical enabler for its introduc-
tion into GM plants (Ref. 3).
Weld Face Importance
To ensure a consistent, high-quality
welding process, the electrode weld face
must not be allowed to experience signif-
icant degradation. Also, the weld face re-
quires maintenance by dressing at regu-
lar intervals. It is crucial that the dress-
ing frequency and depth of cut be suffi-
cient to maintain the electrode weld face
geometry. However, both must not be so
aggressive that excessive amounts of ma-
terial are removed, which would require
more frequent electrode changes and
higher manufacturing costs.
During aluminum spot welding, dam-
age to the weld face of conventional elec-
A recently developed electrode design
features multiple protruding rings that
penetrate oxide layers by straining the
aluminum sheet surface during welding
trodes occurs primarily by reaction be-
tween the copper electrode and alu-
minum sheet that leads to pit formation
on the electrode surface (Ref. 4). In the
case of pitting damage where small cavi-
ties form in the weld face, complete re-
moval of the pits requires extended dress-
ing, which can significantly shorten elec-
trode life. If dressing fails to completely
remove the pits, it will cause the elec-
trode surface to deteriorate more rap-
idly, which in turn will eventually lead to
unacceptable welds.
Macrodeformation of the electrode,
which commonly happens in steel spot
welding, does not occur for aluminum
spot welding because the nugget temper-
atures are much lower. However, circu-
lar protrusions on the MRD electrode
with their small cross sections can be sus-
ceptible to deformation or flattening dur-
ing use.
Determining the
Electrode’s Key Factors
This research evaluated the MRD
welding electrode in terms of wear that
occurs during spot welding aluminum al-
loys and developed an understanding of
the damage mechanism. Evaluation in-
cluded assessing both mechanical defor-
mation and weld face erosion due to met-
allurgical reactions between the copper
electrode and aluminum sheet.
A variety of electrode materials with
different properties were assessed to
identify those properties most important
for extending electrode life. This infor-
mation is key to determining electrode
wear rates and establishing the proper
dressing frequency and cut depth.
The most commonly used electrode
material in GM production facilities is
copper-zirconium Alloy C15000. This
served as a reference for comparison
against four other copper electrode ma-
terials selected based on their properties,
including hardness, softening tempera-
ture, and electrical conductivity.
Wear rates and the associated elec-
trode wear mechanisms were expected to
differ as a function of the composition
and surface condition of the material to
be welded. Therefore, the electrodes in
this project were evaluated by welding
two different, commonly used aluminum
sheet materials — AA5754-O and
AA6111-T4.
Research Materials Used
The assessment included five differ-
ent electrode materials. The most com-
monly used electrode, Alloy C15000,
served as a reference material. Evalua-
tion included welding 2.0-mm AA5754-
O and 2.0-mm AA6111-T4 sheets. The
two aluminum alloys were welded only
to themselves and not to each other. Fol-
lowing welding, the electrodes were ana-
lyzed for mechanical deformation and
weld face erosion to determine the wear
extent and mechanisms.
Electrode Design and
Properties
The electrodes used in this project
employed GM’s patented weld face
geometry used for spot welding alu-
minum (Refs. 1, 2). Incorporating geo-
metric features into the electrode weld
face reduces resistance at the elec-
trode/sheet interface and improves heat
transfer between the electrode and alu-
minum sheet during spot welding. These
features include protruding circular rings
that penetrate through the outer oxide
layers of the aluminum sheet by strain-
ing the sheet surface during welding
(Ref. 2).
WELDING JOURNAL 65
Sigler et al Feature June 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 1:21 PM Page 66

Table 1 — Electrode Types and Their Properties

1
Resistivity μohm cm Hardness HV ⁄2 Softening Temperature, 1 h Nominal Composition %

C15000 1.94 145 550 Zr 0.15

C15760 2.08 160 1000 Al 0.6 as Al2O3
C18000 4.31 200 600 Cr 0.45; Ni 2.4; Si 0.6
C18150 2.08 160 600 Cr 1.0; Zr 0.1
X­trode core 2.08 145 1000 Al 0.6 as Al2O3
X­trode shell 1.94 130 550 Zr 0.15

Table 2 — Welding Parameters Used for Each Sheet Alloy and Electrode Material

Electrode AA6111­T4 AA6111­T4 AA5754­O AA5754­O Weld Time Hold Time

Alloy Force Current Force Current Both Alloys Both Alloys

C15000 (ref) 4.9 kN 27.5 kA 5.35 kN 28.0 kA 150 ms 34 ms

C18150 4.9 kN 29.0 kA 5.35 kN 29.3 kA 150 ms 34 ms
C15760 4.9 kN 29.0 kA 5.35 kN 29.3 kA 150 ms 34 ms
FF19Z02 4.9 kN 29.5 kA 5.35 kN 29.0 kA 150 ms 34 ms
C18000 4.9 kN 27.0 kA 5.35 kN 26.7 kA 150 ms 34 ms

By reducing the interface resistance

and improving heat transfer, heat gener-
A A
ation at the electrode/sheet interface is
minimized, which significantly improves
process robustness and eliminates exter-
nal expulsion events.
As shown in Table 1, selecting the
electrode materials was based on a com-
bination of resistivity and potential wear
resistance (both initial hardness and half-
softening temperature).

Conducting Welding Trials B

B
A robotically controlled medium-
frequency inverter DC weld gun, a Ma-
tuschek Servo gun C-type with an inte-
grally mounted transformer (222 kVA,
50:1 turns ratio), was used for all weld-
ing trials. In addition, primary current
was provided by a Matuschek Servo Spatz
M800LL inverter weld control.
Each welding trial began with freshly
dressed electrodes. Electrode materials
were evaluated after a set number of
welds (10, 40, and 100 welds). GM rec- Fig. 1 — The MRD electrode. A — Freshly
ommendations for weld schedules were dressed; and B — after 100 welds. Fig. 2 — Peak numbering system. A —
followed with only minor adjustments to Mounted electrodes; and B — numbering
achieve a button diameter of at least 5.5 have resulted in somewhat elevated weld for the weld face rings.
mm for each electrode and sheet combi- currents to achieve the desired button di-
nation. The weld schedules for each elec- ameter and somewhat elevated wear in. dimensions were used for all trials.
trode material appear in Table 2. rates as compared to a scenario that uses This resulted in a maximum of 61 spots
Weld button measurements were the fused area to establish weld size. per panel.
completed at Swerea KIMAB by meas- To ensure consistent welding speed
uring the size of the actual button pulled and spot spacing, welding trials were Study on Electrode Evaluation
out. This is in contrast to the approach done using a robot. A spot spacing of 22
used by GM (Ref. 5) where the weld size mm was used for all welds. The time in- Each electrode material was evalu-
is taken as the size of the fused area at terval between consecutive spots is esti- ated after welding a set of 10, 40, and 100
the faying interface. This difference may mated to be ~3 s. Panels having 12 × 5 spot welds for each sheet material. New

66 JUNE 2013
Sigler et al Feature June 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 1:21 PM Page 67
A B
C D
E
electrodes were used for each set of welds
to evaluate the progression in damage to
the electrode surface throughout the
whole range of 100 welds.
Light optical microscopy images were
taken of all electrodes after welding. Im-
ages from each welded combination of
electrode and sheet material were com-
pared to qualitatively rank electrodes in
terms of resistance to aluminum surface
contamination. Figure 1 shows typical
optical images of the electrode weld sur-
face after dressing and 100 welds.
To further evaluate wear, the elec-
trodes were cut in half, mounted in con-
ductive filler phenolic mounting com-
pound, ground, polished, and examined.
Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
evaluation along with energy-dispersive
spectroscopy (EDS) analysis was used to
measure electrode peak heights and an-
alyze potential buildup of aluminum con-
tamination on the electrode weld face.
Initial evaluations showed only minor or
no electrode wear after 10 welds, so fur-
ther evaluation of the electrodes was con-
fined to 40 and 100 welds.
As seen in Fig. 1, the MRD electrode
weld face has five protruding rings. Dura-
bility of these rings is a primary consid-
Table 3 — Ranking of Electrode Performance in Terms of Visual Buildup on the Electrode Surface
Sheet Least Buildup
AA5754­O FF19Z02
AA6111­T4 C15760
Fig. 3 — Visual appearance of electrode alloys after welding
aluminum sheet for 10, 40, and 100 welds. A — C15000; B —
C18150; C — C15760; D — FF19Z02; E — C18000.
eration for electrode life. Due to the ra-
dius of curvature of the weld face (25
mm) and electrode design, contact oc-
curs primarily between the two inner
rings and sheet during welding. There-
fore, the focus of the SEM investigations
was on the two innermost rings. Figure 2
illustrates the numbering system used for
the rings and peaks.
Visual Appearance of
Electrodes after Welding
During welding, the electrode surface
gradually reacts with the sheet material
and becomes contaminated with alu-
minum. Visual observation of the elec-
trodes after 10, 40, and 100 spot welds
was an attempt to qualitatively rank elec-
trodes in terms of resistance to aluminum
contamination on the weld face.
Contamination of the electrode weld
face by aluminum modifies the weld face
surface properties, i.e., interface electri-
cal resistance and ability to transfer heat.
Contamination or metallurgical bonding
of aluminum to the copper electrode sur-
face via microwelding creates a more re-
sistive surface. This, in turn, generates
C18150 C15000 (ref)
FF19Z02 C15000
more heat at the electrode/sheet inter-
face during welding, which further accel-
erates electrode degradation.
Aluminum contamination on the cop-
per electrode can sometimes be brittle in
nature due to the formation of inter-
metallic phases between aluminum and
copper (Ref. 6). When these inter-
metallics are subjected to thermal and
mechanical stresses during welding, pit-
ting damage can occur on the electrode
weld face; for example, the intermetallics
pull out of the copper surface leaving a
void or pit. The goal is to minimize con-
tamination to increase electrode life and
achieve a more stable welding process.
Figure 3A–E are images of all elec-
trode/sheet combinations that were
welded together. Table 3 is an attempt to
qualitatively rank electrodes in terms of
resistance to material buildup.
Ring Wear Review
The MRD electrode features protrud-
ing rings on its weld face to penetrate and
break up oxide on the sheet surface as
well as enable a more stable current
transfer into the material during spot
welding. In this work, peak height meas-
Most Buildup
C15760
C15760 C18000
WELDING JOURNAL 67
Sigler et al Feature June 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 1:21 PM Page 68

A B

C D

Fig. 4 — Electrode peak height measurements after welding a 2.0­mm, AA5754­O sheet. A — AA5754 – C15000; B — AA5754 – C18150;
C — AA5754 – C15760; D — AA5754 – FF19ZO2.

urements on the rings were used to
determine wear rates and help under-
stand the mechanisms for electrode
degradation.
Ring heights were measured after 10,
40, and 100 welds for each electrode and
sheet material combination. Peaks and
rings are numbered according to Fig. 2.
Results from the wear tests and peak
height measurements are presented in
Figs. 4 and 5.
The X-axis on the peak height meas-
urement graphs are numbered 1–5 where
each number represents the individual
rings on the electrode surface according
to Fig. 2B where ring number 1 refers to
the inner ring. Each ring height value is
the average of two different measuring
points on a cross section of the electrode.
Cutting of the electrodes was performed,
keeping the section parallel to the elec-
trode walls, and minimizing any distor-
tion in the ring height measurements.
Figure 4 shows electrode peak height
measurements after welding an AA5754-
O sheet. The purple line indicates peak
heights for the as-dressed electrode. Typ-
ical peak height of the as-dressed elec-
trode varied from about 90 to 125 μm.
Little wear was noted after 10 welds (see
Figs. 4A and 5A blue lines), so additional
measurements at this number of welds
were discontinued. Wear is noticeable
after 40 welds, especially for the C18150
electrode.
Both the C15000 reference electrode
and C15760 oxide dispersion strength-
ened electrode showed good perform-
ance out to 40 welds, maintaining fairly
good ring height, which will help ensure
they establish good contact with the sheet
surface.
In all cases at 100 welds, wear of rings
1 and 2 became much more pronounced.
At this point, the FF19Z02 electrode
showed a fairly good peak height of ~75
microns at ring 2 and 3 locations, whereas
the other electrodes showed poorer per-
formance. However, none of the elec-
trodes performed well at this number of
welds; either pitting or flattening of one
or both inner rings occurred by this point.
Peak height measurements after weld-
ing an AA6111-T4 sheet are shown in Fig.
5. For the reference C15000 material, it
is apparent that at 40 welds much more
wear has occurred, especially for ring 1,
when welding AA6111-T4 (Fig. 5A) than
when welding AA5754-O (Fig. 4A). The
other four electrode materials retained
some peak height for ring 1 after 40 welds.
At 100 welds, wear was more pro-
nounced for all the electrodes. The oxide
dispersion strengthened electrode
C15760 showed the best performance be-
cause it retained essentially all the ring
height for rings 2 through 5 after 100
welds. The other four electrode materi-
als showed the first two rings worn com-
pletely away at 100 welds. Alloy C18000
showed the poorest performance at 100
welds with all three inner rings worn
away; however, it did retain the ring
structure better at 40 welds than the ref-
erence C15000 electrode.

Table 4 — Ranking of Electrode Alloy Performance Based on Pit Formation, Ring Degradation, Number of Rings Intact, and
Total Amount of Ring Damage

Sheet Least Damage Most Damage

AA5754­O FF19Z02 C15760 C15000 (ref) C18150

AA6111­T4 C15760 C18150 C18000 FF19Z02 C15000 (ref)

68 JUNE 2013
Sigler et al Feature June 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 1:22 PM Page 69

A B

C D

Fig. 5 — Electrode peak height measurements after welding a 2.0­ E

mm, AA6111­T4 sheet. A — AA6111 – C15000; B — AA6111 –
C18150; C — AA6111 – C15760; D — AA6111 – FF19ZO2; E —
AA6111 – C18000.

An overall ranking of electrode per- wear for electrode

formance based on the peak height meas-
urements at 40 and 100 welds appears in
Table 4. The ranking of wear resistance
was done by defining electrode perform-
ance as resistance to the following aspects
of electrode wear listed in decreasing im-
portance: surface pit formation, ring
degradation, number of rings that are in-
tact, and total amount of ring damage.
SEM Assessment
The SEM evaluation focused on the
two inner rings, numbers 1 and 2, and
their surroundings. The EDS measure-
ments were used to determine the com-
position of contamination layers. Be-
cause the SEM evaluation was to help ex-
plain the electrode wear mechanism by
a thorough analysis of the reactions that
occurred on the electrode surface, the
work focused on appearance differences
between the best and worst performing
electrodes.
Electrodes Welding AA5754­O
To elucidate differences in wear be-
havior, electrodes FF19Z02 and C18150
were selected for SEM evaluation.
Figure 6 shows nonsymmetrical ring
FF19Z02. After 40
welds, peaks 4 and
5, which corre-
spond to inner
rings 1 and 2, are
fully intact while
peaks 6 and 7,
which correspond to the opposite side of
the electrode cross section, are fully worn
down. These two rings (1 and 2) with
their associated peaks (4, 5, 6, and 7) are
located within the harder core material
of the composite electrode.
Extensive buildup is also noticed on
peak 6 after 40 welds (Fig. 6C and E). At
100 welds (Fig. 6B and D), pits formed
at the location of the inner ring, peaks 5
and 6. All contamination found on the
electrode weld face for this particular
electrode/sheet combination had a com-
position of ~60 wt-% Cu-40 wt-% Al.
In comparison, for electrode C18150,
the poorest-performing electrode of the
group, SEM analysis showed heavy con-
tamination on peak 5 after 40 spot welds.
The EDS analysis at the interface be-
tween the contamination and electrode
revealed a composition of ~80 wt-% Cu-
20 wt-% Al. The high level of copper in-
dicates that the aluminum diffused fairly
deeply into the electrode and formed a
strong metallurgical bond. The thick alu-
minum contamination and strong bond
to the electrode surface generated exten-
sive pitting damage to the electrode after
100 spot welds as shown by the ring
height measurements in Fig. 4B (green
line).
One additional electrode material was
evaluated, C15760, because of its pow-
der metallurgy structure and relatively
good performance. Figure 7A and C
show moderate amounts of aluminum
contamination on peak 5 after 40 spot
welds with an average composition ~55
wt-% Cu-45 wt-% Al. The majority of the
aluminum contamination is located in
the outer perimeter of peak 5.
After 100 spot welds, a large pit
formed in the electrode surface at the lo-
cation of peak 5, along with a crack at the
bottom of the pit (Fig. 7B and D). This
electrode was made using a dispersion-
strengthened alloy and powder metal-
lurgy technology, and is somewhat more

WELDING JOURNAL 69
Sigler et al Feature June 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 1:22 PM Page 70

A B C

prone to cracking compared to the stan- D E

dard forged electrode material. How-
ever, the electrode manufacturer stated
cracks are still uncommon in this elec-
trode type, and if cracks do appear, they
do not propagate farther than the heat-
affected zone in the electrode surface.

Electrodes Welding AA6111­T4

Table 4 summarizes the wear results
for electrodes that spot welded AA6111-
T4. Electrodes C15760 and C15000, the
Fig. 6 — SEM images after welding AA5754­O with electrode FF19Z02. A — Peaks 4 and
best- and worst-performing electrodes,
5 after 40 welds; B — peaks 4 and 5 after 100 welds; C — peaks 6 and 7 after 40 welds;
were selected for SEM evaluation.
D — peaks 6 and 7 after 100 welds; E — higher magnification of peak 6 after 40 welds.
The C15760 electrode wear is shown
in Fig. 8. After 40 spot welds, only minor
wear occurred on the inner ring (peaks
5 and 6) — refer to Fig. 8A and C. After
100 welds, Fig. 8B and D, wear is exten-
sive and the inner peak is almost worn
down; however, ring 2, peaks 4 and 7, is
A B
still almost intact. The contamination
thickness is comparable after 40 as well
as after 100 spot welds, and the compo-
sition is ~50 wt-% Cu-50 wt-% Al.
In comparison, SEM examination of
the worst-performing electrode, C15000,
found that peak 5 in the inner ring was
fully worn down after 40 spot welds. After
100 welds, both of the two inner rings
(peaks 4 and 5) were worn down, and pit-
ting had initiated just inside of peak 5 on
the electrode surface.
C D
Electrode Ranking
Analysis
Electrode wear was evaluated using
several different methods. The first was
visual appearance of the electrode weld
face. In some situations, it was difficult
to rank electrodes in terms of aluminum
contamination by visual appearance, con-
sidering the electrode weld face was heav-
ily damaged. Visual observations of con-
tamination were more reliable early in Fig. 7 — SEM images after welding AA5754­O with electrode C15760. A — Peak 5 after
the test, welds 10 and 40, where damage 40 welds; B — peaks 4 and 5 after 100 welds; C — higher magnification of peak 5 after
and contamination were less prevalent. 40 welds; D — higher magnification of peak 5 after 100 welds.
Ring height measurements were per-

70 JUNE 2013
Sigler et al Feature June 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 1:22 PM Page 71

AA6111-T4 would be C15760, which has

A B the highest overall performance regard-
ing peak wear based on performance in
ring height measurements.

Electrode Wear Mechanism

Highlights
Based on the findings in this study, the
MRD electrode wear appears to occur in
several stages as described below.
First, repeated contact of the small
concentric rings against the aluminum
sheet surface during spot welding causes
C D deformation or flattening with the ring
structure. This decreases their effective-
ness in penetrating oxide layers on the
aluminum sheet surface and causes ele-
vated resistance at the electrode/sheet
interface. As the interface resistance and
interface heating rise, alloying between
the copper electrode and aluminum
sheet accelerates. A reaction or contam-
ination layer builds up on the electrode
weld face.
At some point, the built-up reaction
Fig. 8 — SEM images after welding AA6111­T4 with electrode C15760. A — Peaks 4 and layer begins to crack and spall as a re-
5 after 40 welds; B — peaks 4 and 5 after 100 welds; C — peaks 6 and 7 after 40 welds; sponse to the mechanical and thermal
D — peaks 6 and 7 after 100 welds. stresses associated with spot welding.
This creates pits in the electrode surface.
Thus, the wear mechanism is a combina-
formed as a measure of wear. The fol- technique was not available for these tion of the rings mechanical deformation,
lowing criteria were considered to rank tests. aluminum contamination layer buildup,
electrodes relative to each other in order There appears to be little or no cor- and finally, surface pitting caused by con-
of decreasing importance: surface pit for- relation between results from the subjec- tamination layer spalling.
mation, ring degradation, number of tive visual appearance and limited num- The initial wear stages are primarily
rings that are intact, and total amount of ber of ring height measurements as seen mechanical damage to the ring structure,
ring damage. in Table 5. Electrode appearance is af- which depends upon several factors.
It was imperative to section the elec- fected by wear and contamination on the These include the copper rings and alu-
trode exactly in the middle, so each elec- sheet surface, which is why this is not minum sheet hardness, weld force, elec-
trode generated only two measurements preferable as an evaluation method. trode weld face temperature during weld-
per ring, which limits statistical validity. Measuring the peak heights is the best ing, and electrode resistance to soften-
One solution to improve statistics would evaluation method to use when classify- ing. Wear can be accelerated with soft
be to run multiple electrodes for one con- ing electrodes regarding resistance to copper electrodes, hard aluminum sub-
dition, but this would be too costly. A pre- wear. strates, high electrode forces, high tem-
ferred method would be to complete a According to the results and evalua- peratures caused by high surface resist-
3D analysis of the entire electrode weld tion within this project, the optimal ance or excessive nugget penetration,
face and ring structure; however, the choice for welding AA5754-O and and electrode softening during use.
Reaction between copper and alu-
minum is ongoing throughout the wear
Table 5 — Ranking of Electrode Alloy Performance Based on Visual Appearance process. It appears to depend partly upon
and Ring Performance the alloy and surface oxides that may be
present, e.g., AA5754-O with its high
Visual Ring Visual Ring magnesium content and presence of Mg-
Appearance Performance Appearance Performance containing oxides typically exhibits a
from Table 3 from Table 4 from Table 3 from Table 4 more rapid contamination than AA-6111-
T4. It appears to accelerate as the ring
AA5754­O AA5754­O AA6111­T4 AA6111­T4 structure is deformed, because a flatter
FF19Z02 FF19Z02 C18150 C15760 ring structure would not reduce interface
C18150 C15760 FF19Z02 C18150 resistance as effectively as newly formed
C15000 (ref) C15000 (ref) C15000 (ref) C18000 rings.
C15760 C18150 C15760 FF19Z02 Contamination results in a layer con-
C18000 C15000 (ref) taining both copper and aluminum, most

WELDING JOURNAL 71
Sigler et al Feature June 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 1:23 PM Page 72
likely as intermetallics, forming on the
electrode surface. This layer is more re-
sistive than the base copper electrode, so
it will result in further heating of the elec-
trode/sheet interface and more rapid
buildup of the reaction layer. At some
point in the wear process, the built-up
contamination layer cracks and spalls
under the action of temperature, and
pressure from the spot welding process
forming pits in the electrode surface.
For welding a AA6111-T4 sheet,
which is harder than a AA5754-O sheet,
copper hardness was considered to be a
major contributing factor to maintaining
the electrode ring structure. However, in
the present study, the hardest electrode,
C18000, did not perform best. This is at-
tributed to the low electrical conductiv-
ity as well as the electrode’s low half-soft-
ening temperature, resulting in relatively
high electrode/sheet interface tempera-
tures. This creates a different balance be-
tween mechanical deformation and sur-
face reaction on the electrode. When the
electrode weld face experiences greater
heat, the metallurgical reactions between
the copper electrode and aluminum
sheet accelerate in relation to mechani-
cal wear and, in turn, cause more pitting
damage.
For welding softer AA5754-O sheet,
almost all the electrodes tested gener-
ated extensive pitting damage on the
weld face between 40 and 100 welds. The
size of the pits created from welding
AA5754-O was about twice as deep as
those created during welding of the
AA6111-T4 material. This indicates that
the electrode/sheet interface attained a
higher temperature during welding of the
AA5754-O material as compared to
AA6111-T4. This is most likely due to the
thicker, more resistive Mg-containing ox-
ides that form on the 5XXX series Al-
Mg alloys. In the case of welding
AA5754-O, it was difficult to distinguish
which of the electrode material proper-
ties was the most important. According
to our evaluation, electrodes with high
half-softening temperature perform
slightly better than the others.
Production Welding Details
The results of this work have a direct
correlation with production welding alu-
minum using the MRD electrode that
performs well in nonideal conditions
such as welding with poor fitup (Ref. 2).
This is due to the combination of a sharp
radius of curvature that effectively con-
centrates current and ring structure on
the weld face that reduces electrode/
72 JUNE 2013
sheet interface resistance and heating.
The electrode has been found to weld
satisfactorily even with fairly extensive
damage (ring deformation and pit for-
mation) to the electrode weld face. Weld-
ing to this point in production, however,
would necessitate extensive dressing to
restore the original weld face curvature
and ring height. This would tend to
shorten electrode life due to the large cut
depth needed for dressing.
A more promising approach would be
to dress earlier in the electrode wear
process where a smaller cut depth can be
used. In this case, there are a couple of
options for determining at what point
dressing is needed. If the rings, especially
the inner rings, are fully flattened and lit-
tle or no pitting has occurred, then a cut
depth sufficient to recreate the rings
would be sufficient. There, the cut depth
would be ~0.1 mm. If minor pitting dam-
age is visible, then slightly greater cut
depths may be required. In some cases,
such as welding softer 5XXX alloys, the
rings may still retain some of their height.
Satisfactory dressing may be obtained
using smaller cut depths, such as ~0.05
mm. In this case, the electrode could pro-
vide a large number of dresses before re-
quiring replacement.
The scenario that produces the
longest electrode life will depend upon
the aluminum materials to be welded,
properties of the copper material used
to manufacture the electrode, and weld-
ing parameters (weld force and current
waveform). Extensive testing is needed
to determine the process parameters that
attain the longest electrode life.
Conclusions
1. Wear mechanisms for GM’s MRD
electrode were elucidated for RSW alu-
minum sheet Alloys AA5754-O and
AA6111-T4. Analyses consisted of visual
examination, peak height measurements,
and SEM examination.
2. Based on the findings in this study,
MRD electrode wear appears to occur in
several steps that begin with deformation
of the small concentric rings against the
aluminum sheet surface. Once rings are
significantly flattened, reaction acceler-
ates between the copper electrode and
aluminum sheet rapidly forming an
aluminum contamination layer. Finally,
as the layer thickens, it cracks and
spalls under the mechanical and ther-
mal stresses experienced during spot
welding.
3. For welding Alloy AA6111-T4, elec-
trode wear occurred primarily by ring de-
formation followed with eventual pit for-
mation. This was attributed to the higher
hardness of AA6111-T4 relative to an-
nealed AA5754-O. The AA-6111-T4
sheet responded best to the high-
hardness, high-conductivity electrode
C15760, which would limit ring deforma-
tion without the generation of excessive
heat at the electrode/sheet interface.
4. For welding Alloy AA5754-O, ring
deformation was less pronounced, most
likely due to the lower hardness of the
sheet; however, pitting became the pri-
mary wear mechanism. This was attrib-
uted to higher electrode/sheet interface
temperatures most likely caused by the
Mg-containing oxides inherent on Alloys
5XXX, Al-Mg. No electrode material
was preferred for welding AA5754-O
aluminum.◆
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Eva
Lundgren of Swerea KIMAB for assist-
ing with surface analyses. Discussions
and technical support provided by
Michael Karagoulis of General Motors
are also greatly appreciated. Luvata is ac-
knowledged for providing the resistance
welding electrodes for evaluation.
References
1. Sigler, D. R., Schroth, J. G., and
Karagoulis, M. J. Weld electrode for at-
tractive weld appearance. U.S. Patent
8,222,560. July 17, 2012.
2. Sigler, D. R., Schroth, J. G.,
Karagoulis, M. J., and Zuo, D. New elec-
trode weld face geometries for spot weld-
ing aluminum. Conference Proceedings,
AWS Sheet Metal Welding Conference
XIV, May 11–14, 2010, Livonia, Mich.,
pp. 1–19.
3. Sigler, D. R., and Karagoulis, M. J.
Forming and re-forming welding elec-
trodes with contoured faces. U.S. Patent
Application 2010/0258536. Oct. 14, 2010.
4. Patrick, E. P., and Spinella, D. J.
Surface effects on resistance spot weld-
ability — Aluminum body sheet. IBEC
‘95, Body Assembly and Manufacturing,
pp. 139–145.
5. Aluminum resistance spot welding.
GM Engineering Standards Material Spec-
ification Welding GMN3904. March 2012.
6. Lum, I., Fukumoto, S., Biro, E.,
Boomer, D. R., and Zhou, Y. 2004. Elec-
trode pitting in resistance spot welding
of aluminum Alloy 5182. Metallurgical
Transactions 35A(1): 217–226.
mercer abrasive_FP_TEMP 5/15/13 10:11 AM Page 73

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Bug-O layout_Layout 1 5/16/13 1:25 PM Page 74
Maximizing Pipeline
Welding Efficiency
Presented is a look at the special
requirements associated with
welding pipelines
ipeline welding (Fig. 1) is a com-
P petitive business, and every con-
tractor must bid aggressively. They
have had to be competitive in their time-
lines for completion and, of course, in
pricing to meet the needs of the financial
constraints often seen today. Contractors
frequently wait long periods from the
time they place their respective bids be-
fore they receive an approval to begin
their portion of the contract. However,
once approval is confirmed, there is often
extreme pressure from many sides to
start and complete the work in a short pe-
riod of time and on budget. To meet these
74 JUNE 2013
time and budget constraints, pipeline
contractors must constantly consider
one important measurable function —
efficiency.
Efficiency on a Pipeline
Welding professionals are often con-
fronted with the question of improving
efficiency. Whenever a comparison be-
tween welding processes is considered,
the efficiency of the process is crucial to
the final decision. Efficiency can be sim-
ply defined as the amount of work ac-
complished in a given period of time
Fig. 1 — Workers are shown aligning pipe
sections, a critical operation necessary to
ensure proper fitup prior to both manual
and automated welding operations.
BY JEFF NELSON
JEFF NELSON
(jnelson@weld.com) is
application manager, Bug-O
Systems, Canonsburg, Pa.
compared to the total time for the job.
One common standard for efficiency in
welding is pounds of weld metal de-
posited per hour, commonly referred to
as deposition efficiency. This measure-
ment is very useful when comparing one
welding process to another.
Deposition efficiency compares the
actual amount of weld metal in the com-
pleted joint with respect to the total
weight of the electrode used. For exam-
ple, submerged arc welding (SAW) has
a high efficiency, whereas shielded
metal arc welding (SMAW) has a lower
efficiency.
Bug-O layout_Layout 1 5/16/13 1:25 PM Page 75
Electrical efficiency — how much
electrical power is consumed in order to
perform a given weld — is another con-
cern. Both of these efficiency concerns
are readily applied in the fabrication
shop environment, but how does any of
this translate to welding a pipeline?
On a pipeline, efficiency can be
viewed simply as, “How many acceptably
welded joints are completed per day.”
The critical element in this sentence is
the phrase “acceptably welded.” As with
all welding applications that are subject
to stringent codes and specifications, it is
important to not just perform a certain
number of welds in the allotted time, but
that the welds made be able to pass the
criteria for acceptability. Therefore, we
have two issues to consider as we ask our
question about efficiency. First, we must
perform the welds as quickly as practical.
Second, every weld must be of the high-
est quality. If both of these criteria are
met, your efficiency will be high.
Making the Weld Quickly
The shielded metal arc process is the
standard used around the world for weld-
ing pipelines. It is a robust process that is
familiar not only to welders, but to many
nonwelders. Most procedures for this
process are prequalified. Prequalified
means there are preestablished welding
parameters that have been found to pro-
duce acceptable quality welds if these
procedures are followed. For pipeline
work, the downhill progression is typi-
cally used. The welders trained to per-
form these welds are masters in their
craft and have outstanding manual tech-
nique and dexterity.
Readily available trade publications
provide us with some basic welding pro-
cedure data for downhill pipe welding.
The root pass is typically performed with
a 5⁄32-in.- (4.0-mm-) diameter cellulose-
covered electrode. As a rule of thumb, for
a 5⁄32-in. electrode, the welding time for
one electrode should be approximately
one minute and the length of weld should
be approximately the same as the length
of electrode consumed. Assuming the
typical stub loss for SMAW, the resulting
travel speed is approximately 12 in./min.
Of course, this is very sensitive to the
fitup and the joint preparation, but we
will use this value of 12 in./min only as a
value for comparison (Ref. 1). The face
of the root bead is typically very convex
Fig. 2 — A welder make a root pass
using a semiautomatic process.
and must be ground in order to eliminate
the possibilities of slag inclusions during
the next pass. This same electrode is also
used to make the next pass referred to as
the hot pass. The remaining passes,
the fill and cap passes, are typically
made using 3⁄16-in.- (5.0-mm-) diameter
electrodes.
Let us assume we are welding a 24-in.,
XHY pipe. This pipe has a standard wall
thickness of ½ in. Given that wall thick-
ness, it is common to expect it to require
seven weld passes to fully fill and rein-
force the weld joint. With a 24-in. diame-
ter, we have a circumferential weld
length of approximately 75.4 in. To make
this joint, it is common to have a welder
positioned on each side of the pipe so we
can divide that weld length in half. We
can further assume that as the required
bead width increases as the joint prepa-
ration increases, the welding travel speed
will necessarily be reduced. For our con-
sideration, we will assume a reduction of
10% in travel speed for each successive
pass after the root and hot pass.
In Table 1, Case I, it is shown that the
total arc time for seven passes of SMAW
downhill would be slightly greater than 28
min. This is the actual arc-on time. This
WELDING JOURNAL 75
Bug-O layout_Layout 1 5/17/13 12:51 PM Page 76

Fig. 3 — The compact mechanized system

incorporates a pendant that provides full
functional control for the welder.

does not include the time needed to grind

the face of each weld to be certain that
the slag has been completely removed.
Further, these calculations do not include
any time required for the welder to
change electrodes.
Let us now consider an alternate
method to perform this weld. This
method utilizes the combined technolo-
gies of The Lincoln Electric Co. Surface
Tension Transfer® (STT®) performed
semiautomatically for the root pass along
with a mechanized gas shielded flux
cored arc welding (FCAW-G) process for
the fill and cap passes.
The root pass is certainly most criti-
cal to the integrity of the weld joint
whether performed with SMAW or semi-
automatically — Fig. 2. Due to the na-
ture of the handling of the pipes prior to
joining along with the required speed
during the fitting process, the fitup of
every weld joint is inconsistent. Given
this reality of the pipeline, it is therefore
recommended that the weld be per-
formed semiautomatically by hand. As
with SMAW, the unmatched eye-hand co-
ordination and experience of a trained
pipe welder are critical to the success of
the weld. However, since STT provides
higher weld deposition, the typical com-
bined root and hot pass of SMAW is re-
duced to a single pass, which is typically
greater in thickness than the combined
root/hot pass. Table 1 — Comparison of SMAW and Combined Processes
The strong and thick root pass will now
Case I — SMAW Downhill Case II — STT Root, Mechanized FCAW-G
allow the FCAW-G process to be em-
Uphill Fill and Cap
ployed using mechanized travel and mo-
tion control. Using a rail-mounted trac- Travel Weld Travel Weld
Pass Speed Time Pass Speed Time
tor system, the next passes can be made
(in./min) (min) (in./min) (min)
continuously in an uphill progression
from the bottom of the pipe to the top. 1 12.00 3.14 1 9.00 4.19
Equipment such as the Piper Bug and 2 12.00 3.14 2 7.00 5.39
Piper Plus systems from Bug-O Systems 3 10.80 3.49 3 6.30 5.98
provide continuous control and travel. 4 9.72 3.88 4 5.67 6.65
Installing either of these systems takes 5 8.75 4.31
6 7.87 4.79
only a few minutes. They are lightweight,
7 7.09 5.32
portable, and easy to pick up and maneu-
Total Arc Time SMAW 28.07 Total Arc Time STT and FCAW-G 22.21
ver by one person. Once lifted onto the
rail system, coupled into place and the Note: Pipe diameter = 24 in., circumference = 75.4 in., two welders, all weld lengths = 37.70 in., travel speed reduc-
welding starts, the system continues with- tion each pass =10%.

out stopping until that pass is complete.

As can be seen in Table 1, Case II, the
actual travel speed for each pass is con-
siderably slower than the corresponding
pass associated with the SMAW down-
hill process (Case I). However, due to the
much higher deposition rate of these
processes, fewer passes are required. The
assumption that travel speed must be re-
duced as the joint width increases is still
valid. As a result of the much higher dep-
osition rate, the time to complete the
weld using the mechanized method is
22.21 min. This results in an improve-
ment of more than 5 min/weld joint. As
in Case I, this is only the time that the
arc is on and weld metal is being de-
posited. Since there are fewer passes, the
total time required to grind the face of

76 JUNE 2013
Bug-O layout_Layout 1 5/16/13 1:26 PM Page 77
Fig. 4 — A welder monitors the operation of a pipe welding machine.
each weld to remove any traces of slag is
reduced also.
Making a High-Quality
Weld
There are various ways to address the
concerns for higher weld quality. An ob-
vious way is to provide more effective
welder training. This, however, is not as
easy as it might seem, since the success
of training manual welders depends
greatly on the amount of time allowed
and each individual’s personal ability.
Another way to improve weld quality is
to mechanize the welding process so that
the welding rod or gun and current can
be computer controlled to ensure the
welds will be consistently duplicated
using the welding procedure approved by
the welding inspector, and client or gov-
erning body on the job.
If high-quality welds can be consis-
tently duplicated, joint after joint, with
fewer defects, cut outs, and repairs,
pipeline construction speeds up, thus sav-
ing time and money. For example, it can
cost a United States contractor $5000 on
average to cut out and repair or replace
a poor weld on a 24-in. pipe. Addition-
ally, it takes hours and two additional
workers to perform this type of repair. If
there are many such repairs to be made
on a large cross-country pipeline, it is
clear how the time lost is a great concern
to meeting the aggressive deadlines con-
tractors often face today. However, the
cost of the lost time for the repairs is not
the only worry to contractors; it is also
the growing dollar cost to perform these
types of repairs.
Since every weld joint must be accept-
able under the specification and code
being applied, the SMA process when ap-
plied to pipe requires exceptionally well-
trained and competent welders. Even
then, defects can result from the numer-
ous stops and starts required for the
welders to change electrodes, or reposi-
tion themselves to continue welding or
relieve cramping caused by uncomfort-
able out-of-position welds. Most pipe
welders can make a stop then restart with
no problem, but these locations are sites
for possible defects. At each of these lo-
cations, there is an increased risk for slag
inclusions and other quality defects that
might have to be repaired at a later date.
By eliminating nearly all of these starts
and stops, a michanized system can vir-
tually eliminate the possibility of these
defects occurring.
Mechanized pipe-welding systems
place the welding operator in a position
as more of an observer and quality con-
troller — Figs. 3, 4. While the welders
might still need to get into some of the
cramped and uncomfortable positions,
their role is to monitor and adjust the
weld. The actual welding is performed by
the motion-control of the system’s car-
riage and steerable linear weaver using
automatic height control. The welder’s
job is to steer the welding arc, left or
right, while the automatic height sensing
maintains proper electrical extension.
The welding operator has complete con-
trol of the system to maximize welding
rate and quality.
Qualified welding operators monitor
and control the process, making adjust-
ments as their training dictates. In this
way, all welds are made at the most effi-
WELDING JOURNAL 77
Bug-O layout_Layout 1 5/16/13 1:26 PM Page 78

cient rate according to project protocol

and meet preapproved and preset proce-
dures, so as to achieve the highest level
of weld quality.

Improving Pipe Weld

Efficiency and Quality
Simply put, the michanized systems
utilize a set of rails that clamp onto the
pipe to guide and a computerized, auto-
mated welding carriage system travels the
rails to weld the fill and cap passes. The
Piper Bug and Piper Plus systems utilize
a wire feeder and Lincoln Electric Power
Wave® power source capable of produc-
ing different types of waveforms. The
systems provide precise, repeatable mo-
tion and path control of the welding
process ensured by a process monitoring
system that provides complete control
over all aspects of the process. This con-
trol increases welding efficiency and the
quality of every weld.
As with any welding process, it is nec-
essary for the welding operator to qual-
ify the weld procedure before starting any
project. This is true for all types of auto-
mated and mechanized systems. The pro-
posed welding procedure will go through
an extensive weld-certification process.
The test welds are inspected and ap-
proved. While developing the weld, all
welding parameters such as wire feed
speed, travel speed, weaving data, etc.,
are stored in the control box. Once ap-
proved, all settings that have been devel-
oped and saved can be stored either
within the box itself or on a standard USB
storage device. These data can also be
saved to a personal computer for per-
manent storage. Additionally, these data
can be loaded onto as many welding units
as is required, assuring the project man-
ager that the parameters used to create
the welds are the same along the entire
string and all welds will be made the same
way.
Whichever system is chosen, it is clear
that the combination of the semiauto-
matic process for root pass welding along
with mechanized FCA welding for the fill
and cap passes can help to improve pipe
welding efficiency through increased
deposition rates and improved weld
quality.♦

Reference

1. Welding Pressure Pipelines & Piping

Systems, Stick C2.420. 2002. The Lincoln
Electric Co., Cleveland, Ohio.
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78 JUNE 2013
select arc 2_FP_TEMP 5/15/13 10:14 AM Page 79

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CE JUNE_Layout 1 5/16/13 1:43 PM Page 80
COMING
NOTE: A DIAMOND ( ♦) DENOTES AN AWS-SPONSORED EVENT.
EVENTS
National Robotic Arc Welding Conf. and Expo. June 4, 5. Mil-
waukee, Wis. Candidates will participate in a simulated Certified
Robotic Arc Welding (CRAW) exam using a fully functional ABB
robot, then compete for free CRAW certification tuition for train-
ing and the exam. www.aws.org/certification/CRAW.
♦Pipeline Conf. June 4, 5. Houston, Tex. Sponsored by the Amer-
ican Welding Society (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 264;
www.aws.org/conferences.
Oil and Gas Welding Technology Conf. and Expo. June 6.
Pasadena Convention Center, Houston, Tex. Sponsored by Miller
Electric Mfg. Co. www.MillerWelds.com/oilgas.
Manufacturing Surabaya 2013. June 12–15. Surabaya, Indonesia.
www.pamerindo.com/events/11.
18th Beijing-Essen Welding & Cutting Fair. June 18−21. New In-
ternational Expo Center, Shanghai, China. www.beijing-essen-
welding.com/en/index.htm.
Third VDI Congress, “Lightweight Design Strategies in Vehi-
cles.” July 3, 4. Wolfsburg, Germany. Sponsored by VDI Wis-
sensforum, Assn. of German Engineers. www.vdi.de/leichtbau.
♦Codes and Standards Conf. July 16, 17. Orlando, Fla. To include
AWS D1, Structural Welding Code — Steel, ASME Boiler and Pres-
sure Vessel Code, API pipeline codes, MIL specs and ISO stan-
For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
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80 JUNE 2013
dards. Sponsored by the American Welding Society (800/305)
443-9353, ext. 264; www.aws.org/conferences.
Laser Technology Days. July 24, 25. Mazak Optonics Corp., Elgin,
Ill. Seminars and demonstrations. Call (847) 252-4500. Register
at www.mazakoptonics.com/td13.html.
59th Annual UA Assn. of Journeymen and Apprentices of the
Plumbing and Pipefitting Industry’s Instructor Training Pro-
gram. Aug. 11–17, Washtenaw Community College, Ann Arbor,
Mich. www.visitannarbor.org/news/detail/ann-arbor-welcomes-the-
59th-annual-united-association-instructor-training-p.
12th Int’l Conf. on Application of Contemporary Non-Destructive
Testing in Engineering. Sept. 4–6. Grand Hotel Metropol, Por-
toroz, Slovenia. Sponsored by The Slovenian Society for Non-De-
structive Testing. www.fs.uni-lj.si/ndt.
LPPDE-North America. Sept. 9–11. Savannah, Ga. Lean Product
& Process Development Exchange, Inc. Address e-mail to
lppde@leanfront.com.
66th IIW Annual Assembly. Sept. 11–17. Essen, Germany. Or-
ganized by DVS (German Welding Society). www.dvs-
ev.de/IIW2013/.
GAWDA Annual Convention. Sept. 15–18. Orlando, Fla. Gases
and Welding Distributors Assn. www.gawda.org.
CE JUNE_Layout 1 5/16/13 1:43 PM Page 81

ASM Heat Treating Society Conf. and Expo. Sept. 16–18. Indiana
Convention Center, Indianapolis, Ind. www.asminternational.org/
content/Events/heattreat/. WONDER GEL
IIW Int’l Conf. on “Automation in Welding.” Sept. 16, 17. Essen,
Stainless Steel Pickling Gel
Germany. www.iiw2013.com. Event in the IIW Annual Assembly.

Schweissen & Schneiden 2013 Int’l Trade Fair — Joining, Cutting,

Surfacing. Sept. 16–21. Essen, Germany. Sponsored by DVS, Ger-
man Welding Society. www.schweissenuschneiden.de/en/schweis-
sen_schneiden/index.html.

♦16th Annual Aluminum Conf. Sept. 4, 5. Chicago, Ill. Sponsored WELD AFTER WELD BEFORE
by the American Welding Society (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 264;
www.aws.org/conferences. Achieve maximum corrosion resistance to stainless steel.
Surface contamination may drastically reduce the life of
9th Annual Northeast Shingo Prize Conf. Sept. 24, 25. The Re-
stainless steel. Wonder Gel removes (pickles) stubborn impurities,
sort & Conference Center at Hyannis, Hyannis, Mass.
www.neshingoprize.org. cleans the toughest slag, scale and heat discoloration
and restores (passivates) the protective oxide layer.

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POWER-GEN Brasil 2013, HydroVision Brasil, and DistribuTech
Brasil. Sept. 24–26. Transamerica Center, São Paulo, Brazil. Come visit us at Booth N2004
www.power-gen.com. for a demonstration!
Nov. 18-21, 2013
Canadian Manufacturing Technology Show (CMTS) 2013. Sept.
30–Oct. 3. The International Centre, 6900 Airport Rd., Missis-
BRADFORD DERUSTIT CORP.
sauga, Canada. Society of Manufacturing Engineers. (888) 322-
PO Box 1194
7333, ext. 4426; www.cmts.ca.
Yorba Linda, CA 92885-1194
International ph: 714.695.0899
Brazil Welding Show 2013. Oct. 1–4. São Paulo, Brazil. Sponsored
International fax: 714.965.0840
by DVS, German Welding Society. www.brazil-welding-show.com/. e-mail sales@derustit.com
National Manufacturing Day. Oct. 4. Events held nationwide.
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WELDING JOURNAL 81
CE JUNE_Layout 1 5/16/13 1:44 PM Page 82

Sponsored by Fabricators & Manufacturers Assn. To find events

planned near you, visit www.mfgday.com for interactive map.

The Int’l WorkBoat Show. Oct. 9–11, Morial Convention Center,

New Orleans, La. www.workboatshow.com.

WESTEC. Oct. 15–17. Los Angeles Convention Center, Los An-

geles, Calif. The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. (800) 733-
4763; www.westeconline.com.

Canadian Int’l Aluminum Conf. Oct. 21–25, Palais des Congrès

de Montréal, Montreal, Que., Canada. www.ciacmontreal.com.

12th Inalco Int’l Aluminum Conf. Oct. 21, 22, Palais des Congrès
de Montréal, Montreal, Que., Canada. www.inalco2013.com.

FFA Annual Convention. Oct. 30–Nov. 3, Kentucky Exposition

Center, Louisville, Ky. Future Farmers of America.
www.ffa.org/Pages/default.aspx.
For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index

ASNT Fall Conf. and Quality Testing Show 2013. Nov. 4–7, Rio
Hotel, Las Vegas, Nev. The American Society for Nondestructive

40
Testing. www.asnt.org.
rve
cu
h
e POWER-GEN Int’l Event. Nov. 12–14, Orange County Conven-
t

tion Center, Orlando, Fla. www.power-gen.com/event-info.html.

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ANNIVERSARY
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This exhibition is the largest event in North America dedicated to
showcasing the full spectrum of metal forming, fabricating, tube
and pipe, welding equipment, and myriad manufacturing tech-
nologies. American Welding Society. (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 264;
www.fabtechexpo.com.

 

 

  


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arcos 2_FP_TEMP 5/15/13 8:38 AM Page 83

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Resistant Welding…

Arcos 352

Arcos Industries, LLC has
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Cert Schedule JUNE_Layout 1 5/16/13 11:10 AM Page 84

CERTIFICATION
SCHEDULE Certification Seminars, Code Clinics, and Examinations

Certified Welding Inspector (CWI) 9–Year Recertification Seminar for CWI/SCWI

LOCATION SEMINAR DATES EXAM DATE (No exams given.) For current CWIs and SCWIs needing to meet
Jacksonville, FL July 7–12 July 13 education requirements without taking the exam. The exam can be
Omaha, NE July 7–12 July 13 taken at any site listed under Certified Welding Inspector.
Cleveland, OH July 7–12 July 13 LOCATION SEMINAR DATES
Miami, FL Exam only July 18 San Diego, CA July 7–12
Phoenix, AZ July 14–19 July 20 Miami, FL July 21–26
Los Angeles, CA July 14–19 July 20 Orlando, FL Aug. 18–23
Louisville, KY July 14–19 July 20 Denver, CO Sept. 15–20
Waco, TX July 14–19 July 20 Dallas, TX Oct. 6–11
Milwaukee, WI July 14–19 July 20
Corpus Christi, TX Exam only July 27 Certified Welding Supervisor (CWS)
Sacramento, CA July 21–26 July 27 LOCATION SEMINAR DATES EXAM DATE
Kansas City, MO July 21–26 July 27 Minneapolis, MN July 15–19 July 20
Denver, CO July 28–Aug. 2 Aug. 3 Miami, FL Sept. 23–27 Sept. 28
Miami, FL July 28–Aug. 2 Aug. 3 Norfolk, VA Oct. 14–18 Oct. 19
Philadelphia, PA July 28–Aug. 2 Aug. 3 CWS exams are also given at all CWI exam sites.
Chicago, IL Aug. 4–9 Aug. 10
Baton Rouge, LA Aug. 4–9 Aug. 10 Certified Radiographic Interpreter (CRI)
Portland, ME Aug. 4–9 Aug. 10 LOCATION SEMINAR DATES EXAM DATE
Las Vegas, NV Aug. 4–9 Aug. 10 Dallas, TX Aug. 19–23 Aug. 24
Mobile, AL Aug. 11–16 Aug. 17 Chicago, IL Sept. 23–27 Sept. 28
Charlotte, NC Aug. 11–16 Aug. 17 Pittsburgh, PA Oct. 14–18 Oct. 19
Rochester, NY Exam only Aug. 17 The CRI certification can be a stand-alone credential or can
San Antonio, TX Aug. 11–16 Aug. 17 exempt you from your next 9-Year Recertification.
Seattle, WA Aug. 11–16 Aug. 17
San Diego, CA Aug. 18–23 Aug. 24 Certified Welding Sales Representative (CWSR)
Minneapolis, MN Aug. 18–23 Aug. 24 CWSR exams will be given at CWI exam sites.
Salt Lake City, UT Aug. 18–23 Aug. 24
Anchorage, AK Exam only Sept. 21 Certified Welding Educator (CWE)
Miami, FL Sept. 15–20 Sept. 21 Seminar and exam are given at all sites listed under Certified
Idaho Falls, ID Sept. 15–20 Sept. 21 Welding Inspector. Seminar attendees will not attend the Code
St. Louis, MO Sept. 15–20 Sept. 21 Clinic portion of the seminar (usually the first two days).
Houston, TX Sept. 15–20 Sept. 21 Certified Robotic Arc Welding (CRAW)
New Orleans, LA Sept. 22–27 Sept. 28 The course dates are followed by the location and phone number
Fargo, ND Sept. 22–27 Sept. 28
Pittsburgh, PA Sept. 22–27 Sept. 28 June 17–21, Dec. 9–13 at
Indianapolis, IN Sept. 29−Oct. 4 Oct. 5 ABB, Inc., Auburn Hills, MI; (248) 391–8421
Corpus Christi, TX Exam only Oct. 12
Long Beach, CA Oct. 6–11 Oct. 12 Aug. 19–23, Dec. 2–6 at
Tulsa, OK Oct. 6–11 Oct. 12 Genesis-Systems Group, Davenport, IA; (563) 445-5688
Cedar Rapids, IA Oct. 6–11 Oct. 12
Miami, FL Exam only Oct. 17 Oct. 14 at
South Plainfield, NJ Oct. 13–18 Oct. 19 Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, OH; (216) 383-8542
Portland, OR Oct. 13–18 Oct. 19
Nashville, TN Oct. 13–18 Oct. 19 July 15–19, Oct. 21–25 at
Atlanta, GA Oct. 20–25 Oct. 26 OTC Daihen, Inc., Tipp City, OH; (937) 667-0800
Shreveport, LA Oct. 20–25 Oct. 26
Detroit, MI Oct. 20–25 Oct. 26 Training: July 22–24, Sept. 23–25, Nov. 18–20
Roanoke, VA Oct. 20–25 Oct. 26 Exams: July 25–26, Sept. 26–27, Nov. 21–22 at
Cleveland, OH Oct. 27–Nov. 1 Nov. 2 Wolf Robotics, Fort Collins, CO; (970) 225-7736
Spokane, WA Oct. 27–Nov. 1 Nov. 2
On request at
MATC, Milwaukee, WI; (414) 297-6996
Certified Welding Engineer; Senior Certified Welding
Inspector Exams can be taken at any site listed under Certified International CWI Courses and Exams Schedules
Welding Inspector. No preparatory seminar is offered. Please visit www.aws.org/certification/inter_contact.html.

IMPORTANT: This schedule is subject to change without notice. Applications are to be received at least six weeks prior to the
seminar/exam or exam. Applications received after that time will be assessed a $250 Fast Track fee. Please verify application dead-
line dates by visiting our website www.aws.org/certification/docs/schedules.html. Verify your event dates with the Certification Dept.
to confirm your course status before making travel plans. For information on AWS seminars and certification programs, or to reg-
ister online, visit www.aws.org/certification or call (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 273, for Certification; or ext. 455 for Seminars. Apply
early to avoid paying the $250 Fast Track fee.

84 JUNE 2013
fabtech_FP_TEMP 5/14/13 12:14 PM Page 85

A 360º VIEW OF THE MOST

INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGY AND
PROCESSES. FABTECH 2013.
METAL FORMING | FABRICATING
WELDING | FINISHING
FABTECH represents every step of the
metal manufacturing process from start
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working. Compare solutions from 1,500+
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show with a degree of difference.

November 18–21, 2013 | Chicago, IL

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Fabricating, Welding and Finishing Event

Cosponsors:

Follow us:
Scan code to
watch video.
educ awo math_FP_TEMP 5/16/13 3:21 PM Page 86

awo.aws.org

Online Math for W

Welders
elders Course

Mathematics is a necessary part of a weldin

weldingg professional’s
professional’s activities. However,
However, math can be
complicated and confusing for beginners, and di fficult
f
difficult  

for adults who haven’t used math principles 

awhile. This course provides a combination of cl ear step-by-step verbal and visual explanations that
clear
make each mathematical concept easy to unde rstand and remember.
understand remember. Topics
Topics
o pla value,
include place
simplification, estimation, measurement, and the addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of
whole numbers, fractions, decimals and mixed numbers. Practical exercises allow welders, welding
students, supervisors and inspectors to apply basic math skills to various aspects of the welding
process. Eighteen PDHs are provided thro
throughugh this course toward AWSAWS recertification.

Sample
Sample seminar at
at aw
awo.aws.org/seminars/math-for-welders-level-1
wo.aw
aw
ws.orrg
g/seminars/math-forr-welders
e -leve
el-
el-1
gawda_FP_TEMP 5/14/13 12:06 PM Page 87

Celebrating Ou
nd rI
a

nd
St

epe
United We

ndence
GASES AND WELDING DISTRIBUTORS ASSOCIATION

JW Marriott at Grande Lakes

4040 Central Florida Parkway, Orlando, FL 32837

GAWDA Annual Convention

September 15th – 18th, 2013 / Orlando, FL
Schedule of Events

Saturday, September 14, 2013

6:00 pm – 9:00 pm Board of Directors Dinner
Sunday, September 15, 2013
8:00 am – 9:00 am Executive Committee Meeting
9:00 am – 12:00 pm Board of Directors Meeting
1:00 pm – 4:00 pm Committee Meetings
4:00 pm – 5:00 pm First Timers’ Reception
5:00 pm – 7:00 pm President’s Reception
7:00 pm Industry Hospitalities
Monday, September 16, 2013
7:00 am – 8:00 am Networking Breakfast
8:00 am – 12:00 pm Opening General Business Session
12:00 pm – 1:30 pm Past Presidents Lunch
1:00 pm – 5:00 pm Tours and Activities
2:00 pm – 4:00 pm Women of Gases and Welding
7:00 pm Industry Hospitalities
Tuesday, September 17, 2013
7:00 am – 8:00 am Continental Breakfast
8:00 am – 11:00 am Contact Booth Program
9:00 am – 11:30 am Spouse Program
12:00 pm – 5:00 pm Golf Tournament
1:00 pm – 5:00 pm Tours and Activities
7:00 pm Industry Hospitalities
Wednesday, September 18, 2013
7:00 am – 8:00 am Networking Breakfast
8:00 am – 12:00 pm Closing General Business Session
1:00 pm – 4:00 pm Young Professionals Event
1:00 pm – 5:00 pm Tours and Activities
7:00 pm – 11:00 pm President’s Farewell Gala
educ awo metallurgy_FP_TEMP 5/14/13 12:01 PM Page 88

awo.aws.org

METALLURGY
ME TA
ALL
LURGY
G
for the Non-Metallurg
Non-Metallurgist:
ist: Fundamentals
Metallurgy is the science that deals with the iinternal
nternal structure of
metals, the relationship between metals, and the properties of metals.
In welding, a basic understanding of metallurgy provides insight into
the positive and negative changes that occur in metals when joined
by welding.

From the properties of an atom to the behavi ors of metals during

behaviors
the welding process, you are introduced to the properties of metals
and will gain an understanding of why metals behave the way they do.

Concepts covered include the anatomy of ato ms, the periodic table,
atoms,
chemical bonding, including ionic bonding, covalent bonding, and
metallic bonding, as well as the properties of metals. This seminar
contains interactive exercises to reinforce key points and includes
summaries and quizzes to help prepare you for the completion exam.

The seminar is approximately five hours long and concludes with a

proficiency test.

Sample seminar at awo.aws.org/seminars/metallurgy

Society News JUNE_Layout 1 5/15/13 10:32 AM Page 89

SOCIETYNEWS BY HOWARD WOODWARD

woodward@aws.org

AWS Interests Expand in Malaysia

AWS representatives with guests from Malaysia. Shown (from left) are Sam Gentry, executive director, AWS Foundation; Wan Ismail Ibrahim,
executive director, KISMEC; Ray Shook, AWS executive director; Hilmy Hussain, head, human capital development, JPDC; Jeff Kamentz, AWS
corporate director, international sales; Bill Fudale, AWS VP sales and marketing; Hasnah Abdul Wahab, head, joining and inspection services,
SIRIM; Mohd Nazri Shamsudin, manager, human capital development, JPDC; Matthew Ruben, director, convention and meeting services; John
Gayler, managing director, certification; Barry Edmonds, director, United Technology; Cassie Burrell, AWS senior associate executive director;
and Linda Henderson, director, certification programs. Photo taken at AWS World Headquarters in Doral, Fla.

BY ANDREW CULLISON
A major economic development pro-
gram initiated by the government of
Malaysia includes the construction of an oil
and gas complex in the Pengerang region of
the state of Johor. Plans for the complex in-
clude tank farms, refineries, petrochemical
plants, a LNG terminal port, and a regasifi-
cation plant. The massiveness of the proj-
ect has put a strain on resources for skilled
laborers needed for its construction. Re-
cently, representatives from Malaysia vis-
ited AWS Headquarters to discuss ways the
Society might become more involved in
helping to meet the needs for skilled
welders.
Malaysia, which is in southeast Asia, con-
sists of the peninsula bordering Thailand
and the northern one-third of the island of
Borneo. Its population is around 28 million,
and it has a healthy gross domestic product
(GDP) growth of approximately 4.5%. Un-
employment is only 4%.
Mohd Nazri Shamsudin, manager,
human capital development, Johor Petro-
leum Development Corp. (JPDC), esti-
mated construction of the complex will cre-
ate 14,500 jobs, 5000 of which will be welders
needed by 2014. “We are having a hard time
filling personnel needs,” he admitted. One
of the initiatives to help fill the needs is in-
tensifying welder training by expanding fa-
cilities and teaching to accredited standards.
He mentioned an underutilized training fa-
cility that had a capacity to train 500 indi-
viduals, but was only addressing 80. He is
moving forward with outfitting this facility
for training welders, but the dilemma is
staffing it with enough competent instruc-
tors and getting equipment to utilize its full
training potential. “It is a challenge finding
qualified instructors,” he said.
Another organization that is working to
alleviate the welder shortage is KISMEC.
Established in 1993 from a government rec-
ommendation to establish skills develop-
ment centers, KISMEC has a variety of in-
dustrial training programs. Executive direc-
tor Wan Ismail Ibrahim noted the increas-
ing government investment in welder train-
ing, and the recent establishment of an
AWS-accredited test facility (ATF). There
are 12 skills-development centers in
Malaysia.
Dr. Hasnah Abdul Wahab of SIRIM,
which is the national organization for stan-
dards and quality, mentioned that welding
programs are accredited to the AWS QC 7
Standard and that many welders have been
certified through the AWS Certified Welder
(CW) program. There is an agreement with
AWS to allow SIRIM to be the testing
agency for welding personnel. There is also
an agreement with KISMEC authorizing it
to be a satellite test facility.
Barry Edmonds, who is an AWS agent
in Malaysia and director, United Technol-
ogy, noted that there are more than 200
AWS-certified welders in the country and
the number of ATFs is growing.
“Moving forward there is a potential to
grow the AWS certification programs in
Malaysia, especially the CW, CWI, and
CWE certifications,” Edmonds said. There
is a demand for AWS standards and certifi-
cations driven by the petroleum industry,”
he continued. He suggested ways to help de-
velop awareness of AWS, especially by
younger workers. He urged building a
stronger connection with AWS through
branding, promotion, certification aware-
ness seminars, exchange data on employ-
ment and recruitment, exhibit at the Asian
Oil and Gas Conference, and even establish
an AWS regional office.
Noting there are 229 AWS members in
Malaysia, Edmonds took the opportunity of
this meeting to proudly announce his gov-
ernment’s recent approval for an AWS Sec-
tion in Malaysia. This was a preliminary step
to requesting AWS Board approval for such
an International Section.

ANDREW CULLISON (cullison@aws.org) is managing director, Publication Services, and publisher of the Welding Journal.
WELDING JOURNAL 89
Society News JUNE_Layout 1 5/15/13 10:32 AM Page 90

Tech Topics
Technical Committee Meetings
All AWS technical committee meetings
are open to the public. Persons wishing to
attend a meeting should contact the com-
mittee secretary listed.
June 5, C2 Committee on Thermal
Spraying. Ogden, Utah. E. Abrams, ext.
307.
June 6, D16 Committee on Robotic and
Automatic Welding. Milwaukee, Wis. P.
Henry, ext. 215.
June 18, G2D Subcommittee on Reac-
tive Alloys. Seattle, Wash. A. Diaz, ext. 304.
July 30, 31, Technical Activities Com-
mittee. Houston, Tex. A. Alonso, ext. 299.
New Standards Projects
Development work has begun to revise
the following two standards. Affected in-
dividuals are invited to contribute to their
development. Contact Staff Secretary P.
Henry, phenry@aws.org; ext. 215. Partici-
pation on AWS Technical Committees is
open to all persons.
C6.3M/C6.3:20XX, Recommended Prac-
tice for Friction Stir Welding. This standard
is applicable to all industries involved with
friction stir welding of aluminum and mag-
nesium alloys. It provides design consider-
ations, fabrication, and quality assurance
information. Stakeholders: aerospace, oil
and gas, and auto industries.
D16.5M/D16.5:20XX, Training Guide for
Robotic Arc Welders. This guide is designed
for use by all robotic arc welding person-
nel as well as for training to D16.4M/16.4,
Specification for the Qualification of Robotic
Arc Welding Personnel, as part of the Certi-
fied Robotic Arc Welder (CRAW) pro-
gram. Stakeholders: robotic arc welding
personnel.
ISO Standards
In the United States, if you wish to par-
ticipate in the development of Interna-
tional Standards for welding, contact A.
Davis, adavis@aws.org, ext. 466.
Review copies of ISO standards are
available from your national standards
body, which in the United States is ANSI,
25 W. 43rd St., 4th Fl., New York, NY,
10036; (212) 642-4900. Send comments re-
garding ISO documents to your national
standards body.
ANSI Approved Standards
A5.34/A5.34M:2013, Specification for
Nickel-Alloy Electrodes for Flux Cored Arc
Welding Rods. Revised standard. 3/19/13.
D14.3/D14.3M:2010-AMD1, Specifica-
tion for Welding, Earthmoving, Construction,
and Agricultural Equipment. Amendment
standard. 4/10/13.
Standards for Public Review
C2.19/C2.19M:20XX, Specification for
the Application of Thermal Spray Coatings
to Machine Elements for OEM and Repair.
$32.50. 6/10/13.
J1.1M/J1.1:20XX, Specification for Re-
sistance Welding Controls. $25. 6/17/13.
AWS was approved as an accredited
standards-preparing organization by the
American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) in 1979. AWS rules, as approved
by ANSI, require that all standards be open
to public review for comment during the
approval process. The above two new stan-
dards are submitted for public review with
the closing dates shown. Contact A.
Alonso, aalonso@aws.org, ext. 299, to ob-
tain draft copies.

Share Your Technical Expertise

Volunteers are sought to contribute to the following technical committees. Visit www.aws.org/technical/jointechcomm.html
AWS Safety and Health Committee
seeks educators, users, general interest,
and consultants to help develop standards
on welding safety. S. Hedrick,
steveh@aws.org.
B4 Committee on Mechanical Testing
of Welds seeks professionals in the area
of standard methods for tension, shear,
bend, fracture toughness, hardness, weld-
ability, and other mechanical testing of
welds. B. McGrath, bmcgrath@aws.org.
B2B Subcommittee on Welding Quali-
fications seeks members to update B2.1,
Specification for Welding Procedure and
Performance Qualification. A. Diaz,
adiaz@aws.org.
D17J Subcommittee seeks profession-
als to update specification for friction stir
welding of aluminum alloys for aerospace
applications. A. Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
C2 Committee on Thermal Spraying,
C4 Committee on Oxyfuel Gas Welding
and Cutting, and D8 Committee on Auto-
motive Welding seek educators, general
interest, and end users to update its doc-
uments. E. Abrams, eabrams@aws.org.
A5L Subcommittee on Magnesium
Alloy Filler Metals seeks professionals to
help revise its filler metal document. R.
Gupta, gupta@aws.org.
D10P Subcommittee for Local Heat
Treating of Pipe seeks heat treating pro-
fessionals to help update its documents.
B. McGrath, bmcgrath@aws.org.
D14 Committee on Machinery and
Equipment and D14H Subcommittee on
Surfacing and Reconditioning of Indus-
trial Mill Rolls seeks professionals in de-
sign, production, engineering, testing, and
safe operation of machinery to prepare
recommended practices for surfacing and
reconditioning of industrial mill rolls. The
next meeting of the D14 Committee is
May 28 in Dallas, Tex. To attend, contact
E. Abrams, eabrams@aws.org.
D16 Committee on Robotic and Automatic
Welding seeks members in the general in-
terest and educational fields to help re-
vise its documents. B. McGrath, bmc-
grath@aws.org.
G2D Subcommittee on Reactive Alloys
seeks volunteers to update guides for the
fusion welding of titanium and titanium
alloys, and fusion welding of zirconium
and zirconium alloys. A. Diaz,
adiaz@aws.org.
J1 Committee on Resistance Welding
Equipment seeks educators, general in-
terest, and users to develop standards on
controls, installation and maintenance,
calibration, and resistance welding fact
sheets. E. Abrams, eabrams@aws.org.
A5K Subcommittee on Titanium and
Zirconium Filler Metals. Seeks profes-
sionals in the field to update specifications
for welding electrodes and rods of tita-
nium, zirconium, and their alloys. A. Diaz,
adiaz@aws.org.

Candidates Sought for Annual Masubuchi Award

November 1, 2013, is the deadline for submitting nominations
for the 2014 Prof. Koichi Masubuchi Award. This award includes
a $5000 honorarium. It is presented each year to one person, 40
years old or younger, who has made significant contributions to
the advancement of materials joining through research and de-
velopment. Nominations should include a description of the can-
didate’s experience, list of publications, honors, and awards, and
at least three letters of recommendation from fellow researchers.
The award is sponsored by the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology Dept. of Ocean Engineering. E-mail your nomination
package to Todd A. Palmer, assistant professor, The Pennsylva-
nia State University, tap103@psu.edu.

90 JUNE 2013
Society News JUNE_Layout 1 5/15/13 10:33 AM Page 91
New AWS Supporters
New Sustaining Members
Advanced Welding Institute
8090 Hwy. 17 S.
Eagle River, WI 54521
Representative: Edward Anderson
wiweldingschool.com
CRG International
220 W. Walnut St.
Deming, NM 88030
Representative: Xavier Rios
www.crginternationalnm.com
CRG International is an industrial serv-
ice contractor. It provides services in the
power-generating, mining, food-process-
ing and alternative energy fields. It em-
ploys a strong force of skilled craftsmen
and professional certified welders who sup-
port its customers with innovative designs
and customized fabrications.
Marine Engineers Corp.
(Panama), Inc.
Roosevelt Ave., Balboa, Ancon
Panama 0830-00196, Panama
Representative: Marvin Castillo
www.mecshipyards.com
Industrial Maintenance Group,LLC
204 Bell Pl.
Woodstock, GA 30188
Representative:Wes Schollian
www.imgco.biz
Affiliate Companies
Archer Daniel Midland
1251 Beaverchannell Pkwy.
Clinton, IA 52732
Bottoms Engineering & Service
955 Chenault Rd., Frankfort, KY 40601
E. C. Korneffel Co.
2691 Veterans Pkwy., Trenton, MI 48183
Greco Aluminum Railings
3255 Wyandotte St. E.
Windsor, ON N8Y 1E9, Canada
Grimes Industrial, Inc.
2828 Delafield St., Houston, TX 77023
Norgate Metal 2012, Inc.
791 8 St. E., La Guadeloupe
QB G0M1G0, Canada
Simartec S.A. de C.V.
Av. Venustiano Carranza No. 980
int 305, Edificio LaMadrid
San Luis Potosi 78235, Mexico
Summit Metals
PO Box 1845, Boyd, TX 76023
Surface Equipment
PO Box 1886, Kilgore, TX 75663
Quest Cylinder Co.
239 Lafayette Rd., London OH 43140
Supporting Companies
Dixon Construction
110 N. Dean A. McGee Ave.
Wynnewood, OK 73098
Gulfspan Industrial LLC
5990 Chance Dr.
Beaumont, TX 77705
e-Tech Simulation Corp.
2721 Vista Pkwy., Ste. C-13
West Palm Beach, FL 33411
Welding Distributor
Walter H. Jelly, Ltd.
2564 Branch St., Ste. B4
Middleton, WI 53562
Educational Institutions
All-State Career School
501 Seminole St., Lester, PA 19029
Boyd County Career &
Technical Education Center
12300 Midland Trail Rd.
Ashland, KY 41102
Chicopee Comprehensive High School
Metal Fabrication &
Joining Technologies
617 Montgomery St.
Chicopee, MA 01020
C. S. Monroe Technology Center
715 Childrens Center Rd.
Leesburg, VA 20175
Helena College University of Montana
1115 N. Roberts St.
Helena, MT 59601
Lewis Cass Jr./Sr. High School
6422 E. St. Road 218 W.
Walton, IN 46994
Proclad Academy LLC
Technopark, Jebel Ali
Dubai 123776, UAE
Ranger College
1100 College Cir., Ranger, TX 76470
Vanguard-Sentinel Career and
Technology Center
793 East Trail 201, Tiffin, OH 44883
Outstanding Students Receive
Student Chapter Member Awards
Dustin Bolgrin (right), a Savannah
Tech welding student, receives the Student
Chapter Member Award from Willliam
Burns, advisor, Savannah Tech Student
Chapter and a welding instructor and head
of the Welding & Joining Technology
Dept. at the college. The Chapter is affili-
ated with the Atlanta Section, District 5.
Cody Manders (right), with the Whit-
mer Career and Technology Center Stu-
dent Chapter, Northwest Ohio Section,
District 11, receives the Student Chapter
Member Award from Advisor Craig Don-
nell. Manders, who served a two-year term
as Chapter chair, has maintained a 94%
academic average in the welding program.
He also participated in the School-to-Work
Option where he was employed by T&M
Machine and Tool in Toledo, Ohio, as a
tool and die welder-machinist. He also
serves as a volunteer for FOCUS Toledo
and Leadership Toledo events.
AWS Member Counts
May 1, 2013
Sustaining ......................................569
Supporting .....................................335
Educational ...................................623
Affiliate..........................................509
Welding Distributor........................52
Total Corporate ..........................2,088
Individual .................................58,881
Student + Transitional .................9,517
Total Members .........................68,398
WELDING JOURNAL 91
Society News JUNE_Layout 1 5/15/13 10:33 AM Page 92
Member-Get-A-Member Campaign
Listed are the members participating in
the 2012−2013 campaign. Standings as of
April 18, 2013. See page 101 of this Weld-
ing Journal for campaign rules and prize list
or visit www.aws.org/mgm. For information,
call the Membership Department
(800/305) 443-9353, ext. 480.
Winner’s Circle
Sponsored 20 or more Individual Mem-
bers per year since June 1, 1999. The super-
script denotes the number of times the mem-
ber achieved this status if more than once.
E. Ezell, Mobile10
J. Compton, San Fernando Valley7
J. Merzthal, Peru2
G. Taylor, Pascagoula2
L. Taylor, Pascagoula2
B. Chin, Auburn
S. Esders, Detroit
M. Haggard, Inland Empire
M. Karagoulis, Detroit
S. McGill, NE Tennessee
B. Mikeska, Houston
W. Shreve, Fox Valley
T. Weaver, Johnstown/Altoona
G. Woomer, Johnstown/Altoona
R. Wray, Nebraska
President’s Guild
Sponsored 20+ new Individual Members
M. Pelegrino, Chicago — 36
E. Ezell, Mobile — 32
President’s Roundtable
Sponsored 9–19 new Individual Members
R. Fulmer, Twin Tiers — 10
W. Blamire, Atlanta — 9
A. Tous, Costa Rica — 9
P. Strother, New Orleans — 9
President’s Club
Sponsored 3–8 new Individual Members
D. Galigher, Detroit — 7
W. Komlos, Utah — 7
J. Smith, San Antonio — 6
C. Becker, Northwest — 5
R. Thacker Jr., Oklahoma City — 5
L. Webb, Lexington — 4
D. Wright, Kansas City — 4
T. Baber, San Fernando Valley — 3
J. Bain, Mobile — 3
A. Bernard, Sabine — 3
J. Blubaugh, Detroit — 3
P. Brown, New Orleans — 3
D. Buster, Eastern Iowa — 3
C. Daon, Israel Section — 3
G. Gammill, NE Mississippi — 3
B. Hackbarth, Milwaukee — 3
S. Jaycox, Long Island — 3
D. Jessop, Mahoning Valley — 3
Nominate Your Candidate for the Distinguished Welder Award
August 1 is the deadline to submit your
nominations for the AWS Distinguished
Welder Award. The award recognizes pro-
fessionals with a minimum of 15 years’ ex-
92 JUNE 2013
D. Saunders, Lakeshore — 3
T. Sumerix, Dayton — 3
J. Turcott, Rochester — 3
A. Winkle, Kansas City — 3
R. Wright, San Antonio — 3
R. Zabel, SE Nebraska — 3
President’s Honor Roll
Sponsored 2 Individual Members
G. Cornell, St. Louis
M. Depuy, Portland
M. Douville, Central Mass./R.I.
D. Hayes Jr., Louisville
J. Helfrich, Tri-River
P. Host, Chicago
H. Hughes, Mahoning Valley
J. Kline, Northern New York
L. Kvidahl, Pascagoula
W. Larry, Southern Colorado
G. Lawrence, N. Central Florida
J. Mansfield, Philadelphia
E. Norman, Ozark
A. Sam, Trinidad
C. Shepherd, Houston
G. Solomon, Central Pennsylvania
A. Sumal, British Columbia
C. Villarreal, Houston
J. Vincent, Kansas City
A. Vogt, New Jersey
J. Vorstenbosch, International
M. Wheeler, Cleveland
L. William, Western Carolina
W. Wilson, New Orleans
J. Winston, St. Louis
Student Member Sponsors
Sponsored 4+ new Student Members
H. Hughes, Mahoning Valley — 106
A. Theriot, New Orleans — 47
B. Scherer, Cincinnati — 39
D. Saunders, Lakeshore — 36
W. England, Western Michigan — 33
R. Bulthouse, Western Michigan — 31
R. Hammond, Greater Huntsville — 28
T. Rivera, Corpus Christi — 25
T. Geisler, Pittsburgh — 24
S. Siviski, Maine — 24
R. Zabel, SE Nebraska — 24
B. Cheatham, Columbia — 23
C. Kochersperger, Philadelphia — 23
M. Arand, Louisville — 22
R. Hutchinson, Long Bch./Or. Cty — 22
D. Bastian, NW Pennsylvania — 21
G. Gammill, NE Mississippi — 21
J. Falgout, Baton Rouge — 20
F. Oravets, Pittsburgh — 20
J. Theberge, Boston — 20
J. Johnson, Madison-Beloit — 19
K. Temme, Philadelphia — 19
perience whose skills and achievements
warrant special recognition.
For details on the full description, se-
lection criteria, and the nomination form,
V. Facchiano, Lehigh Valley — 18
R. Munns, Utah — 18
S. Lindsey, San Diego — 17
R. Richwine, Indiana — 17
J. Russell, Fox Valley — 17
M. Anderson, Indiana — 16
E. Norman, Ozark — 16
C. Donnell, NW Ohio — 14
D. Pickering, Central Arkansas — 13
G. Smith, Lehigh Valley — 13
C. Daily, Puget Sound — 12
J. Daugherty, Louisville — 12
C. Morris, Sacramento — 12
S. Robeson, Cumberland Valley — 12
K. Cox, Palm Beach — 11
A. Duron, Cumberland Valley — 11
J. Boyer, Lancaster — 10
G. Seese, Johnstown-Altoona — 10
C. Schiner, Wyoming — 9
R. Vann, South Carolina — 9
C. Galbavy, Idaho/Montana — 8
C. Gilbertson, Northern Plains — 8
J. Dawson, Pittsburgh — 7
R. Udy, Utah — 7
A. Badeaux, Washington, D.C. — 6
T. Buckler, Columbus — 6
S. Caldera, Portland — 6
J. Elliott, Houston — 6
R. Fuller, Green & White Mountains — 6
T. Shirk, Tidewater — 6
P. Host, Chicago — 5
R. Ledford, Birmingham — 5
G. Rolla, L.A./Inland Empire — 5
G. Siepert, Kansas — 5
P. Strother, New Orleans — 5
W. Wilson, New Orleans — 5
C. Chifici, New Orleans — 4
L. Clark, Milwaukee — 4
J. Ginther, International — 4
C. Griffin, Tulsa — 4
J. Johnson, Northern Plains — 4
J. Reed, Ozark — 4
E. Shreve, Pittsburgh — 4
P. Strother, New Orleans — 4
T. Sumerix, Dayton — 4
R. Zadroga, Philadelphia — 4
J. Fitzpatrick, Arizona — 3
L. Gross, Milwaukee — 3
R. Hilty, Pittsburgh — 3
C. Hobson, Olympic — 3
S. Liu, Colorado — 3
D. McGrath, Houston — 3
J. Vincent, Kansas City — 3
G. Von Lunen, Kansas City — 3
B.Wenzel, Sacramento — 3
B. Wenzel, Sacramento — 3
R.Wilsdorf, Tulsa — 3
visit the AWS Web site, www.aws.org, and
select the awards category. Or, e-mail
Wendy Sue Reeve, senior manager, awards
programs, wreeve@aws.org.
Society News JUNE_Layout 1 5/15/13 10:34 AM Page 93

SECTIONNEWS
District 1
Thomas Ferri, director
(508) 527-1884
thomas_ferri@victortechnologies.com

BOSTON
MARCH 4
Activity: The Section visited Pile Drivers
Local 56 in Boston, Mass., for a demon-
stration of underwater welding conducted
in its 7000-gal tank. Barry Beaudoin, div-
ing instructor, and David Borris, business
agent, detailed the process apprentices
work through to become qualified for un-
derwater welding operations.

Welding instructors (from left) Gary Hutchins, Carl Spear, and Rich Fuller are shown at the
GREEN & WHITE MTS. Green & White Mountains Section event.
MARCH 14
Activity: The Section’s annual vendor’s
night event was hosted by welding instruc-
tor Gary Hutchins at Hartford Vo-Tech in
Hartford, Vt. Participating were welding
instructors Carl Spear from Newport,
N.H., and Rich Fuller with River Valley
Career and Technical Center in Spring-
field, Vt.

District 2
Harland W. Thompson, director
(631) 546-2903
harland.w.thompson@us.ul.com

NEW JERSEY
MARCH 19
Speaker: Brent Altemose Reading Section members are shown during their Morgan Corp. tour in February.
Affiliation: Sabre Health and Safety
Topic: Respiratory safety for welders
Activity: The meeting was held at Pantagis
Renaissance Snuffy’s Clambar in Scotch
Plains, N.J.

District 3
Michael Wiswesser, director
(610) 820-9551
mike@wtti.com

READING
FEBRUARY 21
Activity: The Section members visited
Morgan Corp., a manufacturer of van and
truck bodies, in Morgantown, Pa. Paul
Whiteman, operations manager, led the Presenters Barry Beaudoin (left) and David Speaker Brent Altemose (left) is shown with
program. Borris are shown at the Boston Section event. Al Fleury at the New Jersey Section event.

WELDING JOURNAL 93
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Shown at the January South Carolina Section tour are (from left) Steven Murray, Rich Jeffers, Curt Altman, Chair Gale Mole, presenter
Steve Murray, Darrel Rogers, Billy Guess, Edgar Grinberg, and Mike Sanders.

Reading Section Chair Tracy Davenport

Welding students are shown at the Reading Section welding competition in March. (left) is shown with past Chair Daniel Milan.

MARCH 9
Activity: The Reading Section hosted a
welding competition for 14 students from
five local schools. The event was held at
Berks Career & Technology Center West
in Leesport, Pa. An awards-presentation
banquet concluded the event, at which
Chair Tracy Davenport presented Daniel
Milan the past-chairman’s pin in recogni-
tion of his services.

Shown at the North Florida Section event are (from left) District 5 Director Carl Matricardi, District 4
Stewart A. Harris, director
Jack Dulls, Jim Vernon, and Chair Douglas Yates.
(919) 824-0520
stewart.harris@altec.com

District 5
Carl Matricardi, director
(770) 979-6344
cmatricardi@aol.com

FLORIDA WEST COAST

APRIL 10
Speaker: Damen Johnson, QC manager
Affiliation: Tampa Steel Erecting Co.
Topic: Inspecting bridge fabrications
Top scorers in the North Florida Section/Tulsa Welding School welding competition are Activity: The meeting was held at Frontier
(from right to left) Bradley Bramel, Levi Wells, and Thomas Fassler. Steakhouse Cattle Co. in Tampa, Fla.

94 JUNE 2013
Society News JUNE_Layout 1 5/15/13 10:35 AM Page 95

NORTH FLORIDA
MARCH 16
Activity: The Section held its meeting in
conjunction with the Tulsa Welding School
(TWS) high school welding competition
held annually in Jacksonville, Fla. There
were about 130 competitors from the
southeast, Wisconsin, and Arizona. The
hosts were TWS Campus President Jim
Vernon, and Jack Dulls, head of training.
The top ten contestants received TWS
scholarships and other prizes were do-
nated by The Lincoln Electric Co. Bradley
Bramel and Levi Wells from Flemingsburg,
Ky., earned first- and second-place hon-
ors, respectively, with Thomas Fassler Shown at the March South Carolina Section program are (from left) District 5 Director
from St. Louis, Mo., taking third place. Jim Carl Matricardi, Martha Vann, Chair Gale Mole, and Odell Haselden.
Issa demonstrated the VRTEX® Virtual
Reality Arc Welding Trainer and guided
the students in its use. District 5 Director
Carl Matricardi and Section Chair Dou-
glas Yates attended the event.

SOUTH CAROLINA
JANUARY 17
Activity: The Section members toured
Carolina Contracting Solutions in
Ridgeville, S.C. Steve Murray, owner and
president, conducted the program.

MARCH 21
Speaker: Chris Eure, Level III inspector
Affiliation: AMEC Shown at the South Carolina Section April meeting are (from left) Ron Weldon, Mike
Topic: D1.8, Structural Welding Code, Seis- O’Brien, and Gale Mole.
mic Supplement
Activity: District 5 Director Carl Matri-
cardi presented Martha Vann the District
Educator Award. Odell Haselden, presi-
dent of Haselden and Co., Inc., received a
South Carolina Section Service Apprecia-
tion Award for his company’s support of
Section activities. Nominations were re-
ceived for the new slate of officers. The
program was held at Trident Technical Col-
lege in North Charleston, S.C.

APRIL 18
Activity: Roberts Oxygen hosted this South
Carolina Section meeting during its open
house event in North Charleston, S.C. Ron
Weldon, regional manager, and Mike
O’Brien, store manager, represented the Chair Gale Mole (left) is shown with speaker
company. The incoming slate of officers Ben Magrone (left) is shown with Gale Mole Chris Eure at the March South Carolina Sec-
was installed. Vice Chair Ben Magrone at the April South Carolina Section event. tion program.
presented Gale Mole a certificate of ap-
preciation for his services as chairman.

District 6
Kenneth Phy, director
(315) 218-5297
kenneth.phy@gmail.com

NIAGARA FRONTIER
ROCHESTER
MARCH 21 Shown at the Niagara Frontier-Rochester Sections program are (from left) Don Shuknecht,
Speaker: Mike Dortch, sales manager Ron Halpenny, Jeff Garraux, Fred Schmidt, speaker Mike Dortch, and Ron Stahura.

WELDING JOURNAL 95
Society News JUNE_Layout 1 5/15/13 10:35 AM Page 96
Dave Parker (left) presents a speaker gift to
Kevin Diggs at the Northern New York Sec-
tion program.
Shown at the Cincinnati Section program are (from left) Bruce Scherer, speaker Jason
LeGrand, Chair and District 7 Director Uwe Aschemeier, and Leamon Wilson.
Speaker Jason LeGrand (left) greets Uwe
Aschemeier, Cincinnati Section chair and
District 7 director.
Champion welder Tyler Rogers (right) is shown with Jeremy Dawson, advisor, Northern
Westmoreland Career and Technology Center Student Chapter.
96 JUNE 2013
Larry Hidde (left) receives a chairman ap-
preciation award from Dave Parker at the
Northern New York Section event.
Speaker Kevin Eisaman (left) is shown with
Jeremy Dawson, advisor to the Northern
Westmoreland CTC Student Chapter.
Affiliation: AlcoTec,
Topic: Welding aluminum
Activity: Following the talk, Dortch as-
sisted attendees with a hands-on demon-
stration of aluminum welding. This Niag-
ara Frontier Section event was held at
Batavia BOCES in Batavia, N.Y. Partici-
pating were Don Shuknecht, a welding in-
structor from Genesee Valley BOCES;
Rochester Section Chair Ron Halpenny;
Jeff Garraux, ESAB process and training
welding engineer; Niagara Frontier Sec-
tion Chair Fred Schmidt; and Ron
Stahura, a board member.
NORTHERN NEW YORK
APRIL 2
Speaker: Kevin Diggs, welding department
manager
Affiliation: Ducommun Aerostructures
Topic: Fusion welding titanium
Activity: Larry Hidde received an appre-
ciation award for his services as chair. Bob
Dybas, who died March 19, was remem-
bered for his contributions to AWS on both
national and Section levels. The meeting
concluded with a tour of the company.
District 7
Uwe Aschemeier, director
(786) 473-9540
uwe@miamidiver.com
CINCINNATI
APRIL 16
Speaker: Jason LeGrand, laser specialist
Affiliation: Air Liquide Industrial U.S. LP
Topic: Introduction into laser welding and
cutting
Activity: Participating were Section Chair
and District 7 Director Uwe Aschemeier
and welding instructors Bruce Scherer and
Leamon Wilson from the Diamond Oaks
and Scarlet Oaks Career Center Cam-
puses, respectively. The meeting was held
at the Scarlet Oaks Career Center Cam-
pus in Cincinnati, Ohio.
Northern Westmoreland CTC
Student Chapter
MARCH 7
Speaker: Kevin Eisaman, boilermaker
Affiliation: Boilermakers Local 154
Topic: Welding in the power-generation
industry
Activity: Participating were Advisor Je-
remy Dawson, President Mike Shafer, VP
Richard Metzler, Secretary R. J. Ament,
Jeff Penley, Chris Rakes, Trevor Molnar,
Matt Eisaman, Jake McGuire, Tyler
Rogers, Dakota Palyzeski, Tom Pollick,
Tyler Kinnard, Joe Harvey, Aaron DeSte-
fano, Aaron Murphy, Bob Wateska, and
Jimmy Poloff. The Student Chapter has
Society News JUNE_Layout 1 5/15/13 10:36 AM Page 97
Pittsburgh Section members are shown at the April program.
Chattanooga Section members toured Ken Garner Mfg. Co. in March.
been running a profitable AWS T-shirt
fund-raising operation. The Chapter an-
nounced the purchase of an official Skills-
USA uniform for Tyler Rogers to wear
when he competes in the state welding
competition. The meeting was held at the
center’s weld shop in New Kensington, Pa.
APRIL 8
Activity: Tyler Rogers received a certifi-
cate of achievement for winning third
place at the SkillsUSA state welding com-
petition. Reports were made on the Stu-
dent Chapter’s welding projects. A fire-
guard screen was delivered to the Bayberry
Court Assisted Living Facility and the log
splitter fabrication project for Coleen
Steim has been finished and is being
painted by John Burtick.
PITTSBURGH
APRIL 9
Speaker: Kyle Williams, CWI, CWE
Affiliation: Alcoa Technology, senior weld-
ing technologist
Topic: Applying the D1.2, Structural Weld-
ing Code — Aluminum
Activity: The meeting was held at Spring-
field Grille in Mars, Pa.
District 8
Joe Livesay, director
(931) 484-7502, ext. 143
joe.livesay@ttcc.edu
Pittsburgh Section Chair John Menhart (left)
CHATTANOOGA is shown with speaker Kyle Williams.
MARCH 19
Activity: The Section members toured the
Ken Garner Mfg. Co. in Chattanooga,
Tenn. John Penny and Stephen Eldridge
made presentations and conducted the
tour.
District 9
George Fairbanks Jr., director
(225) 473-6362
fits@bellsouth.net
Presenters Stephen Eldridge (left) and John
BATON ROUGE Penny led the Chattanooga Section tour.
JANUARY 24
Speaker: George D. Fairbanks Jr., District
9 director
Affiliation: Fairbanks Inspection & Testing
Topic: NBIC welding methods as an alter-
native to postweld heat treating
Activity: The Section held a roundtable
discussion on the speaker’s topic follow-
ing the talk. The program was held at
Turner Industries in Baton Rouge, La.
DISTRICT 9 SECTIONS
FEBRUARY 27
Speaker: Nancy Cole, AWS president
Affiliation: NCC Engineering
Topic: Women in the welding industry Baton Rouge Treasurer Tom Shelton (left)
Activity: Attending were members of the is shown with speaker George Fairbanks,
Acadiana, Baton Rouge, Lake Charles, District 9 director.
WELDING JOURNAL 97
Society News JUNE_Layout 1 5/15/13 10:36 AM Page 98

Shown at the District 9 event are (from left) District 18 Director John Bray, Joey Rentrop, AWS President Nancy Cole, Jim Falgout, Mike
Skiles, District 17 Director J. Jones, and District 9 Director George Fairbanks.

District 9 Director George Fairbanks (far left) and AWS President Nancy Cole are shown with Central Louisiana Section members (from
left) Greg Danzy, Don Sanders, Mike Stuchlik, Jason Hayes, Kenny Grimes, and Charles Ashburn.

Shown at the Mobile Section event are (from left) Johnny Dedeaux, District 9 Director George Fairbanks, Randy Carithers, AWS President
Nancy Cole, Steve Veal, AWS past President Ron Pierce, Kendall Clark, and Bill Harrison III.
Morgan City, and New Orleans Sections
and the recently chartered Central
Louisiana Section, as well as District 9 Di-
rector George Fairbanks, District 17 Di-
rector J. Jones, District 18 Director John
Bray, Acadiana Chair Mike Skiles, Baton
Rouge Chair Jim Falgout, and Morgan
City Chair Joey Rentrop. This special event
was held at Crawfish Town USA Restau-
rant in Henderson, La.

Lawson State C. C.
Student Chapter
MARCH 29
Activity: Roy Ledford, Student Chapter ad-
Randall Standridge (left) and Benjamin Vining display their awards at the Lawson State C. visor, affiliated with the Birmingham Sec-
C. Student Chapter meeting. tion, presented Randall Standridge and

98 JUNE 2013
Society News JUNE_Layout 1 5/15/13 10:36 AM Page 99
The Mobile Section members are shown during their tour of Taylor-Wharton Cryogenics.
Shown at the Northwestern Pa. Section event are (from left) Chair Tom Kostreba, Eriez em-
ployees Jeff Kiehl and Tom Rohan, and 2nd Vice Chair Donna Bastian.
Benjamin Vining Student Chapter Mem-
ber Awards for their outstanding academic
records and contributions to the Chapter’s
activities. Standridge, who is currently
chairman, has led the members through
several seminars and field trips. Vining
serves the Chapter as treasurer and rep-
resented Lawson State C. C. at the Ala-
bama SkillsUSA competition in April. The
presentations were made at the college
campus in Bessemer, Ala.
MOBILE
FEBRUARY 28
Speaker: Nancy Cole, AWS president
Affiliation: NCC Engineering
Topic: Welding careers for women
Activity: C. Kendall Clark received his Life
Member certificate and Randy Carithers
received the Silver Member certificate for
35 and 25 years of service to the Society,
respectively. Two new scholarships were
announced to commemorate Leo D. Veal,
the Section’s first chair, and William H.
Harrison Jr., a charter member. The event,
held at AIDT Maritime Training Center
in Mobile, Ala., attracted 52 attendees.
MARCH 21
Activity: The Mobile Section members vis-
ited the Taylor-Wharton Cryogenics facil-
ity in Theodore, Ala. Matthew Seeds,
global customer service manager,
CryoScience, discussed the company’s his-
tory and led a tour detailing the manufac-
ture of bulk and portable cryogenic stor-
age containers.
Presenter Matthew Seeds (left) is shown with
Johnny Dedeaux, Mobile Section chair.
District 10
Robert E. Brenner, director
(330) 484-3650
bobren28@yahoo.com
NORTHWESTERN PA.
MARCH 13
Speaker: Brad Tisdale, training director
Affiliation: Plumbers and Steamfitters
Local 47 Training Facility, Monaca, Pa.
Topic: Careers available for apprentice
program graduates
Activity: The Section presented certifi-
cates of appreciation to its patrons, Local
47 and Eriez Magnetics. Jeff Kiehl and
Tom Rohan accepted the award for Eriez. Speaker Brad Tisdale is shown with Jennifer
Munoz, Northwestern Pa. Section vice chair.
District 11
Robert P. Wilcox, director
(734) 721-8272
rmwilcox@wowway.com
District 12
Daniel J. Roland, director
(715) 735-9341, ext. 6421
daniel.roland@us.fincantieri.com
LAKESHORE
MARCH 22
Activity: Tom Herrmann received the Life
Member Certificate for 35 years of serv-
ice to the Society, and Chair Milt Kemp Tom Herrmann displays his Life Member
recognized past Chair John Zielonka for Certificate at the Lakeshore Section event.
WELDING JOURNAL 99
Society News JUNE_Layout 1 5/17/13 2:57 PM Page 100

Shown at the Chicago Section program are (from left) Jim Greer, AWS past president, John Zielonka (left) is shown with Milt
Chair Pete Host, and speaker Dean Wilson, an AWS vice president. Kemp, Lakeshore Section chair.

Tom Dunn (left) receives the District Meri-

Chicago Section board members are from left (seated) Cliff Iftimie, Chair Pete Host, and torious Award from Jerry Simpson for his
Jim Greer, (standing) Bob Zimny, Marty Vondra, and Craig Tichelar. company’s support of the St. Louis Section.

Shown at the Northern Plains welding contest are (from left) Matt Marchall, Daniel Hendrickson, Trevor Enger, District 15 Director Dave
Lynnes, Jacob Doele, Chair Mark Harmon, Josiah Mechaelsen, Craig Kolden, and Blake Johnson.

Kansas Section members are shown during their tour of Caterpillar Work Tools in March.

100 JUNE 2013

Society News JUNE_Layout 1 5/15/13 10:38 AM Page 103
Shown at the Kansas Section April meeting are (from left) Robert Simon, Craig Clasper, Jay
Avery, Jenny Siepert, Greg Siepert, Diane Steadham, Dave Damasauskas, Sara Daniel,
Courtney Cauble, and Marc Childs.
his services to the Lakeshore Section. This
past chairmens’ and ladies’ night social
event began with a tailgate party at Sta-
dium View Bar & Grille. The group then
walked over to the Resch Center to attend
the Green Bay Gamblers hockey game fol-
lowed by the business meeting.
District 13
John Willard, director
(815) 954-4838
kustom_bilt@msn.com
CHICAGO
MARCH 20
Speaker: Dean Wilson, AWS vice presi-
dent
Affiliation: Well-Dean Enterprises, presi-
dent
Topic: Nonionizing radiation in welding
Activity: The program was held at Bo-
hemian Crystal Restaurant in Westmont,
Ill., for 30 members and guests. Past AWS
President Jim Greer attended the pro-
gram.
APRIL 2
Activity: The Chicago Section board mem-
bers met to discuss changes to the bylaws.
Attending were Chair Pete Host, past AWS
President Jim Greer, Cliff Iftimie, Bob
Zimny, Marty Vondra, and Craig Tichelar.
The meeting was held at Hog Wild in Mid-
lothian, Ill.
District 14
Robert L. Richwine, director
(765) 378-5378
bobrichwine@aol.com
INDIANA
MARCH 16
Activity: The Section officers assisted with
the CWI/CWE testing program for 22 per-
sonnel concluding their week-long CWI
seminar held at Ramada Inn in Indianapo-
lis, Ind. Participating were Chair Bennie
Flynn, Gary Tucker, Gary Dugger, Tony
Brosio, and test supervisor Jeff Stanczak.
Greg Siepert (left) receives his past chair cer-
tificate from Courtney Cauble at the April
Kansas Section program.
ST. LOUIS
MARCH
Activity: Tom Dunn, owner of Cee Kay
Supply, Inc., was presented the District 14
Meritorious Award in recognition of his
company’s generous support of Section ac-
tivities. The event was held at the company
in St. Louis, Mo.
TRI-RIVER
MARCH 19
Activity: The Section members toured
Pittsburg Tank and Tower Co. in Hender- Speaker Dick Blaisedell (right) is shown with
son, Ky. Section Chair William Judd, QA Mike Vincent, Kansas City Section chair.
and QC manager at the company, con-
ducted the tour.
District 15
David Lynnes, director
(701) 365-0606
dave@learntoweld.com
NORTHERN PLAINS
APRIL 11 Speaker Jeff Lipko (left) is shown with Chair
Activity: The Section held its annual Be- Mike Vincent at the March Kansas City Sec-
hind the Mask welding contest at North- tion program.
land Community and Technical College in
East Grand Forks, Minn. More than 60 KANSAS
students from area colleges competed for MARCH 21
prizes donated by local companies. The Activity: The Section members toured
steel, electrodes, and gases were donated Caterpillar Work Tools, Inc., in Wamego,
by Grand Forks Welding, Lincoln Electric Kan., led by Mike Jones, plant manager.
Co., and Praxair, respectively. Students
with the highest scores were Matt Mar- APRIL 18
chall, Daniel Hendrickson, Trevor Enger,
Jacob Doele, Josiah Mechaelsen, Craig
Activity: The Kansas Section held a gen-
eral business meeting to elect the incom-
Kolden, and Blake Johnson. District 15 ing slate of officers. Courtney Cauble pre-
Director Dave Lynnes and Chair Mark sented Greg Siepert a certificate in appre-
Harmon worked the event alongside many ciation of his services as chair.
volunteers.
KANSAS CITY
FEBRUARY 28
District 16
Dennis Wright, director
Speaker: Dick Blaisedell
Affiliation: Rebel and Associates
Topic: Welding 300 series stainless steel
(913) 782-0635 Activity: The meeting was held at Johnny
awscwi1@att.net C’s in Kansas city, Mo.
WELDING JOURNAL 103
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Kansas City Section and Student Chapter members are shown during their tour of Taylor Forge Engineered Systems in March.

The Kansas City Section members are shown at Praxair during their April meeting.
MARCH 14
Speaker: Jeff Lipko, welding engineer
Affiliation: Taylor Forge Engineered Sys-
tems
Topic: Welding heavy vessels
Activity: Following the talk, Lipko led the
Kansas City Section members on a tour of
the company. Students from the AWS
Johnson County C. C. Student Chapter at-
tended the event.

APRIL 11
Kansas City Section members are shown at the February program. Speaker: Darren Stane
Affiliation: Hobart Filler Metals
Topic: Metal core wires used in production
Activity: Praxair Distribution, represented
by Kip Smythia and David Hanchette,
hosted this event in Kansas City, Mo. Chair
Mike Vincent recognized Don Pepper for
his services assisting with the recent CWI
seminar and serving as a proctor. Grant
Von Lunen presented Mike Vincent a cer-
tificate for his services as chair.

Shown at the April Kansas City Section event are (from left) Kip Smythia, David Hanchette, NEBRASKA
speaker Darren Stane, and Chair Mike Vincent. MARCH 21
Activity: The Section members visited the
Rasmussen Mechanical Services facility in
Council Bluffs, Iowa. The tour included
demonstrations of orbital pipe welding,
flaring, and cutting, and the company’s ap-
plications for ultrasonic testing methods.
The program was led by Greg Schroeter,
quality control manager.

Grant Von Lunen (left) presents Mike Vin-

District 17
J. Jones, director
cent his past chair certificate at the April Greg Schroeter led the Nebraska Section tour (832) 506-5986
Kansas City Section meeting. of Rasmussen Mechanical Services. jjones6@lincolnelectric.com

104 JUNE 2013

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Shown at the North Texas Section event are from left (standing) AWS President Nancy Cole, Rob Tessier, Chuck Fuller, Bill Hall, District
17 Director J. Jones, Floyd Kiel, Kirk Jordan, and Chair Donnie Williams, (seated) Dwayne Roy, Warren Hankammer, and Ernest Levert,
AWS past president.

EAST TEXAS
MARCH 28
Speaker: Johnny Harvill, welding engineer
Affiliation: The Lincoln Electric Co., tech-
nical sales manager
Topic: Principles of welding robotics
Activity: Following the talk, Harvill
demonstrated welding robotic operations
in the Kilgore Jr. College welding lab.
Welding instructor and CWI Cody Ed-
wards received the District Director
Award for his involvement in obtaining a
large grant for the college’s welding pro-
gram. Kilgore Jr. College was presented a
District Director Award for its commit- Chair Bryan Baker (left) and Cody Edwards
ment to spend $100,000 to upgrade its are shown at the East Texas Section program. Larry Jeffus receives the Life Member cer-
welding lab facilities. tificate from AWS President Nancy Cole .

NORTH TEXAS
MARCH 26
Speaker: Nancy Cole, AWS president
Affiliation: NCC Engineering
Topic: Women in welding and brazing
Activity: Attending this past chairmen’s
night program were District 17 Director J.
Jones, past AWS President Ernest Levert,
Chair Donnie Williams, and past Section
chairs Rob Tessier, Chuck Fuller, Bill Hall, Silver Member Lester Purdham (center) is
Floyd Kiel, Kirk Jordan, and Warren Han- shown with AWS President Nancy Cole and Johnny Harvill demonstrated welding robot
kammer. Larry Jeffus and Lester Purd- District 17 Director J. Jones. operations at the East Texas Section event.
ham received Life and Silver Member
awards for 35 and 25 years of service to the
Society, respectively.

OKLAHOMA CITY
APRIL 18
Speaker: Chris Thomas
Affiliation: Stoody
Topic: Basics of hardfacing
Activity: Cary Reeves received a certificate
of appreciation for his services as chair.
The meeting was held at Boardman, Inc., Cary Reeves (left) is shown with Johnny Day Speaker Chris Thomas (left) is shown with
in Oklahoma City, Okla. at the Oklahoma City Section program. Cary Reeves, Oklahoma City Section chair.

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Tulsa Section Chair Jamie Pearson (far left)

Shown at the March Tulsa Section meeting are (from left) speaker David Cobb, Vice Chair has fun working with the students at the vir-
Paul Wittenbach, Kelley Collier, Russell Bosarge, and Charles Griffin. tual arc welding trainer exhibit.

District 18
John Bray, director
(281) 997-7273
sales@affiliatedmachinery.com

CORPUS CHRISTI
MARCH 21
Speaker: Nancy Cole, AWS president
Affiliation: NCC Engineering
Topic: Women in Welding
Activity: District 18 Director John Bray
presented the District Director Award to
the Craft Training Center of the Coastal
Bend, accepted by Anne Matula. Section
Secretary-Treasurer Misty Ralls was pre-
sented her Deputy District 18 Director
Shown at the Corpus Christi Section event are (from left) James Bryant, AWS President badge. The event was held at Bayfront
Nancy Cole, Anne Matula, Ellery Francisco, Misty Ralls, and John Bray, District 18 director. Holiday Inn in Corpus Christi, Tex.

FHS Welding
Student Chapter
MARCH 21
Speaker: Nancy Cole, AWS president
Affiliation: NCC Engineering
Topic: Women in Welding
Activity: District 18 Director John Bray
presented the San Antonio Section Private
Sector Instructor Award to Chapter Advi-
sor Clifton Rogers. Chapter Chair Martin
Rico, Jasmeen Romo, and Maria Avila re-
ceived Student Chapter Member Awards
for their academic achievements and con-
Shown at the FHS Welding Student Chapter program are (from left) Advisor Clifton Rogers, tributions to the Chapter’s activities. Sixty-
Jasmeen Romo, Chair Martin Rico, Maria Avila, District 18 Director John Bray, and Nancy six students attended this program held at
Cole, AWS president. Floresville High School in Floresville, Tex.

TULSA
MARCH 8
Activity: The Section members partici-
pated in the 25th Annual Tulsa Engineer-
ing Challenge held at Tulsa Tech Riverside
Campus in Tulsa, Okla. The event at-
tracted about 1000 middle and high school
students who competed in a variety of con-
struction and science projects. A highlight
for the students was trying their skills with
the VRTEX™360 virtual arc welding
trainer. Chair Jamie Pearson is a welding
instructor at the school.
MARCH 26
Speaker: David I. Cobb, trade manager
Affiliation: Huntington Ingalls Industries
Topic: Shipbuilding welding and saving the
S.S. Cole
Activity: Participating were Ingalls Ship-
building Recruiter Kelley Collier and
Training Technician Russell Bosarge; and
Welding Instructor Charles Griffin. The
Section holds professional development
recertification courses. Contact Chair
Jamie Pearson, jpearson@twsweld.com,
(918) 587-6789, ext. 300, for information.
HOUSTON
MARCH 13
Speaker: Nancy Cole, AWS president
Affiliation: NCC Engineering
Topic: Women in Welding
Activity: The event, held at Brady’s Land-
ing Restaurant in Houston, Tex., attracted
more than 50 attendees.
MARCH 30
Activity: The Houston Section held a train-
ing seminar on qualifying a welding pro-

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Shown at the Houston Section March 13 meeting are (from left) District 18 Director John Bray, Dan Brotsch, Derek Stelly, AWS President
Nancy Cole, Leon Cole, Justin Kirby, and Barney Burks Jr.
cedure to AWS D1.1, Structural Welding
Code — Steel. Ron Theiss and Terry Wells
taught the course for 49 attendees. The
program was hosted by and held at NCI,
Russell Robertson, representative, in
Houston, Tex.

APRIL 6
Activity: The Houston Section members
conducted a training session that resulted
in 48 Boy Scouts from Troops 73, 209, and
846 earning welding merit badges. The all-
day class and workshop began with safety
and the gas metal arc welding then, using
the workbook, welding a square groove
Shown at the Houston Section March 30 seminar are (from left) NCI host Russell Robert- butt joint, a lap joint, and a T-joint followed
son, presenters Terry Wells and Ron Theiss, and Education Chair Saty Segu. by welding or cutting their name or initials
on their welded assembly. The assignment
included using a plasma arc cutter.

APRIL 20
Activity: The Houston Section hosted its
annual Clay Busters Shootout competition
for 65 contestants working in teams of five
members to benefit the Section’s scholar-
ship fund. The first-place team members
included Chris Dossky, Troy Hutcheson,
Karl Eberhart, Terry Wells, and Ron
Theiss. The event was held at Carter’s
Country near Houston, Tex.

Boy Scouts pose for a group shot after earning their welding merit badges at the Houston
District 19
Ken Johnson, director
Section-sponsored training session April 6. (425) 957-3553
kenneth.johnson@vigorshipyards.com
ALASKA
MARCH 20
Activity: The Section participated in the
annual District 19 business meeting, held
in Anchorage, Alaska.

MARCH 22
Activity: The Alaska Section celebrated
the winners of the SkillsUSA welding com-
petition. Taking the top-three spots were
Stephan Foreman, Dakota Randolph, and
Houston Section’s champion Clay Busters are (from left) Chris Dossky, Troy Hutcheson, Tony Naber. The event was held at the Uni-
Karl Eberhart, Terry Wells, and Ron Theiss. versity of Alaska in Anchorage.

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Alberta Section members are shown at the Canadian industrial development event.

Olympic Section members and community college students are shown at the college in April.
ALBERTA
MARCH 7
Activity: The Section joined about 40 other
industrial groups to roll out the Alberta
Metal Manufacturing Sector Develop-
ment Strategy hosted in Edmonton, Alb.,
Canada, by Alberta Innovates-Tech Fu-
tures (AITF). Paul Collins of Collins In-
dustries discussed the value of training
programs for apprentices. Robert Roy of
the Alberta Metal Fab Innovation Pro-
gram and Gerard Morrison of AITF made
presentations on industrial research assis-
tance and other programs.

BRITISH COLUMBIA
MARCH 19
Alaska Section members are shown at their business meeting March 20.
Speaker: Tim Turchen, fire inspector
Affiliation: City of Abbotsford
Topic: The science of dust explosions
Activity: The meeting was held at Rancho
Caterers Restaurant in Abbotsford, B.C.,
Canada.

Shown at the Alaska Section March 22 event
are SkillsUSA welding champs (from left)
Tony Naber, Dakota Randolph, and Stephan
Foreman.
Steve Nielson discussed scholarship progress
at the Puget Sound Section program.
OLYMPIC
APRIL 16
Activity: The Section held a students’ night
program at South Puget Sound C. C. in
Olympia, Wash. Chair Sjon Delmore in-
troduced the students to the American
Welding Society, discussed welding schol-
arships, and distributed literature.

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Some of the attendees are shown at the Spokane Section program in April.

Job Corps and college welding students take a break during the New Mexico Section training program.

PUGET SOUND
APRIL 4
Speaker: Richard Temple
Affiliation: Dinse, regional sales manager
Topic: Tandem welding and robotic weld-
ing solutions
Activity: Steve Nielson, Steve Pollard,
Dave Edwards, and Art Schnitzer agreed
to attend the District 19 meeting in Walla
Walla, Wash. The Section will sponsor a
CWI exam August 17. Steve Nielson an-
nounced the Section had a record-setting
year for scholarship funding. Since last Au-
gust, the Section has granted $6025 in
scholarships to eight students, and has Shown at the Idaho-Montana Section program are (from left) Dale Mortensen, Chair Paul
raised more than $4000 toward its $7000 Tremblay, speaker Denis Clark, and Tevan Boersma.
pledge to the Jerry Hope Endowed Schol-
arship. Student Chapter Chair Grant
Goldsmith announced he will man a table
at the Bellingham Technical College Weld-
District 20
William A. Komlos, director
ing Rodeo. (801) 560-2353
bkoz@arctechllc.com

SPOKANE
APRIL 17
Speaker: Phillip Formento
Affiliation: ESAB
Topic: ICE — The integrated cold elec-
trode welding process combined with SAW
Activity: The talk generated numerous
questions about the new cold electrode
process. The meeting was held at Spokane
C. C. welding facility in Spokane, Wash.
IDAHO-MONTANA
MARCH 21
Speaker: Denis Clark, welding engineer,
AWS Safety and Health Committee chair
Affiliation: Idaho National Lab (ret.)
Topic: Electromagnetic radiation as a phe-
nomenon and a useful tool in welding
processes
Activity: The program was held at Brigham
Young University (BYU) in Rexburg,
Idaho. Participating were Chair Paul
Tremblay; Dale Mortensen, BYU welding
professor; and Tevan Boersma, a BYU Kelly Bingham was the keynote speaker at
welding student. the New Mexico Section training program.

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The San Fernando Valley Section members and guests are shown at Aero Bending Co. in Palmdale, Calif.

a program to train about 100 Job Corps SAN FERNANDO VALLEY

and Central New Mexico C. C. welding stu-
dents in nondestructive evaluation meth-
ods, procedure qualification, and person-
nel certification. Additional talks and
hands-on demonstrations were given by
Richard Bingham, David Bingham,
Patrick Bowman, Paul Bowman, Gerald
Henderson, and Ciji Nelson. The study
program was held at Job Corps in Albu-
querque, N.Mex.
APRIL 3
Speaker: Neil Chapman, welding engineer
Topic: Welding in nuclear power plants
Activity: Robert Burns, president, Aero
Bending Co., hosted this meeting and a
dinner at his new facility in Palmdale, Calif.
Following the talk, Burns led the members
on a tour of the plant and detailed the pro-
cedures used to fabricate precision tubes
for the aerospace industry.

International
District 21
Nanette Samanich, director GERMANY
Ciji Nelson demonstrates phased array weld CALENDAR
inspection technology at the New Mexico (702) 429-5017
nan07@aol.com Essen, Germany
Section event. SEPT. 11–17
66th IIW Annual Assembly
2013 Int’l Trade Fair
NEW MEXICO Joining, Cutting, Surfacing
MARCH 29
Keynote Speaker: Kelly Bingham District 22
Kerry E. Shatell, director
SEPT. 16, 17
Int’l Conf. on Automation in Welding
Affiliation: Los Alamos National Lab SEPT. 16–21
Topic: Nondestructive testing of welds (925) 866-5434
kesi@pge.com Young Welders’ Competitions
Activity: The Section members conducted www.iiw2013.com

Name Your Candidates for These AWS Awards

The deadline for nominating candidates for the following awards is December 31 prior to the year of the awards presentations.
Contact Wendy Sue Reeve, wreeve@aws.org; (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 293.
William Irrgang Memorial Award tions with industry and other organizations, and for contribu-
This award is given to the individual who has done the most tions of time and effort on behalf of the Society.
over the past five years to enhance the Society’s goal of advanc- George E. Willis Award
ing the science and technology of welding. It includes a $2500 This award is given to an individual who promoted the ad-
honorarium and a certificate. vancement of welding internationally by fostering coopera-
Honorary Membership Award tive participation in technology transfer, standards rationali-
This award acknowledges eminence in the welding profession, zation, and promotion of industrial goodwill. It includes a
or one who is credited with exceptional accomplishments in the $2500 honorarium.
development of the welding art. Honorary Members have full International Meritorious Certificate Award
rights of membership. This honor recognizes recipients’ significant contributions to
National Meritorious Certificate Award the welding industry for service to the international welding com-
This award recognizes the recipient’s counsel, loyalty, and munity in the broadest terms. The award consists of a certificate
dedication to AWS affairs, assistance in promoting cordial rela- and a one-year AWS membership.

110 JUNE 2013

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Guide to AWS Services

8669 Doral Blvd., Ste. 130, Doral, FL 33166
(800/305) 443-9353; FAX (305) 443-7559; www.aws.org
Staff phone extensions are shown in parentheses.
AWS PRESIDENT
Nancy C. Cole
nccengr@yahoo.com
NCC Engineering
2735 Robert Oliver Ave.
Fernandina Beach, FL 32034
ADMINISTRATION
Executive Director
Ray W. Shook.. rshook@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(210)
Sr. Associate Executive Director
Cassie R. Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . .(253)
Chief Financial Officer
Gesana Villegas.. gvillegas@aws.org . . . . . .(252)
VP Sales and Marketing
Bill Fudale..bfudale@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(211)
VP Technology and Business Development
Dennis Harwig..dharwig@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(213)
Executive Assistant for Board Services
Gricelda Manalich.. gricelda@aws.org . . . . .(294)
Administrative Services
Managing Director
Jim Lankford.. jiml@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(214)
IT Network Director
Armando Campana..acampana@aws.org . .(296)
Director
Hidail Nuñez..hidail@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(287)
Director of IT Operations
Natalia Swain..nswain@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(245)
Human Resources
Director, Compensation and Benefits
Luisa Hernandez.. luisa@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(266)
Director, Human Resources
Dora A. Shade.. dshade@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(235)
International Institute of Welding
Senior Coordinator
Sissibeth Lopez . . sissi@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(319)
Liaison services with other national and international
societies and standards organizations.
GOVERNMENT LIAISON SERVICES
Hugh K. Webster . . . . . . . . .hwebster@wc-b.com
Webster, Chamberlain & Bean, Washington, D.C.,
(202) 785-9500; FAX (202) 835-0243. Monitors fed-
eral issues of importance to the industry.
CONVENTION and EXPOSITIONS
Director, Convention and Meeting Services
Matthew Rubin.....mrubin@aws.org . . . . . . .(239)
ITSA — International Thermal
Spray Association
Senior Manager and Editor
Kathy Dusa.kathydusa@thermalspray.org . . .(232)
RWMA — Resistance Welding
Manufacturing Alliance
Management Specialist
Keila DeMoraes....kdemoraes@aws.org . . . .(444)
WEMCO — Association of
Welding Manufacturers
Management Specialist
Keila DeMoraes....kdemoraes@aws.org . . . .(444)
Brazing and Soldering
Manufacturers’ Committee
Jeff Weber.. jweber@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(246)
GAWDA — Gases and Welding
Distributors Association
Executive Director
John Ospina.. jospina@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(462)
Operations Manager
Natasha Alexis.. nalexis@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(401)
American Welding Society
INTERNATIONAL SALES
Managing Director, Global Exposition Sales
Joe Krall..jkrall@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(297)
Corporate Director, International Sales
Jeff P. Kamentz..jkamentz@aws.org . . . . . . .(233)
Oversees international business activities involving
certification, publication, and membership.
PUBLICATION SERVICES
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(275)
Managing Director
Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org . . . . . .(249)
Welding Journal
Publisher
Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org . . . . . .(249)
Editor
Mary Ruth Johnsen.. mjohnsen@aws.org . .(238)
National Sales Director
Rob Saltzstein.. salty@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(243)
Society and Section News Editor
Howard Woodward..woodward@aws.org . .(244)
Welding Handbook
Editor
Annette O’Brien.. aobrien@aws.org . . . . . . .(303)
MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS
Director
Ross Hancock.. rhancock@aws.org . . . . . . .(226)
Public Relations Manager
Cindy Weihl..cweihl@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(416)
Webmaster
Jose Salgado..jsalgado@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(456)
Section Web Editor
Henry Chinea...hchinea@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(452)
MEMBER SERVICES
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(480)
Sr. Associate Executive Director
Cassie R. Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . .(253)
Director
Rhenda A. Kenny... rhenda@aws.org . . . . . .(260)
Serves as a liaison between Section members and AWS
headquarters.
CERTIFICATION SERVICES
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(273)
Managing Director
John L. Gayler.. gayler@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(472)
Oversees all certification activities including all inter-
national certification programs.
Director, Certification Operations
Terry Perez..tperez@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(470)
Oversees application processing, renewals, and exam
scoring.
Director, Certification Programs
Linda Henderson..lindah@aws.org . . . . . . .(298)
Oversees the development of new certification pro-
grams, as well as AWS-Accredited Test Facilities, and
AWS Certified Welding Fabricators.
EDUCATION SERVICES
Director, Operations
Martica Ventura.. mventura@aws.org . . . . . .(224)
Director, Education Development
David Hernandez.. dhernandez@aws.org . . .(219)
AWS AWARDS, FELLOWS, COUNSELORS
Senior Manager
Wendy S. Reeve.. wreeve@aws.org . . . . . . . .(293)
Coordinates AWS awards, Fellow, Counselor nom-
inees.
TECHNICAL SERVICES
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(340)
Managing Director
Technical Services Development & Systems
Andrew R. Davis.. adavis@aws.org . . . . . . .(466)
International Standards Activities, American Coun-
cil of the International Institute of Welding (IIW)
Director, Technical Services Operations
Annette Alonso.. aalonso@aws.org . . . . . . .(299)
Associate Director, Technical Services Operations
Alex Diaz.... adiaz@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(304)
Welding Qualification, Sheet Metal Welding, Air-
craft and Aerospace, Joining of Metals and Alloys
Manager, Safety and Health
Stephen P. Hedrick.. steveh@aws.org . . . . . .(305)
Metric Practice, Safety and Health, Joining of Plas-
tics and Composites, Welding Iron Castings, Per-
sonnel and Facilities Qualification
Managing Engineer, Standards
Brian McGrath .... bmcgrath@aws.org . . . . .(311)
Structural Welding, Methods of Inspection, Me-
chanical Testing of Welds, Welding in Marine Con-
struction, Piping and Tubing
Senior Staff Engineer
Rakesh Gupta.. gupta@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(301)
Filler Metals and Allied Materials, International
Filler Metals, UNS Numbers Assignment, Arc
Welding and Cutting Processes
Standards Program Managers
Efram Abrams.. eabrams@aws.org . . . . . . . .(307)
Thermal Spray, Automotive, Resistance Welding,
Machinery and Equipment
Stephen Borrero... sborrero@aws.org . . . . .(334)
Brazing and Soldering, Brazing Filler Metals and
Fluxes, Brazing Handbook, Soldering Handbook,
Railroad Welding, Definitions and Symbols
Patrick Henry.. phenry@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(215)
Friction Welding, Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cut-
ting, High-Energy Beam Welding, Robotics Weld-
ing, Welding in Sanitary Applications
Note: Official interpretations of AWS standards
may be obtained only by sending a request in writ-
ing to Andrew R. Davis, managing director, Tech-
nical Services Development & Systems, adavis@
aws.org.
Oral opinions on AWS standards may be ren-
dered; however, oral opinions do not constitute of-
ficial or unofficial opinions or interpretations of
AWS. In addition, oral opinions are informal and
should not be used as a substitute for an official
interpretation.
AWS FOUNDATION, Inc.
www.aws.org/w/a/foundation
General Information
(800/305) 443-9353, ext. 212, vpinsky@aws.org
Chairman, Board of Trustees
Gerald D. Uttrachi
Executive Director, Foundation
Sam Gentry.. sgentry@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (331)
Corporate Director, Workforce Development
Monica Pfarr.. mpfarr@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (461)
The AWS Foundation is a not-for-profit corpora-
tion established to provide support for the educa-
tional and scientific endeavors of the American Weld-
ing Society.
Promote the Foundation’s work with your financial
support. Call (800) 443-9353, ext. 212, for complete
information.

WELDING JOURNAL 111

Personnel JUNE_Layout 1 5/17/13 2:19 PM Page 112

PERSONNEL

Airgas Announces Region. Previously, Eatmon served as an the Alloy Products

area vice president for the region. Group in Los
Leadership Changes Lunas, N.Mex. Gar-
cia has extensive ex-
Airgas, Inc., Radnor, Pa., has named
Wall Colmonoy Names perience in materi-
Douglas L. Jones, president, West Division,
als management,
replacing Max D. Hooper who has resigned. Director of Operations MRP systems, Lean
Jones previously served as president of the
Manufacturing, and
Intermountain Region. Mike Eatmon has Wall Colmonoy Corp. (USA) has named
Quality Manage-
replaced Jones as president, Intermountain Edgardo Garcia director of operations for
ment ISO 9000.
Edgardo Garcia

USA Tank Appoints

Orbital Welding Sales Manager
of Sanitary Process Lines USA Tank, Goodman, Mo., has pro-
moted Rachel Abshire to regional sales
made EZ manager responsible for bolted and
welded tank storage sales in Louisiana,
Mississippi, and Alabama. Abshire has
SIMPLE OPERATION more than nine years of experience in
Making a perfect weld is now as bolted tank storage systems.
simple as selecting tube/fitting O.D.
and wall thickness, and pressing
Start Weld! The intuitive symbol- Fronius Hires Technical
based touch screen interface
and Sales Personnel
minimizes operator training and
qualification time.

AFFORDABLE TECHNOLOGY
The modular EZ Orbital System is
used with standard GTAW power
sources. Priced at 1/3 of industry
standards, this affordable tool
should be in every welder’s toolbox.

David Clond Jake Ross

Fronius USA,
LLC, Portage, Ind.,
a manufacturer of
welding equipment,
has hired Jake Ross
and David Clond to
work in the head-
quarters Technical
Support Group.
Edward Ford Joining other sales
teams are Edward
Ford, Brighton,
Mich., branch office; Mark Carter, central
sales team; and Lucas Barron, Chat-
tanooga, Tenn., branch office.

www.MagnatechLLC.com President Named at

Dynamic Materials
Dynamic Materials Corp. (DMC), Boul-
E-mail: info@MagnatechLLC.com • Phone: (+1) 860 653-2573 der, Colo., has named Gary Klein presi-
dent of the company’s AMK Welding busi-
For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index

112 JUNE 2013

Personnel JUNE_Layout 1 5/16/13 4:20 PM Page 113

ness located in South Windsor, Conn. Klein

previously served as general manager of the
Americas at DYNAenergetics, DMC’s oil-

want to land a job

field products business, where he was re-
sponsible for operations in the United
States, Canada, and South America.

Joining Technologies
Appoints General Manager after graduation?
Employers want commercial divers that are internationally certified.
Joining Technologies, Inc., East Granby,
Conn., a provider of precision laser and
NICAL INS
electron beam welding services, has ap- CH T
TE IT
pointed Matt Francoeur general manager.

UT
CD

E
With the company since 2005, Francoeur
previously served as manager of engineer- CDA Technical Institute’s
te’s Commercial
Co Diver
ing, inside sales, and production.
Pr
Program offers the internationally
lly recognized
r DCBC
Unr
Unrestricted Surface Supplied
ed Divers
Div Certification.
Direct Wire & Cable Makes
Staff Changes
Start your career training in an internatio
internationally
nally recognized Commercial Diving and
nd Underwater
Unde Welding program.
Direct Wire & Cable, Inc., recently re-
located to 412 Oak St., Denver, Pa., has
promoted Eric Laubach to president and
promoted David Witwer to president of
Direct Manufacturing. Laubach will over-
see the company’s daily operations and
Witwer will control all operations of the Financial aid available for
or those who qualify • Approved for Veterans
eterans Benefits
wire mill. The company supplies copper For more information about graduation
gradua
raduation rates, the median debt of students who completed the
wire and cable to welding distributors. program
ram and other important information,
inf visit www.cda.edu.
.cda.edu.

For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index

AK Steel Names HR VP
AK Steel, West Chester, Ohio, has
named Stephanie S. Bisselberg vice presi-
dent, human resources, succeeding
Lawrence F. Zizzo who has retired. Bissel-
berg joined the company in 2004 as assis-
tant labor counsel and since 2010 has served
as assistant general counsel, labor.

Osborn Implements New

Sales Force Strategy
Osborn, Cleveland, Ohio, a provider
of surface treatments and finishing tools,
has added 50 sales professionals through-
out the U.S. from JDF Associates in the
northeastern and southern regions, Surp-
less Dunn in the midwestern region, and
Team Clark in the western region. The
blended sales forces are led by the com-
pany’s sales team leaders in new roles with
Todd Reasonover as national director of
sales. The regional sales managers are
Brad Smith, northeast; Chris Lyons,
southern; Gregg Hohlt, midwest; and
Michael Fulcher, western.

AME Introduces
Champions Club Director

The Association for Manufacturing

For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index

WELDING JOURNAL 113

Personnel JUNE_Layout 1 5/16/13 4:20 PM Page 114
Excellence (AME), Rolling Meadows, Ill.,
has named Burgess Oliver director of the
Champions Club, an exclusive gathering of
senior executives from large and small
companies representing a cross section of
industries. Oliver, the former general man-
ager of Nortel, received the AME Mac Mc-
Culloch Lifetime Achievement Award in
2012. The association is a not-for-profit
dedicated to cultivating understanding,
analysis, and exchange of productivity
methods and their successful application
in the pursuit of excellence.
AMT Elects Officers
The Association for Manufacturing
Technology (AMT), McLean, Va., repre-
senting about 600 American manufactur-
ers and distributors of machine tools, ma-
chinery, and related products, has elected
R. Stephen Flynn, chairman; Kevin Kil-
gallen, first vice chair/treasurer; and Jerry
Rex, second vice chair. Flynn is president
of Optical Gaging Products, Inc.; Kilgallen
is president and owner of Mid Atlantic Ma-
chinery, Inc.; and Rex is president of Heg-
man Machinery, LLC.
MIG [GMAW] [ ]
Electrodes [ ] [
Rolled Alloys has
been the Premier High
Performance Weld
Wire Source for
Over 30 Years!
1-800-521-0332
For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
114 JUNE 2013
Beckwood Press Hires
Operations Director
Beckwood Press
Co., St. Louis, Mo., a
supplier of custom
hydraulic presses
and automation sys-
tems, has hired
Richard Wilhelm as
director of opera-
tions. Wilhelm previ-
ously served as direc-
tor of operations and
Richard Wilhelm
engineering for Tech
Electronics in St.
Louis.
Obituaries
Robb Fitch Howell
Robb Fitch Howell, 58, of Troy, Ohio,
and Walloon Lake, Mich., died Feb. 27.
Born in Troy, Ohio, he graduated from
Mercersberg Academy, Mercersberg, Pa.,
and The Ohio State University. After re-
ceiving his bachelor of science degree, he
joined Hobart Brothers Co., where he
[ ]
]
For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
oversaw the establishment of Saudi Hobart
Welding Industries in Dammam, Saudi
Arabia, and later joined the company head-
quarters in Troy, where he served as a
member of the board of directors. Most re-
cently, he was the owner and president of
MCD Plastics and Manufacturing in Piqua,
Ohio. His career in the welding industry at
Hobart Brothers and other companies
spanned more than 30 years. Howell was
very active in community affairs. From
2008 to 2011, he served as a director on the
board of the American Welding Society
Foundation, Inc. In Troy, he served on the
boards of directors or trustees of Hobart
Institute of Welding Technology, the Com-
munity Improvement Corp. of Troy,
Friends of Hayner, The Future Begins
Today, Overfield Tavern Museum, Summit
Insurance Co., Troy D.A.R.E., the Troy De-
velopment Council, and the U.S. Bank Re-
gional Advisory Board. Additionally, he
served as chairman of the Troy Area Cham-
ber of Commerce, and the 1998 Capital
Campaign for the Miami County YMCA.
He is survived by his wife, JoAnn, a son, a
daughter, two brothers, and two sisters.
Contributions may be made to Hospice
of Miami County. Visit his Web page
www.fisher-cheneyfuneralhome.com.◆
fabtech india_FP_TEMP 5/14/13 12:15 PM Page 115

FABTECH
F ABTECH
A
ABTE
IS
S TAKING
TA
AKIN
NG Y
India will co-loca
co-locate
YOU
OU
O TO
TO IND
INDIA
DIA
te with the Indian Institute of W
Welding’s
elding’s W
Weld
eld India
 
     

 
     

and the International Welding’s
International Institute of W International
elding’s 2014 Interna Congress
tional Cong ress (April 9-11)

With
With FABTECH,
FABTECH, it’s
it’s so easy and economical to exhibit to the enormous Indian market!
The newly combined FABTECH
FABTECH
A INDIA / WELD INDIA exhibition is the premier welding and metal
fabricating trade show in the world’
world’ss most populous country
country.. Hundreds of international exhibitors and
thousands of buyers from India’
India’s
s largest manufacturing and energy firms will assemble to exchange
welding, fabricating and automation solutions fo
forr India’s
India’s fastest growing industries, such as:



Aerospace  

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Defense 


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Paper and pulp 


Mining  

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Repair 


Shipbuilding

As a FABTECH exhibitor
FABTECH exhibitor,, you will join A
AWS,
W
WS, F MA, SME, PMA, CCAI and the entire F
FMA, FABTECH
ABTECH
community in introducing yourself to the economi
economicc dynamo of today’s
today’s India.

Why India?


 
      
 
      
  

  
    
  
  
    

Thousands of Indian buyers have come to FABTECH to find technologies like

yours. Now your tried-and-trusted show team at FABTECH is going to India
where you can meet a vast multitude of ready buyers and prospective partners.
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF WELDING

W
WELD ELDWelding
INDIA IA 2014
INDTTechnology
International Welding
2014
echnology Exhibition
Your FABTECH professionals will be with you every step of the way!
10 - 12 April
Apr 2014, New De
Delhi,
h Ind
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a

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CCosponsors
osponsors

Forming & Fabricating/ Forming & Fabricating/ Welding

Welding Exhibitors Stamping,Tool
Stamping,Tool & Die Finishing Exhibitors
Tube
T ube & Pipe Exhibitors (A-L) Tube
Tube & Pipe Exhibitors (M-Z) Joe Krall,
Krall, AWS
AWS Exhibitors Andy Goyer,
Goyer, CCAI
Jim Gorzek
Gorzek,, FMA John Catalano,
Catalano, SME (800) 443-9353 ext.297 Roger Judson,
Judson, PMA (941) 373-1830
(800) 432-2832 ext. 269 (800) 733-3976 ext.3163 jkrall@aws.org (800) 541-5336 andy@goyermgt.com
jimg@thefabricator.com
jimg@thefabricator.com jcatalano@sme.org rjudson@pma.org
Francis AW Feature June 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 1:29 PM Page 116

THE AMERICAN WELDER

Ladder Safety:
Staying Steady
Mishaps can be prevented by using common sense, adhering to
safety practices,and getting the right ladder for your line of work

BY DAVID FRANCIS
DAVID FRANCIS (dave@ladders.com) is the
national safety director for Little Giant
Ladder Systems
(www.laddersafetyhub.com),
Springville, Utah.

I
magine you’re just finishing up a job
and notice one last thing that needs
to be done. You grab your ladder,
quickly set it up, and start climbing.
However, you didn’t bother with any
safety precautions because you were
only going to be up there for a minute.
This is a common start to many sad
stories. More than 500 accounts a day
start with statements like, “I was in a
hurry” or “I just needed to reach a little
farther.”
These descriptions relate to real peo-
ple with real families, some of whom you
may even know and care a great deal
about. Fortunately, most ladder acci-
dents are not life altering. Some
are, though, and almost all of them are
preventable.

Fig. 1 — The Aerial Safety Cage’s inde-

pendently telescoping sides allow opera-
tors to access difficult areas like stairs or
uneven surfaces.

116 JUNE 2013

Francis AW Feature June 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 1:29 PM Page 117
The Importance of
Using Ladders
Ladders have been around for thou-
sands of years. Most people started
climbing them as children and, some-
times, adults take the same risks now as
they did then.
Since ladders will continue to be a
necessity in nearly all walks of life, better
THE AMERICAN WELDER
ways need to be found for preventing
accidents and, it is hoped, save lives. The
two best ways to accomplish this goal are
providing better safety training and
designing safer products — Figs. 1, 2.
Common Sense Is the
Best Prevention
The first thing to do is educate people
Fig. 2 — The Dark Horse fiberglass artic-
ulating ladder adapts to dozens of uses
and situations.
about why most ladder accidents hap-
pen. Following are a few of the basic lad-
der safety rules everyone should know:
• Select the Proper Ladder for
the Task at Hand. Always use the cor-
rect style, length, weight rating, and
material. For example, always use fiber-
glass near live electrical circuits.
• Inspect Ladders Before Using.
Check ladders for loose rungs, rivets,
bolts, or welds. Never use a ladder if any
parts are broken — even if it still feels
sturdy.
• Safe Setup. Place the ladder on
level ground and avoid hazards like over-
head power lines. Always set up an
extension ladder at a 75.5 deg angle or 4
to 1 ratio. The easiest way to do this is by
placing your toes in front of the ladder
feet, holding your arms straight out, and
placing the palms of your hands on the
rung.
• Ascending and Descending.
Always maintain three points of contact
while climbing and working on a ladder.
Never climb while carrying tools or
equipment.
• Access to Upper Landing. Make
sure the ladder extends 3 ft above the
roofline.
• Never Overreach. Always keep
your body between the side rails. Never
overextend yourself; rather, climb down,
and move the ladder closer to your task.
Free Safety Training
Offered Online
Little Giant Ladders has joined with
other industry members in the American
Ladder Institute to develop safety train-
ing at www.laddersafetytraining.org.
The free site provides a pretest and
posttest; informative training video;
printable certificate of completion; and
allows managers to track their employ-
ees’ training. On-site, in-person training
WELDING JOURNAL 117
Francis AW Feature June 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 1:30 PM Page 118

THE AMERICAN WELDER

WORK
W ORK can also be provided regardless of the
brand or type of ladders being used.
user about proper ladder selection.
Modern fiberglass-resin multipurpose
ladders, which adjust to multiple sizes

SSMART
MART
RT Creating Safer
Ladder Designs
Although it is extremely important,
training alone is not enough. Even an
and configurations, offer a quickly
adjustable answer that allows profession-
al operators to work safely in a range of
environments.

3. Falls Due to Overreaching.

Model 200 Positioner
Model 1200 Pipemate
For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
experienced, well-trained professional
can come off a poorly designed tradi-
tional ladder. Designing safer ladders is
vitally important to preventing the kind
of ladder accidents “that just happen.”
Let’s face it — many of us probably use
a ladder with the same basic design as
the one that our grandfathers used.
Technology advances have led to
major ladder design innovations for
making safer products, which include
wide-stance outriggers on extension lad-
ders, significant weight reductions in
large fiberglass extension ladders, and
adjustable enclosed platforms that adapt
to uneven terrain. These are useful to
industrial safety professionals because
they combat the three major causes of
ladder injuries listed below.
1. Repeated Handling of Heavy
Climbing Equipment. Strains and
sprains caused by moving and setting up
the ladder are usually less serious, but
because they are by far the most com-
mon kind of injury, they account for the
greatest expense. Better training in han-
dling the ladder and properly setting it
up is helpful, yet that is still not the com-
plete answer.
By using fiberglass-resin technology
and engineering design advances, the
weight of a modern extension ladder can
be reduced by up to 25% without reduc-
ing its strength. Reducing the ladder’s
weight, along with training in the proper
technique, will greatly reduce the fre-
quency of this injury type.
2. Using the Wrong Ladder for
the Job. Using a ladder that is too short
for the job, climbing on the top rung, or
using a stepladder and leaning it against
the wall like an extension ladder are
prime examples of this mistake. This
type of accident is usually more serious
because it involves a fall that might
result in broken bones or a permanent
disability.
Training is important to educate the
This is the most serious type of ladder
accident, often resulting in serious
injuries, permanent disabilities, or even
death. Instead of climbing down and
moving the ladder over a few feet, some
users try to reach beyond the recom-
mended distance and cause the ladder to
tip.
Uneven ground is also a major factor
in this type of accident. Just 1 in. out of
level at the bottom of a 28-ft extension
ladder will cause the top of the ladder to
be 16 in. off center, vastly increasing the
possibility of a dangerous side-tip fall.
Adding levelers to the ladder can help
alleviate this concern, but that does not
prevent the user from overreaching, and
it adds extra weight to the ladder,
increasing the possibility of a strain or
sprain.
New extension ladders with
retractable wide-stance outriggers
increase side-to-side stability by 600%.
And considering no job site is perfectly
level, these outriggers also adjust to an
uneven ground to ensure a perfectly
level base.
It’s All about Saving
One Life
Every day, hundreds of people are
injured while using ladders and dozens
are disabled permanently. In addition,
every day, one person will die in a lad-
der-related accident.
Ladders are so common that some-
times we get complacent while working
with them and take unnecessary risks.
Keep in mind that ladders are inherently
dangerous; using them incorrectly and
the wrong ladder for the job can result in
serious injury.
By training ourselves and our people
in safe ladder techniques as well as using
these modern improvements in ladder
design, hundreds of injuries will be pre-
vented each day and lives will ultimately
be saved.♦

118 JUNE 2013

educ codes conf_FP_TEMP 5/14/13 12:18 PM Page 119

Conference on
Welding Codes
and Standards

July 16-17, 2013

Disney’s Coronado Springs Resort, Orlando, Florida
eechnical standar
Technical
T standards
standa ds ar
aree among the most vvaluable
aluable documents av ailable
available
to manufactur
manufacturersers and fabricators of w elded pr
welded oducts. This A
products. W
WS
AWS
confer ence will take a deep div
conference AWS
W D1
divee into AWS D str uctural codes,
structural codes, the
ASME B oiler and P
Boiler ressure V
Pressure eessel Code
Vessel API pipeline codes,
Code,, API codes, and
militar
militaryy and ISO standar ds. Designers,
standards. Designers, inspectors, and QC specialists
will gain ne
neww insights and car eer-enhancing kno
career-enhancing wledge.
knowledge.

A
AWS
WS
W Confer ence attendees ar
Conference aree awarded 1 PDH (P
awarded rofessional D
(Professional Development
evelopment H Hour)
our)
for each hour of conference attendance. These PDHs can be applied to
conference toward
ward A
AWS
W ecertiGJcations and rrenewals.
WS rrecertiGJcations enewals.

For the latest confer

For ence information and rregistration
conference web
egistration visit our web site at
www.aws.org/conferences
www w..aws.orrgg/con
nferreences or call 800-443-9353, ext. 224224..
LaPlante AmWeld Feature June 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 1:33 PM Page 120

THE AMERICAN WELDER

The Secret to Fusion

Welding Success
BY WILLIAM C. LAPLANTE
This work stresses the importance WILLIAM C. LaPLANTE
of preproduction planning (william.laplante@bp.com) is a welding
engineer, and AWS CWI, CWE with BPXA,
Anchorage/Prudhoe Bay, Alaska.

We’ve all heard the mantra about Figure A.4 of AWS A3.0:2010, of the criticality of performing thorough
how to succeed in real estate: location, Standard Welding Terms and Definitions, planning and preparation prior to
location, location. So is there something lists 26 fusion welding processes. welding.
similar to summarize the key to success However, this article applies to eight of The transient nature of a weld pool is
in fusion welding? Yes. It’s preparation, them: electron beam (EBW), laser beam unforgiving relative to coping with any
preparation, preparation. (LBW), gas tungsten arc (GTAW), gas adverse weld process and/or weld joint
The secret to fusion welding success is metal arc (GMAW), plasma arc (PAW), conditions. For example, if the weld joint
a Weld Execution Plan that outlines all shielded metal arc (SMAW), submerged is contaminated, joint fitup poor, pre-
product prerequisites as determined arc (SAW), and flux cored arc (FCAW) heat insufficient, or an incorrect welding
through diligent planning and prepara- welding, in which there are common pre- technique employed, the weld pool will
tion. The quality of individual weld beads requisites to achieving a high-integrity react accordingly and discontinuities
is proportional to the extent of planning weld. and/or defects such as incomplete
and preparation performed prior to weld- Fusion welding is best viewed from fusion, cracks, undercut, slag inclusions,
ing. A weldment, which may be com- the welder’s or welding operator’s per- and porosity will develop. Beam/arc time
prised from a few to thousands of indi- spective to fully garner an understanding is critical relative to the time available
vidual weld beads, thus will
reflect the amount of prepara-
tion conducted prior to weld-
ing. We can measure the suc-
cess of fusion welding, includ-
ing hardfacing and cladding
applications, by how accurately
and thoroughly the Weld
Execution Plan identifies and
details all the prerequisites
required to develop a high-
integrity weld that consistently
meets weld code criteria and
the design for service and per-
formance requirements.

A high-integrity, 347 stainless

steel valve component hard-
faced with a CoCrW alloy pow-
der applied by the plasma arc
welding process.

120 JUNE 2013

LaPlante AmWeld Feature June 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 1:34 PM Page 121
for welders to manipulate and control
weld pool behavior. Weld pool geometry
and the surface morphography of the
weld bead is a function of weld process
parameters such as the preheat tempera-
ture and beam/arc manipulation and
control (e.g., travel speed, amperage,
watts, torch/beam axis angle, arc/focal
length, technique/oscillation, etc.), and
weld joint attributes such as cleanliness,
fitup, alloy chemistry, and base metal
surface finish. Respective to the individ-
ual process, additional criteria may
include shielding gas composition, filler
metal alloy, electrical attributes, fila-
ment type and size, flux composition,
etc. These all relate directly to the conti-
nuity of the weld bead solidification
process, which is dependent upon the
dynamics of the weld pool melt such that
any detrimental or unfavorable aspect of
the welding process and/or weld joint
that may be present or introduced dur-
ing welding will prevent or inhibit the
creation of an acceptable code-compli-
ant weld.
Characteristics of a high-integrity
weld bead include mechanical sound-
ness, metallurgical homogeneity, and a
uniform profile/cross section. The tempo
of welding and the rate at which the weld
bead solidifies transpires quickly, such
that there is no compensating for inade-
quate planning and preparation once
welding has begun. This is especially true
for high travel speed (i.e., 20–110
in./min), programmable processes such
as EBW and LBW, as well as modest
travel speed (i.e., 2–40 in./min) process-
es such as semiautomatic, automatic,
and mechanized FCAW, GTAW, PAW,
THE AMERICAN WELDER
FCAW, SAW, and GMAW, as well as in-
situ SMAW downhill pipe welding,
which has speeds of 4–17 in./min. A
marked correlation exists between the
extent of planning and preparation per-
formed prior to production welding and
formation of weld bead discontinuities
or defects that affect the integrity of the
weldment.
The Weld Execution Plan
A well-formulated weld execution
plan will mitigate welding and fabrica-
tion risks. The plan should outline all the
prerequisites that require resolution
prior to production. These prerequisites
include the following:
1. Implementation and enforcement
of environmental, health, and safety
and personal protection equipment
policies/practices for the protection of
welders/operators, support personnel,
equipment, and the environment.
Employing ANSI Z49.1:2012, Safety
in Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes,
and promoting an attitude of pre-
vention and precautionary awareness is
recommended.
2. Qualification of Procedure
Qualification Records (PQRs) in accor-
dance with the respective weld code for
the actual production application. In
other words, PQRs should be qualified
based upon actual production welding
requirements such as pipe wall or plate
thicknesses, etc. Also, PQRs should be
qualified utilizing a weld procedure
qualification plan so there is agreement
among all parties relative to weld vari-
ables like filler metals, preheating, etc.;
Fig. 1 — A high-quality Inconel® 600 fillet
weld produced with the GTAW process.
and weld specimen nondestructive
examination (NDE), mechanical and
metallurgical testing, and environmental
simulation testing. Reproducibility of
qualified PQR weld variables is crucial
to consistently achieve high-integrity
production welds — Fig. 1.
3. An in-depth knowledge of the
metallurgical/weldability properties of
the base metal alloys relative to crack-
ing susceptibility, postweld heat treat-
ment, quenching and tempering, thermal
conductivity, coefficient of thermal
expansion, hardenability, etc. Subjecting
weld joint mockups to metallurgical/
metallographic evaluation (e.g., micro-
structure, microhardness); mechanical
testing (e.g., yield strength, Charpy
V-notch, fracture analysis); and environ-
mental simulation testing (e.g., sour
service, wet gas, humidity) are essential
for critical applications.
4. Logistics and the production
infrastructure. Production methodolo-
gies (e.g., fixturing, positioners, machine
tools, pipeline shelters, etc.) need to be
determined prior to the start of fabrica-
tion. A preventive maintenance and
annual calibration program for welding
equipment is imperative. Base materials
and welding consumables require proper
storage to prevent contamination and
damage. For critical applications, secur-
ing base metal and weld filler metal
Certified Material Test Reports are vital
as is maintaining material traceability
and usage records.
5. The fostering of increased com-
munication/production efficiencies.
For example, you should conduct pro-
duction/project briefings so welders/
operators, fitters, etc., develop an under-
standing of and increased awareness of
production/project criteria including
objectives, expectations, health and safe-
ty policies, scheduling, etc., for the
project. This will also let staff know what
quality control and engineering support
is available. Employing a preweld check-
list at job site/workstation locations to
help decrease welding-based errors,
rework, and repair activities is also help-
ful (see page 123).
WELDING JOURNAL 121
LaPlante AmWeld Feature June 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 1:34 PM Page 122
Fig. 2 — Before training, a welder made the aluminum weld on the left using GTAW. The welder made the weld on the right after
being instructed in welding technique, weld bead characteristics, weld parameters, and the importance of base metal/weld joint
cleanliness.
6. A realization of metallurgical and
mechanical principles. These could
include the following:
• Realizing the effects of weld solidifica-
tion shrinkage forces, overwelding, the
coefficient of thermal expansion, and
base metal thermal conductivity to
reduce weldment distortion;
• Understanding the importance of erad-
icating weld joint stress risers by
a) Achieving code-compliant weld
joint fitups;
b) Using the proper welding tech-
nique to achieve acceptable weld bead
tie-ins, weld bead sequencing, and weld
bead profiles as well as eliminating weld
discontinuities/defects such as incom-
plete fusion, arc strikes, craters, under-
cut, etc.;
c) Employing skillful grinding/blend-
ing techniques.
7. Developing a quality manual that
delineates policies and procedures per-
taining to quality assurance/quality con-
trol oversight; a preventive maintenance
and calibration program; fitup, in-
process/in-service, and postweld inspec-
tion; hold points; weld maps; a foreign
object debris and elimination program;
positive material identification and
Certified Material Test Reports; materi-
al handling, storage, and traceability;
documentation control; workmanship
quality standards; and other pertinent
items. The manual would also contain
122 JUNE 2013
THE AMERICAN WELDER
training and qualification requirements
for welders, welding operators, fitters,
weld inspectors, and other quality assur-
ance personnel.
8. Fabrication/production drawings,
including the drawing notes, that are
accurate and unambiguous. Keep in
mind that it is also necessary to make
sure weld symbols are in accordance
with AWS A2.4: 2012, Standard Symbols
for Welding, Brazing, and Nondestructive
Examination. Details matter.
9. Welder/operator training, training
and more training. Rigorous training is
needed for the performance qualifica-
tion of welders/operators with respect to
the weld code and the actual production
application — Fig. 2. It is important to
establish fabrication competency and to
instill confidence and pride in workman-
ship. Provide instruction and/or verify
knowledge regarding visual examination
of welds, types of discontinuities, NDE
concepts, weld codes, materials, drawing
interpretation (e.g., weld symbols), weld
filler metals, measuring tools, and fitup
techniques.
10. A comprehensive understanding
of the weldment application and opti-
mization of weldment design. These
would include weld joint design and
preparation methodologies; weld sizing;
selection of base and filler metal; purg-
ing strategy; weld process selection; and
incorporation of design for manufac-
turability and assembly concepts (e.g.,
design simplicity, fewer parts, reduced
cost, etc.). Performing welding and NDE
inspection on full-size weld joint mock-
ups to verify weld joint accessibility/pro-
ducibility is emphasized.
Conclusion
The secret to success in applications
that employ the EBW, LBW, GTAW,
GMAW, PAW, SMAW, SAW, and FCAW
processes is a Weld Execution Plan that
outlines all production prerequisites. A
Weld Execution Plan mitigates welding
and fabrication risks by identifying and
detailing items that must be addressed
and resolved prior to the commence-
ment of production. There are no short-
cuts to achieving high-integrity welds on
a consistent basis. A well-recognized and
deeply rooted axiom rings true: “Proper
planning and preparation performed
prior to production prevents pitiful
poor performance and propels produc-
tivity.”
Works Consulted
1. AWS D1.1:2010, Structural Welding
Code — Steel, Annex I. Doral, Fla.:
American Welding Society.
LaPlante AmWeld Feature June 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 1:34 PM Page 123
THE AMERICAN WELDER
Prewelding Checklist
1. Environmental Health and Safety/Personal
Protection Equipment. Verify that proper protection
is in place. Do you have the correct permits? Assess
your work risks. Act, work, and think safety.
2. Welding Procedure Specifications (WPSs).
Verify the correct WPS is being employed.
3. Weldment Parts/Fittings. Are all components
clean? Do you have the correct parts?
4. Drawings. Do you fully understand the drawing,
weld symbols, and fabrication notes?
5. Weld Filler Metal. Do you have the correct filler
metal as noted on the WPS?
6. Shielding Gas and Flow Rate. Do you have the
correct shielding gas and flow rate as noted on the
WPS?
AUTOMATED
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SYSTEMS
Cart mounted OrbitMaster®
controller and
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7. Preweld Fitup. Verify all weld joint fitups via
Certified Welding Inspector inspection prior to
welding.
8. Weld Maps. Are preweld fitup, in-process/in-
service, and postweld visual weld inspection sheets
available? Do you know the hold points? Monitor the
weldment for distortion.
9. Confirm Settings. Perform bead-on-plate welds
to confirm WPS weld parameters/machine settings
prior to production welding. Correct all process
problems before production welding.
• If you have questions, stop and ask your supervi-
sor. Do not assume; check and verify.♦
“Engineered for
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Tri Tool designed the AdaptARC system
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Multi-Process System Performs
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WELDING JOURNAL 123
MTI Learning Track 6-13_Layout 1 5/16/13 3:55 PM Page 124

THE AMERICAN WELDER

LEARNING TRACK
Mitchell Technical Institute Offers
Industry-Driven Programs
to AWS Standards
Beginning next semester, MTI welding students will study BY HOWARD M. WOODWARD
using the latest equipment in a new $18-million facility HOWARD M. WOODWARD
(woodward@aws.org)
is associate editor of the
Welding Journal.

Mitchell Technical Institute (MTI),
located in Mitchell, S. Dak., offers one
of the finest facilities and welder-train-
ing programs in the Midwest. The new
MTI Trades Center, due to begin opera-
tions next semester, is an $18-million
facility recently completed to house its
trade and technical programs. The
Welding and Manufacturing section will
include two dedicated areas, a 2830 sq-ft
welding lab and a 1954 sq-ft automation
lab. Both labs are equipped with the lat-
est industrial welding, cutting, robotic,
and training machines.
AWS Accredited
The Institute is an American Welding
Society (AWS) Accredited Test Facility
(ATF) and an AWS Educational
Institution Member. All instruction is
AWS code-based to assure students are
prepared for industry-accepted welding
qualification testing. The courses have
been prepared by Instructor Travis
Peterson, an AWS Certified Welding
Inspector and Certified Welding
Educator, who serves as head of the
Welding and Advanced Manufacturing
Technology Dept. and ATF manager for
the Institute.
The Welding & Manufacturing
Technology (WMT) program is industry-
driven to educate students to qualify for
a variety of in-demand careers. Many
local and regional manufacturers have

All of Travis Peterson’s class members have opted to to earn their associate of applied science degrees.

124 JUNE 2013

MTI Learning Track 6-13_Layout 1 5/16/13 3:57 PM Page 125

THE AMERICAN WELDER

LEARNING TRACK
supported the startup of this program by
making equipment donations and fund-
ing numerous scholarships.
Students enrolled in the WMT pro-
gram have the option to earn an
Associate of Applied Science degree in
Manufacturin
Manufacturing
uring
Flux Cored
four semesters or exit after two semes-
ters with a diploma. Currently, all of the
students in the course plan to earn their
associate degrees.

Welding Courses Welding

elding Wire
W
The degree curriculum includes COBALT
LT
courses in safety, manufacturing symbols
and measurements, gas metal arc
(GMA) and shielded metal arc welding
(SMAW) metallurgy processes, welding
NICKEL
theory, steel welding, OSHA 10 training,
computer concepts, technical math,
blueprint reading, characteristics of alu- HARDFACE
E
minum, welding economics, aluminum
welding, quality and productivity

A MTI student hones his welding skills in

improvement, manufacturing equipment
installation, manufacturing program-
STAINLESS
TAINLESS
the MTI welding lab. ming, welding robotics, manual machin-

ALLOY
Y STEEL
EEL

TOOL STEEL
STEE
EEL

MAINTENANCE
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OYS

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PH: 800 -848-27 719
810-227-9266
FAX: 810
FA -227-9266
www.cor-met.com
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ww -met.com
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sales@cor-met.com
sales@cor -met.co
t.com
For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index

WELDING JOURNAL 125

MTI Learning Track 6-13_Layout 1 5/16/13 3:57 PM Page 126
Two students join forces to program a FANUC arc welding robot.
ing, laser and plasma, CNC machining
station, forming ironworker, apprentice-
ship/career preparation, and internship.
Electives include courses in English,
A student sets up a Haas computer-controlled milling machine.
126 JUNE 2013
THE AMERICAN WELDER
LEARNING TRACK
behavioral sciences, and social sciences.
Peterson explained, “Our program is
designed so that students spend about
one-third of their time here on welding.
The remaining two-thirds of the curricu-
lum is spent using advanced technologies
such as welding robots and a Class 4
laser cutter system. We’ve put every-
thing from A to Z into this program.”
The Laboratories
The labs feature the latest technology
for gas metal arc welding of steel and
aluminum, gas tungsten arc welding of
steel and aluminum, robotic welding,
operation of machining stations, metal-
forming, laser cutting, and plasma cut-
ting (see sidebar for partial major equip-
ment list).
“Because many highly skilled welders
are nearing retirement age,” Peterson
said, “the demand for AWS-certified
welders is going to increase dramatically.
The value of MTI’s status as an AWS
Accredited Testing Facility will be evi-
dent to employers. They will be able to
hire a certified welder and will take no
risk that the new hire will be able to pass
the certification test. Students will leave
here as accredited welders and be able to
weigh their options for hundreds of job
openings that will be available to them.”
He added that MTI is also “actively
growing its corporate training side and
hopes to become a Midwestern hub for
short-term manufacturing training.”
Tuition and Financial
Assistance
The tuition is set by the South Dakota
Board of Education. Tuition fees, and
the estimated expenses for books, tools,
supplies, and living expenses, can be
downloaded from the MTI Web site.
In addition, the Institute staff can
assist students with locating sources of
financial aid, including veteran’s bene-
fits, grants, loans, scholarships, work
study jobs on campus, and the Star
Scholars program. Visit the online MTI
Web site for an extensive list of scholar-
ships and application forms.
Peterson noted a number of students
have taken advantage of the Workforce
Recruitment Program, a partnership the
Institute has with several regional
employers. It offers eligible students
educational stipends and part-time
employment while they attend school.
The student is also guaranteed an intern-
ship site and employment with the
MTI Learning Track 6-13_Layout 1 5/16/13 3:58 PM Page 127

company for two or three years after

graduation.

Student Housing
Although MTI does not own any stu-
dent housing, the Admissions office
maintains a current list of available The Emmet A. Craig
RESISTANCE
housing in the Mitchell area. Student
apartments are located adjacent to the

WELDING SCHOOL
campus.

Commentaries
Greg Von Wald, MTI president, said,
“Establishing a high-demand program
November 19-20,, 2013
like this one benefits everyone involved:
the student who will gain valuable skills McCormic Place,
McCormick
and have excellent employment opportu- Chicago, IL
nities; the employer who will be able to
put a highly trained worker into the
workplace; the communities where these
new workers will live and work; and the
state, which will have a well-qualified
workforce and state-of-the-art training To
To register go
g to www.fabtechexpo.com
wwww.fabtechexpo.com
.
available for companies looking to Space is limited
locate here. Mitchell Technical Institute
has a long history of providing quality
technical education. This program with
its talented instructional staff, unique
equipment, and newly accredited
stature, will be a showpiece of technolo-
gy for the Institute for years to come.”
WELDHUGGER
COVER GAS DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
Welding student Chase Rovere, 20, • Flows gas evenly
noted, “I really liked what I saw at MTI. Snake Kit over and behind the y’re
Other schools’ welding programs didn’t Includes 6 weld pool. he dable!
n
Be T

nozzles, manifold, • Reduces oxidation

gooseneck
have a CWI like Travis. I knew I could assembly & and discolorization
magnet • Designed for trailing
learn a lot working with him. This pro- shield and a variety
gram is more than I anticipated. Having of other applications.
worked in the welding industry for a $349.95 • 316L Stainless steel
nozzles and manifolds.
year, I learned a lot of different ways to
do things. We are challenged every day. Trailing
We’ve learned a lot of things that will Shield Kit
help us in our careers, stuff I never Includes 6
nozzles &
thought about, like how much does a Simulated nozzle flow
straight gas flow
manifold
weld cost? I was lucky to get a work
study job for the program. I also work Includes 6 nozzles
part-time as a welder at TCF Industries. Basic Kit & manifold

Our instructor doesn’t make things hard.

He makes things interesting.”
First-year student, Connor Whitley,
19, said, “I chose welding as a career
because I had some experience with it on
the farm. I came to MTI because of the $249.95
equipment. I was really impressed with $249. 95

what I saw. I also liked that our instruc-

tor was a CWI. I have really enjoyed LLC
learning with the virtual reality welding Toll Free: (877) WELDHGR (877) 935-3447 Fax: (480) 940-9366
machine. One of our first classes was Visit our website at: www.weldhugger.com

For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index

WELDING JOURNAL 127

MTI Learning Track 6-13_Layout 1 5/16/13 3:58 PM Page 128

THE AMERICAN WELDER

LEARNING TRACK
metallurgy. It was really interesting to
learn about various metals, tempera-
tures, and characteristics. Then we went
right into the lab to work with those
same things. It relates everything we
learn to what we do every day. I hope to
return to my hometown area after I
graduate and work for a manufacturer.
I’m thinking about pursuing underwater
welding training.”

Exploration Day Event

Mitchell Technical Institute will host
its next Exploration Day July 17 from 10
a.m. to 2:30 p.m. Following an orienta-
tion session, attendees may visit classes
and labs, learn about financial opportu-
nities, attend a Q&A session, and enjoy
a free lunch. For more information,
call (800) 684-1969 or e-mail ques-
tions@mitchelltech.edu. Also, be sure to
visit the Institute’s Facebook pages and
Web site www.mitchelltech.edu for virtual
tours of the campus facilities.
Peterson concluded, “It’s great to be
a part of a program that is recognized by
our community. There was no welding
training available for nearly 20 years. In
that time, technology has exploded to
include robotics and manufacturing
production monitoring. Students and Travis Peterson demonstrates the safe use of a Piranah ironworker.
employers will be amazed at the level of
training MTI is able to provide.”♦

Mitchell Technical Institute

www.mitchelltech.edu MTI Welding Lab Equipment
Contact: Watch Travis Peterson’s video
Travis Peterson, CWI, CWE www.youtube.com/watch?v=tTQTJRSL2Aw
Travis.Peterson@mitchelltech.edu
Mitchell Technical Institute FANUC Arc Mate educational system welding robot
1800 E. Spruce St. Lincoln Power Wave® with Weld Score
Mitchell, SD 57301 Lincoln Precision TIG® 225
(800) 684-1969/(605) 995-7313 Lincoln VRTEX®360 Virtual Reality Arc Welding Trainer
FAX (605) 995-3083 MultiCam 300WSCX Laser Cutting Table
Haas TM-1P CNC Mill Machining Station
Haas TL-1 CNC Lathe Machining Station
Haas Control Simulation Modules
Hyde-Mech Bandsaw
Birmingham Manual Mill
Nardini Manual Engine Lathe
Piranha Forming Ironworker
ESAB Multimaster 300 push-pull welding packages
ESAB Aristo™ 500 Feed push-pull packages
ESAB PowerCut® 1300 plasma cutting package
All relevant AWS codebooks

128 JUNE 2013

buyers guide_FP_TEMP 5/14/13 10:41 AM Page 129
Fact Sheet June 2013_Layout 1 5/16/13 3:24 PM Page 130

THE AMERICAN WELDER

FACT SHEET
Welding Test Positions and Their
Designations for Groove Welds

A B
B

D
C D

Fig. 1 — Welding test positions and their designations for groove Fig. 2 — Welding test positions and their designations for groove welds in
welds in pipe. plate.

The descriptions for welding test posi-
tion designations in groove welds are as
follows:
1G, pipe: a circumferential groove
weld applied to a joint in pipe, in which
the weld is made in the flat welding posi-
tion by rotating the pipe about its axis —
Fig. 1A.
2G, pipe: a circumferential groove
weld applied to a joint in a pipe, with its
axis approximately vertical, in which the
weld is made in the horizontal welding
position — Fig. 1B.
5G, pipe: a circumferential groove
weld applied to a joint in a pipe with its
axis horizontal, in which the weld is made
in the flat, vertical, and overhead welding
positions. The pipe remains fixed until
welding of the joint is complete — Fig.
1C.
6G, pipe: a circumferential groove
weld applied to a joint in pipe, with its
axis approximately 45 deg from horizon-
tal, in which the weld is made in the flat,
vertical, and overhead welding positions.
The pipe remains fixed until welding is
complete — Fig. 1D.
6GR, pipe: a circumferential groove
weld applied to a joint in pipe with its axis
approximately 45 deg from horizontal, in
which the weld is made in the flat, verti-
cal, and overhead welding positions. A
restriction ring is added, adjacent to the
joint, to restrict access to the weld. The
pipe remains fixed until welding is com-
plete‚ Fig. 1E.
1G, plate: a linear groove weld applied
to a joint in which the weld is made in the
flat welding position — Fig. 2A.
2G, plate: a linear groove weld applied
to a joint in which the weld is made in the
horizontal welding position — Fig. 2B.
3G, plate: a linear groove weld applied
to a joint in which the weld is made in the
vertical welding position — Fig. 2C.
4G, plate: a linear groove weld applied
to a joint in which the weld is made in the
overhead welding position — Fig. 2D. ◆

130 JUNE 2013

educ awo symbols_FP_TEMP 5/14/13 12:02 PM Page 131

awo.aws.org

Understanding
Understanding
Welding
Welding Symbols
CJP

Knowledge of weld joint terminology is essential for all levels of the welding design and production process.
Use of proper terms makes it much easier for welding personnel to communicate about various fit-up and welding
problems encountered during the fabrication process. A welding inspecto
inspector ’s ability to read and interpret welding
inspector’s
plans correctly is essential to properly inspecting a piece or part.

This in-depth course walks the user through A AWS

WS A2.4:2012, Standard Symbols for Welding,
Welding,
e Brazing,
Brazing and
Examination,, starting with a module on orthographic views, joint types, and weld types.
Nondestructive Examination
Then the course dives into the various types of welds and clarifies the rules and usage of welding symbols.

geometry,, groove welds, fillet welds, plug and slot welds, spot and
This self-paced course covers basic joint geometry
projection welds, and stud, seam, surfacing, and edge welds. Rounding out the seminar is a module on brazing
terms and symbols and nondestructive testing symbols. Interactive practice problems include an explanation of
each solution, and chapter quizzes will solidify the knowledge and prepare you for the proficiency exam.

The seminar is approximately 12 hours long and concludes with a final test.

Sample seminar at awo.aws.org/seminars/symbols

general corporate_FP_TEMP 5/14/13 10:42 AM Page 132
essen brazil_FP_TEMP 5/14/13 12:04 PM Page 133

BRAZIL WELDING SHOW

OCT. 1 – 4, 2013 São Paulo
Trade Show and Congress
Essen Trade Shows
Karen Vogelsang
Tel. +1. 9 14. 9 62-13 10
karen@essentradeshows.com
www.schweissen-schneiden.com

In cooperation with:

TRADE SHOWS WORLDWIDE:

GERMANY CHINA RUSSIA

SEPT. 16– 21, 2013 JUNE 18–21, 2013 JUNE 25–28, 2013
ESSEN SHANGHAI MOSCOW

RUSSIA INDIA ARABIA

MAY 2014 OCT. 28–30, 2014 JAN. 10–13, 2015
ST. PETERSBURG MUMBAI DUBAI
educ aluminum conf_FP_TEMP 5/14/13 12:19 PM Page 134

ANNUAL
ANNUAL

16 September
September
CONFERENCE
CONF
FERENCE
4 4 – 5, 2013 / Chicago

A distinguished
dis panel of aluminum-industry
experts will survey the state of the art in
aluminum welding technology and practice.

The 16th Aluminum Welding

Welding Conference will
also provide several opportunities for you to
network informally with speakers and other
participants, and to visit an exhibition
showcasing products and services available to
the aluminum welding industr
industry.
y.

Aluminum lends itself to a wide variety of

industrial applications because of its light
weight, high strength-to-weight ratio, corrosion
resistance, and other attributes. Howeve
However,r,
because its chemical and physical properties
are di
different
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steel, welding of
aluminum requires special processes,
techniques and expertise.

Register
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egister early and
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call (800) 443-9353 ext 223.
JUNE 2013 WJ CLASSIFIEDS_Classified Template 5/16/13 3:25 PM Page 135

CLASSIFIEDS

CAREER EQUIPMENT FOR CERTIFICATION

OPPORTUNITIES SALE OR RENT & TRAINING

Welding Engineering
Technology Faculty
(9 mos. Full-Time, Tenure Track)
Teach undergraduate-level lecture and
laboratory course work in a process
oriented, “hands-on” A.A.S. and B.S.
degree program. Required: Bachelor of
Science in Welding Engineering, Welding
Engineering Technology, or a closely
related field. Two (2) years of welding
related experience in a welding application,
design, educational, procedure or research
environment. Candidates must demon-
strate proficiency in GMAW, SMAW, GTAW,
OFW, OFC, PAC, SAW, FCAW and RSW.
Additional requirements include knowledge
of pipe welding and experience in welding
graphics, welding fabrication, destructive
and nondestructive weldment evaluation,
mechanical testing, and computer applica-
tions. The successful candidate will have
a Master’s degree by the time of appoint-
ment or will be required to obtain such a
degree within four (4) years of hiring. For
a complete posting or to apply, access the
electronic applicant system by logging on
to http://employment.ferris.edu. Ferris
State University is sincerely committed to
being a truly diverse institution and actively
seeks applications from women, minorities,
and other underrepresented groups.
An Equal Opportunity/Affirmative Action
employer.
EQUIPMENT FOR
SALE OR RENT
MITROWSKI RENTS
Made in U.S.A.
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1-Ton thru 60-Ton
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sales@mitrowskiwelding.com
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EXTRA INSTRUCTION TO GET A HEAD START
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40 HOUR COURSE
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Pascagoula, MS Oct. 28–Nov. 1
Houston, TX Aug. 26–30, Oct. 7–11
Ellijay, GA Sep. 16–20, Dec. 9–13
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Test follows on Saturday at same facility &
includes additional self study for weekend
FOR DETAILS CALL OR E-MAIL:
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email: joe@joefuller.com
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Our products are made in the USA

WELDING JOURNAL 135

JUNE 2013 WJ CLASSIFIEDS_Classified Template 5/16/13 3:25 PM Page 136

ADVERTISER
INDEX
American Torch Tip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53 Hobart Inst. of Welding Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
www.americantorchtip.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 342-8477 www.welding.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 332-9448

ArcOne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63 Hodgson Custom Rolling, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

www.Arc1Weldsafe.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 223-4685 www.hcrsteel.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 263-2547

Arcos Industries, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83, IBC Hypertherm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

www.arcos.us . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 233-8460 www.hypertherm.com/morepower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 643-0030

Astaras Welding Accessories, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30 Intercon Enterprises, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125

www.e3tungsten.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .web contact only www.intercononline.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 665-6655

Atlas Welding Accessories, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .118 J. P. Nissen Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

www.atlaswelding.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 962-9353 www.nissenmarkers.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(215) 886-2025

AWS Education Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86, 88, 119, 131, 134 KMT Saw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
www.aws.org/education/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353 www.kmtsaw.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(269) 321-8860

AWS Membership Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129, 132 Lincoln Electric Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .OBC

www.aws.org/membership/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353 www.lincolnelectric.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(216) 481-8100

Bradford Derustit Corp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81 Magnatech, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112

www.derustit.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(714) 695-0899 www.MagnatechLLC.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(860) 653-2573

Camfil Air Pollution Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Mathey Dearman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

www.camfilapc.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 479-6801 www.matheycnc.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(918) 447-1288

Carell Corp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114 Mercer Abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73

www.carellcorp.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(251) 937-0948 www.mercerabrasives.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(631) 243-3900

Champion Welding Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22 Midalloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

www.championwelding.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 321-9353 www.midalloy.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 776-3300

CML USA, Inc. Ercolina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82 Motor Guard Corp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82

www.ercolina-usa.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(563) 391-7700 www.motorguardplasma.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 227-2822

Commercial Diving Academy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113 National Bronze & Metals, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
www.commercialdivingacademy.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(888) 974-2232 www.nbmmetals.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(713) 869-9600

Cor-Met . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125 Netbraze LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

www.cor-met.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 848-2719 www.netbraze.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(855) 444-1440

Diamond Ground Products, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 OTC Daihen, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

www.diamondground.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(805) 498-3837 www.daihen-usa.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(888) 682-7626

Divers Academy International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 Revco Industries, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

www.diversacademy.edu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 238-3483 www.bsxgear.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 527-3826

E. H. Wachs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62 RWMA/Resistance Welding Manufacturing Alliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127

www.ehwachs.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(847) 537-8800 www.aws.org/rwma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353, ext. 444

ESSEN Welding Show/Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133 Rolled Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114

www.schweissen-schneiden.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .001-914-962-1310 www.rolledalloys.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 521-0332

FABTECH 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85 Schaefer Ventilation Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81

www.fabtechexpo.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353, ext. 297 www.schaeferfan.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 779-3267

FABTECH India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115 Select Arc, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IFC, 79

www.fabtechexpoindia.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353, ext. 297 www.select-arc.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(937) 295-5215

Fischer Technology, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 Sumner Manufacturing Co., Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

www.Fischer-Technology.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 243-8417 www.sumner.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(888) 999-6910

Flexovit USA, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80 Superflash Compressed Gas Equipment/IBEDA Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
www.flexovitabrasives.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 689-3539 www.oxyfuelsafety.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(888) 327-7306

Fronius USA, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 Tri Tool, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5, 123

www.fronius-usa.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(877) 376-6487 www.tritool.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(888) 874-8665

GAWDA/Gases and Welding Distributors Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87 Triangle Engineering, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
www.gawda.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(877) 382-6440 www.trieng.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(781) 878-1500

Gedik Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 TRUMPF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49

www.gedikwelding.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .+90 216 378 50 00 www.us.trumpf.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .web contact only

Greiner Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 Weld Aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

www.greinerindustries.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 782-2110 www.weldaid.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 935-3243

Gullco International, Inc. - U.S.A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 Weld Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

www.gullco.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(440) 439-8333 www.weldengineering.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(508) 842-2224

H&M Pipe Beveling Machine Co., Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78 Weld Hugger, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127
www.hmpipe.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(918) 582-9984 www.weldhugger.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(877) 935-3447

Harris Products Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 IFC = Inside Front Cover

www.harrisproductsgroup.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 733-4043 IBC = Inside Back Cover
OBC = Outside Back Cover
Heck Industries, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
www.heckind.net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 886-5418 Visit the AWS Interactive Ad Index: www.aws.org/ad-index

136 JUNE 2013

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SUPPLEMENT TO THE WELDING JOURNAL, JUNE 2013

Sponsored by the American Welding Society and the Welding Research Council

Full Virtual Reality vs. Integrated Virtual

Reality Training in Welding
A comparison is presented of the cognitive skill learning, physical skill learning,
and use of training aids between the two types of training

BY R. T. STONE, E. MCLAURIN, P. ZHONG, AND K. WATTS

Follow-up Study Motivation

ABSTRACT

This study demonstrates that both fully virtual and virtual reality (VR) inte- While conducting our previous study,
grated into real-world training programs are appropriate for use in the domain of we observed that before the integrated
welding training, depending on the level of task difficulty. Performance differences program trainees progressed to the por-
were virtually indistinguishable between participants in the fully virtual and the in- tion of the training program where they

tegrated training group at the low and medium weld difficulty levels. At the high-
est level of difficulty, it became apparent that the VR system was no longer solely
sufficient for training. This study also tracked the usage patterns for the visual aids
used in the VR simulator. These optional aids were presented to the users as over-
lays near the image of the weld as it was formed. Patterns observed suggest that the
proper selection of certain overlays at certain stages during training was an indi-
cator of success in both groups.
Introduction
Virtual reality (VR) has the potential
to offer occupational training program de-
velopers a new tool to help meet the de-
mands for more efficient skill training
programs for hazardous environments.
Developing some skills in the virtual envi-
ronment allows for a reduction in mate-
rial, time, and expert accessibility costs
that are associated with traditional train-
ing methods. It also allows the novice to
learn basic skills in a safer environment
(Ref. 1). It has been suggested that VR
simulators are effective at producing “pre-
trained novices” in that they can teach
some learning aspects but not others
(Refs. 2–4). However, how the design of
the VR simulator influences trainee learn-
ing has only received limited attention.
A number of studies have focused on
how the fidelity of VR influences training
efficiency (Refs. 5, 6). Other studies have
only focused on the cognitive skill learning
R. T. STONE (rstone@iastate.edu) is with the
Department of Industrial and Manufacturing Sys-
tems Engineering, and the Department of Me-
chanical Engineering, Iowa State University,
Ames, Iowa. E. McLAURIN, P. ZHONG, and K.
WATTS are with the Department of Industrial
and Manufacturing Systems Engineering, Iowa
State University, Ames, Iowa.
that occurs when using simulators (Refs. 7,
8). Some work has focused on assessing the
impact of an augmented reality simulator on
hand-eye coordination (Ref. 9). Little work
has focused on usage patterns for trainee
utilization of real-time feedback features
and post-task feedback.
In a previous study, we compared the re-
sults of a traditional welding training pro-
gram, which involved only real-world
training, with one that integrated virtual re-
ality training using a simulator with real-
world training. From this study, we learned
that in the area of welding, integrating vir-
tual reality training into a real-world train-
ing program has a number of advantages
over traditional training. These advantages
include increased weld quality, higher certi-
fication rates, reduced training time, im-
proved kinesthetic skill learning, and
reduced costs for the simpler welds (Refs.
10, 11).
KEYWORDS
Virtual Reality (VR)
Real-World Training
Simulator
Integrated Training
Real-Time Feedback
WELDING RESEARCH
were exposed to the real-world training,
there was a significant trend of the inte-
grated trainees achieving the preset mas-
tery level with the VR simulator for the
simpler welds. This mastery level was in-
tended to indicate the time at which a
trainee was sufficiently prepared to suc-
cessfully complete the given weld. Based
on these trends, it was expected that if the
VR training was isolated from the real-
world, the results of the integrated
trainees would be similar to those of
trainees who only had virtual reality train-
ing, both in terms of results and usage of
the VR simulator features. However, be-
cause of the potential carryover effect
from the real-world training, the validity
of the preset mastery level could not be
demonstrated experimentally in this prior
study. Nonetheless, the observations dur-
ing our previous work lead to an interest
in the effect of the VR simulator features
on trainee learning.
Research Goals
The goal of the present study was to
first demonstrate the validity of successful
training with the VR simulator. Given that
validity, this study explored how trainees
used the VR simulator features to learn
cognitive and physical skills. These goals
were addressed by comparing a fully vir-
tual training program with an integrated
training program in terms of the post-
training performance of the participants.
The performance was defined in terms of
pass-fail weld completion rate, physical
skill learning, and cognitive skill learning.
For this study, the VRTEX®360 welding
simulator was selected because it was ca-
pable of providing a level of realism and

WELDING JOURNAL 167-s

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comparable results in terms of the kines-

thetic and cognitive skills that are ac-
quired, and 2) the selection of the type
and number of real-time visual feedback
indicators will be linked to the successful
training of both the integrated and the
VR trainees.

Methods

Front-End Analysis

An ethnographic study was used to de-

fine the pedagogical and technological as-
pects of weld training. In addition, eight
expert welders were formally evaluated,
particularly in terms of muscle interactions
and posture, while conducting the four
welds of interest in this study. These data
were used to create expert models for
comparison with the participants’ physical
skill learning.

Experimental Materials

A VR welding school and a real-world

WELDING RESEARCH

welding school were constructed on the

campus of a Midwestern university. The
materials stocked for the real-world school
Fig. 1 — Images of possible overlay strategies (shown for a 2F weld). are listed in Appendix A. The VR welding
school housed weld booths of the same size
and dimension as their traditional counter-
parts. Each booth contained a new
kinesthetic feedback appropriate for the cording to previous real-world research VRTEX® 360 Virtual Reality Arc Welding
study. Of particular note was the avail- in the domain of welding (Refs. 14, 15) Trainer with SMAW attachments and mul-
ability of overlays that provided real-time and feedback gathered from experts, tiple sets of welding jackets and gloves. This
visual feedback to the user. Aviation muscles that are of significant impor- trainer was chosen due to the fact that it was
studies on visual information presented tance to welding performance include the highest fidelity VR simulator currently
on heads-up displays in the form of over- the deltoid, trapezius, extensor digito- available, and allows users to be fully im-
lays have shown that this method of pre- rum, and flexor carpi ulnaris. Regarding mersed in a 3D VR environment while con-
senting information can be absorbed and physical skill learning, it has been ducting welds. For the virtual training
used by pilots to improve flight perform- demonstrated that the activation and in- system, the user wore a weld helmet with in-
ance, as long as the attention needed to teractions of the muscles serve to distin- tegrated stereoscopic VR screens, used a
absorb the information presented does guish between expert and novice control, SMAW weld attachment, of the same size
not exceed the available attention re- ability, and stability during the commis- and dimension as a real weld attachment,
source (Refs. 12, 13). For the VRTEX® sion of a task (Ref. 16). Finally, success- and used dynamic visual feedback, in the
360, there were eight possible strategies ful welding requires that the welder have form of overlays, for known variables asso-
for the overlay use. These eight strate- a sufficient knowledge base to be able to ciated with welding.
gies are shown in Fig. 1. judge variables related to creating a
The domain of welding was selected structurally sound weld. Participants
due to the complex nature of the physical For this study, it is hypothesized that
movements involved and the necessity to 1) a fully virtual training program that is There were 21 male participants ran-
hone the specific physical movements for comparable to the VR component of an domly assigned to either the integrated
superior execution of welding tasks. Ac- integrated training program will produce training (11 participants) or the VR train-
ing (ten participants). The number of par-
ticipants was initially limited in order to
Table 1 — List of Overlay Strategies
have a student-to-certified welding educa-
tor (CWE) ratio that was representative of
Overlay Strategies and Assigned Numbers real-world welding training classes, which
1 No overlay
generally do not exceed 12 people at a
2 Arc length overlay time. It should further be noted that all of
3 Work-travel angle overlay the statistical measures utilized are appro-
4 Travel speed overlay priate for use with nonequal sample sizes.
5 Arc length and work-travel angle overlays All participants had no practical weld-
6 Arc length and travel speed overlays ing exposure and no experience in
7 Work-travel angle and travel speed overlays shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) prior
8 Arc length, travel speed, and work-travel angle overlays to the beginning of the study. The inte-
grated group had an average age of 41 (SD

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Fig. 2 — Images of weld types tested. Fig. 3 — Certifications of each group from each weld
type.

= 13.6) years and average height of 70.2

(SD = 2.4) in. The VR group had an av-
erage age of 41 (SD = 13.6) years and av-
erage height of 70.2 (SD = 2.4) in.

Independent and Dependent Variables

There were two independent variables

in this experiment. The primary inde-
pendent variable was training type with
the two levels of integrated training and Fig. 4 — Muscle responses for 2F weld type for ex- Fig. 5 — Muscle responses for 1G weld type for expert,
VR training. The second independent pert, integrated, and VR welders. integrated, and VR welders.

variable was weld type. The four weld
types, in order of increasing difficulty, in-
cluded the 2F (horizontal filet weld), 1G
(flat groove weld), 3F (vertical filet weld),
and 3G (vertical groove weld). Images of
these weld types are shown in Fig. 2.
There were four dependent variables in
this investigation: certification rate, phys-
ical skill learning, cognitive skill learning,
and overlay usage.
Certification rates were determined
based on whether or not the welds com-
pleted by the participants during the
American Welding Society (AWS) welding
certification tests were considered accept-
able by the certification board. The quality
of the welds was judged based on bend
tests as well as the dimensions of the weld.
For each of the weld quality tests, in addi-
tion to determining the acceptability of the
weld, an overall weld quality score was as-
signed which ranged from 0 to 100.
In order to assess physical skill learn-
ing, electromyography (EMG) and pos-
tural observations were used. EMG data
allowed the experimenters to examine the
activation of the muscles of interest when
participants performed the welding tasks.
Further details regarding EMG instru-
mentation and methods are included in
Appendix B. The postures adopted by par-
ticipants while welding were recorded via
video and direct observation by experi-
menters. The observations were consistent
between observers.
In order to assess cognitive skill learn-
ing, a survey based on Crook’s considera-
tion of Bloom’s taxonomy (Ref. 17) was
used. Experimenters developed questions
to measure cognitive skill learning for
each weld type attempted by participants.
In addition to the previous three meas-
ures of performance, the visual overlays
used for each run with the VR simulator
were recorded. The overlays included in
the VR welding simulator were as follows:
travel speed (the appropriate horizontal
speed that the welder should move the
electrode holder), work angle and travel
angle (the appropriate horizontal and ver-
tical angle the welder should keep be-
Table 2 — Data Analysis Summary for Certification Rates
2F
χ 2
1.053
Prob > χ2 0.305
WELDING RESEARCH
tween the electrode and the weld coupon),
and arc length (the appropriate distance
the tip of the electrode should be from the
weld coupon). While the system allowed
for travel and work angle as separate over-
lays, a usage study conducted by the au-
thors indicated that in all cases,
participants using work and travel angle
used both in equal proportion and were
able to utilize them together with no per-
formance impact; hence, for the purpose
of this study, they are treated as a single
overlay enhancement. As a result, there
were eight different combinations of the
overlays that could be used. These options
are shown in Fig. 1 and described in Table
1, and will henceforth be collectively re-
ferred to as overlay strategies, and indi-
vidually referred to by the assigned
number.
1G 3F 3G
1.053 1.818 3.810
0.305 0.178 0.05

Table 3 — Summary of Weld Quality Data

Weld 2F 1G 3F 3G
Type
Group Mean S.D. p-Value Mean S.D. p-Value Mean S.D. p-Value Mean S.D. p-Value
VR50 92 9 88 10 81 16 61 24
0.5916 0.9248 0.2670 0.2787
VR100 89.7 3 89.5 2 71.8 19 53 19

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Fig. 6 — Muscle responses for 3F weld type for expert, integrated, and VR Fig. 7 — Muscle responses for 3G weld type for expert, integrated, and VR
welders. welders.

experiment a pattern of usage for the over-
lays. One of the goals of the present exper-
iment was to see if that pattern would
reemerge. To artificially force balance
among conditions would not have allowed
for these questions to be properly answered.
Experimental Procedure
WELDING RESEARCH
of the system as a factor, all participants
were given training on the VR welding
simulator system and system features prior
to the experiments. The training ensured
that all participants understood the sys-
tem, the features of the system, and how
to access those features. In particular,
each overlay was explained in terms of its
relationship to welding.

Participants in the integrated training

Fig. 8 — Trend of sampling as weld training pro-
gressed.
The authors specifically wanted to know
how users would interact with the systems
in a real-world setting. As a result, the ex-
perimental design included features that
would allow them to use the system in a
manner consistent with real training (for ex-
ample, allowing large amounts of free prac-
tice). The experimenters noted in an earlier
Prior to experimentation, all partici-
pants were given informed consent fol-
lowed by individual screening tests to
ensure that they possessed normal visual
acuity, depth perception, and hearing.
Both the integrated and VR training
groups were given take-home training ma-
terials and instructional videos on welding
to supplement their study opportunities at
home. Access to materials was regulated
and no significant difference in exposure
or opportunity was noted between partic-
ipants by experimenters.
Also, in order to minimize the usability
group spent half of their time training (in
pairs) with the VRTEX 360® system, and
during this time, the VR system served as
the instructor by providing weld quality
feedback after every weld and by provid-
ing optional visual overlays that would
guide the user to improve key aspects of
their weld. The remaining half of their
time was spent in traditional welding train-
ing under the direction of an AWS
CWE/CWI® who presented lectures and
supervised the participants when they
practiced the weld types with real welding
machines. Before changing from practic-

Table 4 — Analysis of Muscle Interactions

Weld MANOVA Results Expert vs. Integrated Expert vs. VR Integrated vs. VR
Types
2F F (8, 42) = 2.2509 F (4, 13) = 2.3230 F (4, 12) = 1.9458 F (4, 14) = 3.0576
P = 0.0423 P = 0.1114 P = 0.1669 P = 0.0526
1G F (8, 38) = 2.6760 F (4, 12) = 5.5532 F (4, 11) = 7.6919 F (4, 12) = 1.2126
P = 0.0195 P = 0.0091 P = 0.0033 P = 0.3557
3F F (8, 44) = 1.7561 N/A N/A N/A
P = 0.1122
3G F (8, 44) = 1.2657 N/A N/A N/A
P = 0.2858

Table 5 — Portion of T-Test Results for Crook's Test Analysis

Crook’s Consideration of Bloom’s Taxonomy T-Test Values

Test Question Type VR Mean Integrated VR Integrated T P Value
Score Mean Score SD SD Ratio
3G Knowledge 3.5 4.36 0.71 1.12 2.0868 0.0506
3G Comprehension 0.7 0.55 0.67 0.52 0.5901 0.5621
3G Application 2.1 2.36 0.32 0.67 1.1271 1.1271
3G Analysis 1.6 2.36 0.7 0.81 2.3027 0.0328

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Stone 6-13_Layout 1 5/15/13 10:36 AM Page 171
ing a given weld type with the VR welding
machine to practicing with a real welding
machine, the participants had to earn a
simulator-generated quality score of 85%
at least twice for the weld type. Once par-
ticipants had moved on to the real-world
training, they were not allowed to return
to the virtual training. Further, they could
only use as much time as they had used in
the VR training for the real-world training
aspect in order to keep the 50/50 split.
The participants in the VR training
group spent all of their time learning in
the same VR environment as did the
members of the integrated group. For
each weld type, participants in the VR
group were allowed to practice in the VR
environment for approximately the same
amount of time that their integrated coun-
terparts did. For example, the average par-
ticipant in the integrated group spent 6.3 h
in their VR training for the 3G weld, so
the training limit for those in the VR
group was set at 6.3 h with a 15% toler-
ance. This method ensured that the way in
which the participants utilized the VR
welding simulator and the VR instruc-
tional features would be directly compara-
ble between groups.
Following the training for each weld
type, participants were given their one
and final weld certification test piece.
They performed their prescribed test (2F,
3F, 1G, or 3G) in the presence of the
CWI/CWE. Once completed, the test
pieces underwent a visual inspection by
the CWI/CWE on site. If the test piece
passed visual inspection, it was then sent
to an independent laboratory for weld
quality testing. Certification or failure for
the participant was based on the results of
this testing. During pretest practice and
the final testing plate, participants were
fitted with electrodes so that experi-
menters could record EMG data while
participants conducted their welds. The
EMG data were collected during the mid-
dle phase of their welding (at this time
their posture was stabilized) and averaged
over 5 s (the weld usually took 30 s). Im-
mediately following each certification test
for all four weld types, participants were
given a written cognitive survey related to
the welding unit used and the weld type
they had just performed.
Results
The performance measures for this
study were weld certification rates, physi-
cal skill learning, and cognitive skill learn-
ing. Also, the relationship between the use
of the visual overlay feedback and the
welding performance was explored.
Certification Rate
As summarized in Table 2, the Chi-
Table 6 — ANOVA Results for Significance in Weld Types
Weld Type
1G
2F
3F
3G
Table 7 — Post-Hoc Test Results for Significance in Overlay Usage
Weld Overlay Level Mean
Type Weld
Quality
5 A 93.8
4 A B 92.0
1 A B 88.3
1G 3 B 84.7
8 C 74.0
square test found no significant difference
between the two groups across all weld
types except for 3G. For 3G, χ20.05, 1 =
3.810 and p = 0.05, indicating the inte-
grated group had significantly more 3G cer-
tifications than the VR group. As a
descriptive trend, the VR group had more
certifications than the integrated group for
the easier weld types (1G and 2F), while the
integrated group had more certifications
for the more difficult weld types (3G and
3F). The certification rates achieved by par-
ticipants in the two groups for each of the
four weld types are shown in Fig. 3. In ad-
dition, the mean weld quality score for both
groups are shown in Table 3. No significant
difference was found in quality between the
two groups for any of the weld types.
Physical Skill Learning
Physical skill learning was assessed with
respect to the average muscle activity ex-
pressed as a percentage of maximum vol-
untary contraction (MVC) for the four
muscles of interest (deltoid, trapezius, ex-
tensor digitorum, and flexor carpi ulnaris
muscles). The normalized muscle activities
for these four muscles form a pattern of
four dependent variables. A multivariate
analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used
to identify any interactions between the
pattern formed by the experts and those of
both of the experimental groups (inte-
grated is VR 50 and VR is VR 100) for
each of the weld types. Figures 4–7 show
the muscle activity interaction profiles for
each of the four weld types.
The results of the MANOVA for the
2F weld type show a significant differ-
ence between the expert, integrated, and
VR groups. However, post-hoc
MANOVA pairwise comparison tests re-
F Ratio F-Value
6.9069 0.0020
0.6275 0.6498
11.2458 0.0001
0.7102 0.5048
Weld Overlay Level Mean
Type Weld
Quality
4 A 95.0
5 A 93.0
2 A B 87.0
3F 6 A B C 78.0
8 C 64.5
3 B C 63.0
1 C 57.8
veal no significant difference between
WELDING RESEARCH
any two conditions. This may have been
due to the decrease in the degrees of
freedom. The 1G weld type MANOVA
revealed that there was a significant dif-
ference between the three conditions.
Post-hoc MANOVA pairwise compari-
son tests revealed that the integrated and
VR groups did not differ from one an-
other. However, both the integrated and
VR groups were found to be significantly
different from the expert group. Author
observations confirmed that both the VR
and the integrated group adopted an al-
tered posture which increased body sta-
bilization. MANOVA results of the 3F
and 3G weld types showed that there was
no significant difference between the
three conditions. These results are sum-
marized in Table 4.
Cognitive Skill Learning
Cognitive skill learning was measured
across four categories of the Crook’s
consideration for Bloom’s taxonomy.
These categories are, in order of increas-
ing understanding, knowledge, compre-
hension, application, and analysis. In
order to determine if the integrated and
VR groups were significantly different, it
was necessary to first determine if the
data were normal and had homogeneity
of variance. After it was determined the
two groups had homogeneity of variance
and were normal, a T-test was conducted
for each question type for each weld
type. The results can be seen in Table 5.
Each test was conducted using α = 0.05
and 19 degrees of freedom. The results
indicate only one instance of significance
within the Crook’s taxonomy. For the 3G
analysis level, the integrated group per-
WELDING JOURNAL 171-s
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Table 8 — Dominant Usage of Overlays and Associated Participant Pass Percentages
Overlay
Number Dominant Used
2F
Percentage Passed
Number Dominant Used
1G
Percentage Passed
Number Dominant Used
3F Percentage Passed
Number Dominant Used
3G
Percentage Passed
formed significantly better than the VR
group. For these T-tests, the alpha crite-
rion was not adjusted because each level
was independent and as such an adjust-
ment such as a Bonferonni adjustment
would not be applicable, even if
MANOVA tests had been used to ana-
lyze the data (Refs. 18, 19, 20).
WELDING RESEARCH
Overlay Usage
Also of interest for this study was deter-
mining if the use of the visual overlays had
any impact on the performance measures.
There were eight possible strategies for the
overlay usage. For each of the VR welds
completed by the participants, a report was
generated by the system, which included a
listing of any overlays used and the weld
quality score. These reports were used to
identify and analyze any patterns in terms
of overlay usage strategy and weld quality.
It was first determined if the integrated
group used the overlays during their VR
training differently than the VR group.
For each of the four weld types, a series of
T-tests was performed to compare the per-
centage of usage for each of the overlay
strategies for the two groups (VR and in-
tegrated). It should be noted that the
alpha criterion was adjusted using the
Bonferroni method. The results of these
T-tests indicated the two groups were not
significantly different in their use of the
overlays. As a result, for the following
analyses, the data for the two groups could
be combined. An ANOVA was used to de-
termine if the use of any of the overlay
strategies during the welding training had
a significant impact on the weld quality
score for the real-world test welds submit-
ted for certification. This test indicated
that the weld quality of the 1G and the 3F
weld type were significantly impacted by
the choice of overlay strategy. The results
are shown in Table 6.
Next, Tukey post-hoc test was con-
ducted using the T distribution at α = 0.05
to determine which overlay(s) were signif-
icant and if they produced more or lesser
172-s JUNE 2013, VOL. 92
1 2 3 4
8 0 2 6
87.5 N/A 100 100
3 0 3 1
100 N/A 100 100
5 1 1 1
20 100 0 100
9 0 0 0
22.2 N/A N/A N/A
quality welds. The results for this test are
shown in Table 7. For both the 1G and 3F
weld types, overlay strategies 4 and 5 pro-
duced high mean weld quality scores (high
is >90), while overlay strategies 1, 3, and 8
produced low mean weld quality scores
(low is <90).
However, examining the quality scores
in isolation presents an incomplete pic-
ture. The dominant overlay strategy used
for each participant for each weld type
needs to be considered. Examining these-
data in conjunction with the pass rate will
allow for greater transparency of what
overlay strategy was the most successful
for producing passing welds. Table 8 shows
the dominate strategy by weld type as well
as the percentage of people who used that
overlay type who passed their weld. By ex-
amining Table 8, and keeping in mind the
previously determined information that
overlays 4 and 5 were the most successful
overlays, it can observed that for the two
significant trials (1G and 3F), overlay 5
was much more widely used. As a result, it
can be concluded that overlay 5 was the
most widely used and successful strategy.
Another trend observed was a de-
crease in the sampling of overlay strate-
gies as the participants practiced more
difficult weld types. Figure 8 shows the
number of overlay strategies sampled as
the participants progressed through the
VR welding training.
Discussion
For the comparison of performance
measures between integrated and VR
welding training, it was hypothesized that
1) a fully virtual training program that is
comparable to the VR component of an
integrated training program will produce
comparable results in terms of the kines-
thetic and cognitive skills that are ac-
quired, and 2) the selection of the type and
number of real-time visual feedback indi-
cators will be linked to the successful train-
ing of both the integrated and the VR
trainees. A discussion of the results of this
5 6 7 8
5 3 0 0
100 100 N/A N/A
11 0 0 3
100 N/A N/A 66.7
8 1 0 4
100 100 N/A 0
8 0 0 4
50 N/A N/A 0
study in light of these hypotheses follows
for each of the weld types.
2F Weld Type
The 2F weld type was the simplest type
of weld to complete for this study. The
analysis of the certifications obtained by
participants in both groups revealed no
significant difference. This indicated that
for the simplest weld, the VR training was
overall as effective as the real- world train-
ing. Since there was no interaction of the
muscle activity patterns for the VR and in-
tegrated groups when compared to the ex-
perts, interfacing with the physical VR
simulator tools was sufficient to develop
similar physical skills, in terms of motor
control, as experts. The results also
showed that the reference materials that
the VR group had access to (welding CD,
welding texts, and information presented
through the VR simulator interface) were
sufficient to produce equivalent cognitive
skill learning as what the integrated group
gained with the welding lectures and the
real-world welding exposure.
1G Weld Type
The 1G weld type was a medium diffi-
culty weld. The analysis of the certifica-
tions obtained by participants in both
groups revealed no significant difference.
This indicated that for this medium diffi-
culty weld, the VR training was overall as
effective as the real-world training. The re-
sults showed that the reference materials
that the VR group had access to were suf-
ficient to produce equivalent cognitive
skill learning to what the integrated group
gained with the welding lectures and the
real-world welding exposure.
There was a significant difference in
the muscle activity patterns for the VR
and integrated groups as compared to the
experts, indicating that interfacing with
the physical VR simulator tools did not
develop the same physical skills, in terms
of motor control, as experts. However,
Stone 6-13_Layout 1 5/15/13 10:36 AM Page 173
these differences exist because both the
VR and integrated groups adopted the
same, more stable posture for completing
the weld. It should be noted that, although
the integrated group completed real-world
welding after the VR training, the real-
world training did not change the pattern
of using this alternate posture for com-
pleting the 1G weld.
3F Weld Type
The 3F weld type was also a medium
difficulty weld. The analysis of the certifi-
cations obtained by participants in both
groups revealed no significant difference.
This indicated that for this medium diffi-
culty weld, the VR training was overall as
effective as the real-world training. Also,
since there was no difference in the muscle
activity patterns for the VR and integrated
groups as compared to the experts, inter-
facing with the physical VR simulator
tools was sufficient to develop similar
physical skills, in terms of motor control,
as experts. The results showed that the ref-
erence materials that the VR group had
access to were sufficient to produce equiv-
alent cognitive skill learning to what the
integrated group gained with the welding
lectures and the real-world welding expo-
sure.
3G Weld Type
The 3G weld type was the most com-
plex weld to complete for this study. The
analysis of the certifications obtained by
participants in both groups did reveal a
significant difference, with fewer certifica-
tions for the VR group. This information
indicates that the VR training was not suf-
ficient for training the participants in how
to correctly complete this complex weld.
The integrated group had a higher certifi-
cation rate than the VR group, indicating
that the fidelity of the VR simulator
played a role in the decreased efficiency of
the training. Also, although the integrated
group had a higher certification rate than
the VR group, the number of certifica-
tions earned by the integrated group for
the 3G weld was significantly less than the
number earned for the other three weld
types, indicating that the amount of real-
world training time also played a role in
the effectiveness of the training.
Also, there was a significant difference
in the cognitive skill learning, with the in-
tegrated group having more understand-
ing for analysis, the highest level of
development. These results suggests that
to have a more complete understanding of
the more complex welds, the VR simula-
tor is not sufficient. However, since there
was no difference in the muscle activities
for the VR and integrated as compared to
the experts, interfacing with the physical
VR simulator tools was sufficient to de-
velop similar physical skills, in terms of
motor control, as experts.
Overlay Strategies
Regarding the relationship between the
strategic use of the visual overlay feedback
and the welding performance, it was ob-
served that some overlay strategies led to
better quality scores than others. The over-
lay strategies that consistently led to higher
quality scores were 4 and 5. The overlay
strategies that consistently led to lower qual-
ity scores were 8, 3, and 1. Furthermore, it
was concluded that overlay 5 was the most
widely used and successful strategy.
The trend indicated by these results
shows that as the complexity of the weld
increased, the participants who used more
overlays, and thus increased the amount of
feedback, tended to have improved per-
formance. This general strategy has been
shown to be successful in other studies
(Ref. 21), up to a point. As participants
continued to increase complexity, it was
expected that they would reach a “tipping
point” where performance no longer in-
creased, but rather decreased. This effect
was observed in this study and the tipping
point was three overlays.
In addition, selecting an appropriate
overlay strategy was most important for the
medium difficulty welds. For the simplest
weld, the overlays were not particularly nec-
essary. For the complex weld, the selection
of the overlays became less relevant because
the fidelity of the VR simulator in accu-
rately representing the welding conditions
was limited. The trend observed for the
sampling of the overlay strategies reflects
this distinction. For the simplest weld, the
sampling was increased because no strategy
was truly more effective than the others;
however, the participants were just begin-
ning the VR training so they were more
likely to explore the different options avail-
able. For the most complex weld, the sam-
pling was greatly diminished because again
no strategy was truly more effective than the
other; however, the participants were now
accustomed to the VR simulator and thus
had no motivation to try other overlay
strategies.
Conclusions
The results of this study have shown
that VR and integrated training programs
are both appropriate for use in the domain
of weld training depending on the level of
task difficulty. The differences between
the VR and integrated groups were virtu-
ally indistinguishable at the low- and
medium-weld difficulty levels. It was only
at the highest level of difficulty that it be-
came apparent that the VR system was no
longer sufficient and required supplemen-
tation from real-world training. It is im-
portant to point out that the visual overlay
usage in both groups followed similar
trends. Both groups showed a trend of de-
creased sampling as the training pro-
gressed.
The worst welders tended to be more
erratic in their selection and often would
attempt to utilize too many overlay fea-
tures (such as using travel speed, work-
travel angle, and arc length) at the same
time. Utilizing this many overlays at once
resulted in participants no longer being
able to give sufficient amounts of their vi-
sual attention resource to the actual weld
bead being created. Hence, these individ-
uals failed to properly transfer skills when
placed in real-world environments.
The results of this study have demon-
strated the advantages and limitations of
fully virtual and integrated training in
terms of feedback usage, performance,
cognitive skill, and physical skill learning.
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WELDING RESEARCH
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9. Park, M., Schmidt, L., Schlick, C., and
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tors and Ergonomics in Manufacturing and Serv-
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ice Industries 17: 317–330. doi:
10.1002/hfm.20077.
10. Stone, R. T., Watts, K., and Zhong, P.
2011. Virtual reality integrated welder training.
Welding Journal 90(7): 136.
11. Stone, R. T., Watts, K. P., Zhong, P., and
Wei, C.-S. 2011. Physical and cognitive effects of
virtual reality integrated training. Human Factors
53(5): 558–572.
12. Calhoun, G. L., Draper, M. H., Aber-
nathy, M. F., Patzek, M., and Delgado, F. 2005.
Synthetic vision system for improving unmanned
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14. Beauchamp, Y., Marchand, D., and Ga-
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muscular activation, psychophysical perception
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and Safety Conference, Washington, DC: IOS
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15. Herberts, P., and Kadefors, R. 1976. A
WELDING RESEARCH
science course. Education Research (38.3):
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Appendix A
List of Materials for Real-World
Welding School
1) Lincoln Electric Power MIG 350MP
welding machine with SMAW (shielded
metal arc welding) attachments
2) Two auto darkening welding helmets
3) Multiple sets of welding jackets and
Appendix B
Notes Regarding Collection of EMG Data
To collect EMG data, equipment by
FlexComp Infiniti Cl. by Thought Tech-
nology Ltd. was used. The sample rate was
2048 samples/s. The sensor used was EMG
MyoScan-Pro Sensor, and the electrode
was T3402M-Triode by the same company.
The EMG feedback signal was filtered,
rectified, and smoothed automatically by
the software packaged with the FlexComp
Infiniti Cl hardware.
Maximum voluntary contractions
(MVC) were performed in order to obtain
a baseline for the maximum the partici-
pants were willing to exert their muscles.
For the MVC for the trapezius and del-
toid, the participants abducted their arms
at the shoulder joint in the coronal plane
at 90 deg against a stationary force. For
the MVC for the extensor digitorum, the
participants were asked to perform an ex-
tension of the wrist against a stationary ob-

study of painful shoulder in welders. Acta Or- ject while the they held their extended arm
thopaedica 47: 381–387.
gloves
4) Power grinders (abducted about the shoulder in the sagit-
16. Keir, P. J., and MacDonell, C. W. 2004. tal plane) horizontally in front of them. Fi-
Muscle activity during patient transfers: a pre- 5) Slag hammer
liminary study on the influence of lift assists and 6) Wire brushes nally, for the MVC of the flexor
experience. Ergonomics 47(3): 296–306. 7) Welding table carpiularis, the participants was asked to
17. Crooks, T. 1988. Assessing student per- 8) Quenching buckets squeeze a handle in order to achieve a
formance. Green Guide No. 8. Higher Educa- 9) Flat stock plates power grip. This was achieved while the
tion Research and Development Society of participant’s extended arm (abducted
Australasia (HERDSA), Kensington.
10) Groove plates
11) 7018 electrodes about the shoulder in the sagittal plane)
18. Ertepinar and Geban. 1996. Effect of in- was held horizontally in front of them.
struction supplied with the investigative-ori- 12) Runoff tabs
ented laboratory approach on achievement in a 13) Consumables

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Sources of Variation in Ferrite Number

Predictions vs. Measurements

Variability in chemical analysis has a profound effect

on Ferrite Number predictions

BY D. J. KOTECKI AND Z. ZHANG

Ferrite Prediction Approaches

ABSTRACT
There are many situations in which fer-
A major source of variation in ferrite prediction is the variability in chemical rite prediction can be useful. The most
analysis. This factor is much more important than the variability in measuring the common is in the sourcing of solid wire or
Ferrite Number or the accuracy of constitution diagrams, mathematical equations, strip filler metals for use in a variety of
or neural network approaches to prediction of Ferrite Number or ferrite percent. welding processes, including gas shielded
This has been amply demonstrated by a not-well-known round robin of chemical metal arc welding, gas tungsten arc weld-

analysis in stainless steel weld metals conducted within the International Institute
of Welding Commission II nearly ten years ago. The results of this round robin are
examined along with the various predicting approaches.
Introduction
A minimum amount of ferrite in a
nominally austenitic stainless steel weld
metal provides evidence of solidification
as primary ferrite with attendant resist-
ance to solidification cracking. A restric-
tion to a maximum amount of ferrite lim-
its embrittlement resulting from extended
time at elevated temperature.
In duplex ferritic-austenitic stainless
steel weld metals, a restriction to a mini-
mum amount of ferrite provides assurance
of high strength and resistance to chloride
stress corrosion cracking, while a restric-
tion to a maximum amount of ferrite pro-
vides assurance of ductility and toughness
(Ref. 1). For these reasons, it has proven
useful to determine the ferrite content of
nominally austenitic and duplex ferritic-
austenitic stainless steel weld metal.
Methods of assessing ferrite content in
such weld metals have included metallo-
graphic measurement of percent ferrite,
determination of ferrite by magnetic in-
struments, and prediction of ferrite from
chemical composition using a variety of
constitution diagrams or mathematical re-
lationships.
Measurement Reproducibility
Metallographic round robins of per-
D. J. KOTECKI (damiankotecki@msn.com) is a
consultant in Chapel Hill, N. C. Z. ZHANG is the
R&D director, Metrode Products Ltd., Surrey, UK.
cent ferrite determination in nominally
austenitic stainless steel weld metals hav-
ing ferrite content up to approximately
10% resulted in the observation that the
interlaboratory scatter of measurement by
this method covered a range from 0.6 to
1.6 times the interlaboratory average.
That is, if the interlaboratory average of
the measurements on a particular weld
metal sample was 10%, the values ob-
tained by participating laboratories
ranged from 6 to 16%.
With developing the magnetically
based Ferrite Number (FN) system for de-
termining ferrite content of weld metals
from nominally austenitic stainless steel
and duplex ferritic-austenitic stainless
steel, measurement reproducibility was
markedly improved over the metallo-
graphic measurement of percent ferrite.
In round robins conducted by the Welding
Research Council for weld metal samples
of up to 10 FN, 95% of laboratories
reproduced the interlaboratory average
within ± 0.6 FN (Ref. 2).
KEYWORDS
Ferrite Number (FN)
Ferrite Prediction
Ferrite Measurement
Stainless Steel
Chemical Analysis
WELDING RESEARCH
ing, submerged arc welding and strip
cladding, electroslag strip cladding, and
plasma arc welding.
Prediction has also proven useful in se-
lection of filler metals for dissimilar metal
joints. To these ends, a number of consti-
tution diagrams have been developed re-
lating chemical composition to weld metal
ferrite content, the most commonly refer-
enced of which are the Schaeffler diagram
(Ref. 3), DeLong diagram (Ref. 4), and
WRC-1992 diagram (Ref. 5). Of these, the
WRC-1992 diagram is considered to be
the most accurate (Ref. 1).
More recently, a function fit model (Ref.
6), neural networks (Refs. 7–10), and non-
linear mathematical equations (Ref. 11)
have been proposed as having improved ac-
curacy in FN prediction as compared to
WRC-1992 diagram predictions.
Sources of Variability in
Predicted vs. Measured FN
In assessing the accuracy of FN predic-
tions from chemical composition, all
sources of variability need to be taken into
account. These include the following: vari-
ability of weld metal sample preparation,
variability of FN measurement, and vari-
ability of chemical analysis within one lab-
oratory and among several laboratories.
It is worthwhile to consider to what ex-
tent all these variability sources are taken
into account in developing the various FN
prediction approaches. It should be ap-
preciated that the database used in devel-
oping the constitution diagrams of Scha-
effler and DeLong only include sample
preparation variability, FN measurement
variability, and chemical analysis variabil-
ity within one laboratory (their own). The

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Fig. 1 — Arrangement of test blocks showing areas of ferrite measurement. Fig. 2 — Reported E308H-16 carbon results from IIW Document IX-1510-03. The
red line is the overall interlaboratory average value, the yellow lines are the limits
of the 95% confidence interval as expected according to ASTM E1019, and the
green lines correspond to the limits for E308-16 as specified in AWS A5.4/A5.4M.

WRC-1992 diagram database is different and curve-fitting softwares to develop the are artificial, not measured.
in that it consists of approximately 900 sets function fit model from the database used The neural network approach of Vitek
of results, provided by a number of differ- in developing the WRC-1988 and WRC- et al. (Ref. 7) used this same database,
WELDING RESEARCH

ent laboratories, so it includes variability
in sample preparation, variability of FN
measurement, and variability of chemical
analysis among several laboratories as well
as variability within any one laboratory.
Babu et al. (Ref. 6) used ThermoCalc®
1992 diagrams, and claimed equal predict-
ing accuracy to that of these two diagrams.
However, assumed values were assigned
to missing analytical values for Cu, Ti, Nb,
V, and Co in this approach, which seems a
questionable practice because the values
along with again assumed values for the
missing analytical values, which allowed
them to claim improved predicting accu-
racy over that of the WRC-1988 and
WRC-1992 diagrams. The approach of
filling in missing analytical data is not only

Table 1 — Variability Expected in Chemical Analysis among Several Laboratories Analyzing Type 304 Stainless Steel, and Resulting Effect on
Chromium and Nickel Equivalents and FN Predicted by the WRC-1992 Diagram

Element Range of Results Expected with 95% Confidence,

±, around an Interlaboratory Average of 5 FN
C Cr Ni Mo Cu Nb N
Weight % 0.008 0.296 0.474 0.0164 0.044 Not Stated 0.014
ΔCreq — 0.296 — 0.0164 — — —
ΔNieq 0.28 — 0.474 — 0.011 — 0.28
FN Range 4.1 to 6.0 3.9 to 6.2 3.7 to 6.6 5.0 to 5.1 5.0 to 5.0 — 4.1 to 6.0

Table 2 — Individual Laboratory Ferrite Results E308H-16

Laboratory A B C D E F G H I J K L M N P Q Interlaboratory
Position Area Average FN of Individual Laboratory Average SD,
FN FN
7 4.2 4.5 4.8 4.2 4.8 4.6 4.9 5.0 4.4 4.6 4.3 5.0 5.0 4.3 4.7 4.3 4.6 0.30
Top surface 8 4.7 5.0 5.3 4.8 5.3 4.9 5.5 5.4 4.9 5.2 4.7 5.5 5.3 4.9 5.2 4.8 5.1 0.29
(ground) 9 3.9 4.0 4.4 4.8 4.3 4.2 4.4 4.7 4.1 4.2 3.8 4.6 4.6 4.1 4.4 4.0 4.3 0.29

10 3.3 3.6 3.9 3.5 3.8 3.7 3.9 4.1 3.6 3.6 3.4 4.6 4.3 3.4 3.8 3.4 3.7 0.36
Top surface 11 2.9 3.0 3.4 2.9 3.4 3.3 3.4 3.6 3.1 3.1 2.9 3.9 3.7 3.0 3.3 2.9 3.2 0.31
(polished) 12 3.4 3.5 3.9 3.6 4.0 3.4 3.8 4.0 3.3 3.5 3.3 4.1 4.6 3.5 3.8 3.3 3.7 0.37

13 2.9 3.0 3.3 3.0 3.3 3.2 3.5 3.6 3.1 3.1 2.9 3.8 3.6 3.0 3.2 2.9 3.2 0.28
Top surface 14 3.6 3.9 4.2 3.8 4.3 4.2 4.3 4.5 3.9 4.0 3.6 4.4 4.5 3.8 4.1 3.8 4.1 0.30
(as welded) 15 3.7 4.0 4.4 4.1 4.5 4.4 4.6 4.5 4.2 4.3 4.0 4.8 4.8 4.1 4.4 3.9 4.3 0.31

16 3.0 2.9 3.4 3.4 3.5 3.2 3.1 3.7 3.2 3.0 3.0 3.6 3.5 2.8 3.2 2.8 3.2 0.28
Top surface 17 5.3 5.5 5.7 5.6 6.1 5.5 6.1 6.0 5.6 6.1 5.1 5.8 5.6 5.2 5.7 5.5 5.6 0.31
(filed) 18 4.6 5.3 4.9 4.6 5.4 5.1 5.4 5.0 4.8 5.3 4.9 5.7 5.6 4.8 5.6 5.2 5.1 0.35

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introducing artificial “data” rather than

real, but it also avoids including variability
effects in chemical analysis.
Later, Vitek et al. (Ref. 9) included
cooling rate estimates (again, not meas-
urements) to modify their neural network
model, which allowed them to claim fur-
ther improvement in predicting accuracy.
But there are two layers of artificial “data”
in that improvement.
The nonlinear mathematical equations
approach did not involve any chemical
analysis of weld metals. Instead, it relied
upon calculated ratios of each element
based upon weight ratios of the four com-
ponents weighed into the melt charge
(Ref. 11). This eliminates any effect of
variability in chemical analysis. While it
makes the mathematics easier, this artifi- Fig. 3 — Reported E308H-16 chromium results from IIW Document IX-1510-03. The red line is the overall
interlaboratory average value, the yellow lines are the limits of the 95% confidence interval as expected ac-
cial approach makes it impossible to in-
cording to ASTM E1086, and the green lines correspond to the limits for E308-16 as specified in AWS
clude the real variability effects for chem- A5.4/A5.4M.
ical analysis in the resulting model. In
addition, two equations were developed and II-1510-03 (Ref. 14), which are sum- dard deviations that indicate the variabil-
— one for alloys containing 70% iron and marized by Farrar (Ref. 15). This most re- ity of measurements among a number of
one for alloys containing 60% iron. One cent round robin also included chemical laboratories. Two standard deviations
arrives at the iron content by subtracting

the sum of the other element analyses
from 100%, so there is also an unappreci-
ated variability in that element.
Variability of Chemical Analysis
among Several Laboratories
IIW Commission II has conducted a se-
ries of round robins to evaluate interlabo-
ratory reproducibility of measuring FN
using instruments calibrated according to
the procedure established in ISO 8249.
The most recent results of these round-
robins can be found in IIW Documents II-
1440-01 (Ref. 12), II-1466-02 (Ref. 13),
analysis, which allows for reproducibility
comparison of ferrite prediction by the
WRC-1992 diagram vs. measured FN.
Before examining the results of that
round robin, it is appropriate to put the
chemical analysis variability among sev-
eral laboratories into perspective. Since
most of the chemical analysis of the
round robin was done by optical emission
spectrophotometry (OES), a relevant
standard is ASTM E1086 (Ref. 16). Fur-
thermore, in the round robin, carbon and
nitrogen were analyzed by combustion
and vacuum fusion methods rather than
by OES, so a relevant standard is ASTM
E1019 (Ref. 17).
Both of those standards include stan-
WELDING RESEARCH
normally encompass 95% of results to be
expected when a number of laboratories
chemically analyze the same metal (sta-
tistically, this is termed a “95% confi-
dence interval”), so two standard devia-
tions are listed in Table 1 for 304 stainless
steel analysis, as given in ASTM E1086
and ASTM E1019.
Also included in Table 1 are the
chromium and nickel equivalent varia-
tions, which result from this stated vari-
ability of chemical analysis, and variability
effects in analysis of each individual ele-
ment on predicted FN of a typical 308H
weld metal of nominally 5 FN. For exam-
ple, if the 5 FN average carbon content is
0.050%, Table 1 states that reported car-

Table 3 — Round Robin Chemical Analysis Results Reported for E308H-16 Weld Metal

Laboratory C Mn Si Cr Ni Mo Cu N Nb Creq Nieq II-1440-01 WRC-92

Calculated Ferrite Predictor
FN FN
A 0.042 1.16 0.71 19.39 9.08 0.10 0.10 0.070 0.02 19.5 12.0 6.8 7.0
B 0.050 1.15 0.69 19.40 9.20 0.11 0.10 0.119 0.03 19.5 13.4 3.0 3.1
C 0.040 1.09 0.73 19.31 9.18 0.08 0.08 0.113 0.08 19.4 12.9 N.R. 3.8
D 0.049 1.16 0.72 19.40 9.10 0.08 0.10 0.120 N.R 19.5 13.2 3.6 3.2
E 0.049 1.16 0.70 19.31 9.33 0.11 0.10 0.068 0.03 19.4 12.4 5.2 5.2
F 0.046 1.13 0.75 19.33 9.02 0.09 0.11 0.097 0.02 19.4 12.6 4.6 4.6
G 0.043 1.15 0.65 20.40 8.40 0.09 0.09 0.110 0.02 20.5 12.1 11.2 10.5
H 0.082 1.08 0.77 19.38 9.31 0.07 0.11 0.084 0.02 19.5 13.9 N.R. 1.9
I 0.044 1.17 0.72 19.30 9.09 0.09 0.10 0.100 N.R 19.4 12.7 5.0 4.2
J 0.047 1.14 0.72 19.20 9.00 0.09 0.10 0.105 0.02 19.3 12.8 3.5 3.7
K 0.054 1.06 0.60 19.65 9.47 0.07 0.10 0.109 0.03 19.7 13.6 3.1 3.1
L 0.050 1.10 0.77 18.78 8.70 0.11 0.10 0.110 0.03 18.9 12.7 2.9 2.9
M 0.047 1.10 0.75 19.00 8.74 0.09 0.11 0.108 0.02 19.1 12.6 3.6 3.6
N 0.047 0.96 0.55 18.68 9.58 0.02 0.05 0.110 N.R 18.7 13.4 1.4 1.2
Q 0.060 1.20 0.69 18.79 9.43 0.08 0.08 0.100 N.R 18.9 13.6 1.4 1.4
R 0.047 1.10 0.67 19.30 9.20 0.05 N.R. 0.120 N.R 19.3 13.2 N.R. 2.8

Average 0.050 1.12 0.70 19.29 9.11 0.08 0.10 0.103 0.03 19.38 12.94 4.3 3.9
Standard Deviation 0.010 0.06 0.06 0.40 0.30 0.02 0.02 0.016 0.02 0.40 0.55 2.6 2.3

N.R. = Not Reported

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Fig. 4 — Reported E308H-16 nickel results from IIW Document IX-1510-03. The Fig. 5 — Reported E308H-16 nitrogen results from IIW Document IX-1510-03.
red line is the overall interlaboratory average value, the yellow lines are the limits The red line is the overall interlaboratory average value, and the yellow lines are
of the 95% confidence interval as expected according to ASTM E1086, and the the limits of the 95% confidence interval as expected according to ASTM E1019.
green lines correspond to the limits for E308-16 as specified in AWS A5.4/A5.4M. No specification limit is indicated because there is no specification limit.

bon analysis could vary between 0.042 and
0.058%, which would cause the calculated
FN to vary from 6.0 at the reported low
carbon level to 4.1 at the reported high
WELDING RESEARCH
Four surface preparation conditions were cation was reported by the 16 participating
considered. Not all of these surface condi- laboratories. The areas of measurement of
tions follow the recommendation of mak- interest are those numbered 7 through 18
ing the measurement on the top centerline in Fig. 1.

carbon level. Therefore, Table 1 indicates
that expected levels of interlaboratory
variability in chemical analysis for each of
C, Cr, Ni, and N could be expected to lead
to variability in calculated FN at the 5 FN
level of any conceivable composition of
304 base metal (or 308H weld metal) to be
about ± 1 FN. Then, if chemical analyses
of all four of these elements vary at the
same time, considerably larger variation in
reported FN would be expected.
IIW Commission II Round Robin
of Chemical Analysis
Figure 1 shows the multiple pass
groove weld prepared for the IIW round
robin participants. Before considering the
chemical analysis results, it is important to
consider the FN measurement results.
of a given weld pass, after only light
smoothing, as specified by ISO 8249 (Ref.
18). Specifically, the locations labeled 1
through 6 are on cross sections; areas la-
beled 19 through 21 are on the root sur-
face, so they are not meaningful insofar as
the WRC-1992 diagram comparisons are
concerned.
The four top surface conditions are as
welded, lightly polished, ground flush, and
draw filed after grinding flush. Of these,
only the draw filed condition complies ex-
actly with ISO 8249 or AWS A4.2 (Ref. 2).
However, the other top surface conditions
are commonly used in practice. Three lo-
cations were marked on each of the four
finished surfaces, and ten measurements
were to be taken by each participant
within each of the three locations. The av-
erage of the ten measurements at each lo-
One of the electrodes used in the round
robin is a E308H-16 electrode, designed
for about 5 FN weld metal to be used in
high-temperature applications. The meas-
urement results reported by participants
for the E308H-16 weld metal are summa-
rized in Table 2. It is noteworthy that, for
each of the 12 measured areas numbered
7 through 18, the interlaboratory standard
deviation is about 0.3 FN. Therefore, it is
expected again that 95% of those making
a measurement in a given area will be
within 0.6 FN of the interlaboratory aver-
age, which is an identical result to that
noted earlier for other ferrite measure-
ment round robins (Ref. 2).
With these results in mind, the chemi-
cal analysis portion results of the round
robin on this same E308H-16 weld metal
can now be examined. One sample block

Table 4 — Individual Laboratory Test Results E309Mo-17

Laboratory A B C D E F G H I J K L M N P Q Interlaboratory
Position Area Average FN of Individual Laboratory Average SD, FN
FN
Top surface 7 16.3 15.2 14.6 14.4 15.8 14.0 15.9 15.3 15.90 15.7 15.7 18.7 18.1 17.0 15.5 13.8 15.7 1.33
(ground) 8 16.3 15.5 14.8 14.7 16.0 15.0 15.9 15.3 15.30 15.3 15.8 18.6 18.2 16.5 15.4 14.0 15.8 1.20
9 15.8 14.8 14.4 14.6 15.7 15.0 16.0 14.8 14.80 15.4 15.8 17.9 16.6 15.7 15.1 13.6 15.4 0.99

Top surface 10 14.1 13.6 13.3 12.8 14.3 13.0 13.9 13.0 13.90 14.4 13.6 15.4 15.4 13.5 13.6 11.5 13.7 0.96
(polished) 11 18.4 18.0 17.2 16.2 17.8 17.0 17.9 17.8 17.30 17.2 17.6 20.9 18.1 17.2 16.2 16.7 17.6 1.09
12 16.7 15.8 15.6 14.7 16.2 14.0 16.4 15.4 16.10 16.1 16.4 18.8 16.4 16.3 15.7 14.2 15.9 1.11

Top surface 13 14.0 14.3 14.2 14.1 15.0 14.0 15.2 13.8 13.60 14.5 12.7 17.1 16.2 15.0 14.1 12.4 14.4 1.16
(as welded) 14 18.7 18.8 18.2 17.1 21.5 15.0 19.2 19.0 20.70 19.3 18.3 21.4 19.4 18.1 18.2 16.8 18.7 1.66
15 16.8 17.7 17.8 16.4 17.8 17.0 18.6 17.2 17.20 17.3 18.5 20.7 17.8 18.0 17.3 15.7 17.6 1.10

Top surface 16 16.5 15.2 15.0 17.2 15.8 15.0 16.0 15.1 15.70 16.3 16.1 19.1 18.6 17.6 15.9 14.5 16.2 1.31
(filed) 17 17.0 16.2 15.9 17.0 16.6 16.0 16.6 15.9 16.70 16.4 16.5 19.1 17.8 16.8 16.2 14.5 16.6 0.97
18 18.0 17.2 16.3 17.5 17.4 17.0 17.4 15.3 16.90 16.9 16.9 20.6 17.7 17.8 16.8 15.0 17.2 1.23

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Table 5 — Round Robin Chemical Analysis Results Reported for E309Mo-17 Weld Metal

Laboratory C Mn Si Cr Ni Mo Cu N Nb Creq Nieq II-1440-01 WRC-92

Calculated Ferrite
FN Predictor
FN

A 0.023 0.91 0.61 22.82 11.96 2.34 0.06 0.103 0.01 25.2 14.8 21.0 20.9
B 0.026 0.94 0.60 22.70 12.50 2.35 0.07 0.140 0.01 25.1 16.2 12.0 13.8
C 0.025 0.96 0.66 22.46 12.33 2.36 0.07 0.126 0.01 24.8 15.7 N.R. 14.9
D 0.022 1.00 0.65 22.40 12.50 2.36 0.07 0.140 N.R 24.8 16.1 13.2 13.0
E 0.029 0.91 0.60 22.36 12.29 2.42 0.07 0.112 0.02 24.8 15.6 15.5 15.5
F 0.026 0.94 0.68 22.11 12.22 2.39 0.09 0.109 0.01 24.5 15.3 15.1 15.2
G 0.025 1.08 0.57 22.70 10.50 2.63 0.11 0.121 0.01 25.3 13.8 27.6 27.0
H 0.062 0.92 0.72 22.64 12.28 2.44 0.08 0.116 0.01 25.1 16.8 N.R. 11.6
I 0.026 0.96 0.69 22.93 12.52 2.38 0.07 0.110 N.R. 25.3 15.6 18.6 17.5
J 0.026 0.92 0.61 22.60 12.20 2.35 0.06 0.126 <0.01 25.0 15.6 16.0 15.9
K 0.029 0.91 0.59 22.69 13.44 2.44 0.07 0.129 0.02 25.1 17.1 10.9 10.9
L 0.032 0.97 0.65 21.48 11.98 2.53 0.08 0.120 0.01 24.0 15.5 12.0 12.0
M N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R.
P 0.024 0.80 0.64 23.57 12.90 2.42 0.05 0.120 N.R 26.0 16.2 19.4 18.5
Q 0.040 0.86 0.64 23.59 12.94 2.41 0.05 0.122 N.R 26.0 16.8 16.0 15.7
R 0.059 1.03 0.67 22.95 11.15 2.35 N.R 0.124 N.R 25.3 15.7 N.R. 17.3

Average 0.032 0.94 0.64 22.67 12.25 2.41 0.07 0.121 0.01 25.09 15.79 16.4 16.0
Standard 0.013 0.07 0.04 0.52 0.70 0.08 0.01 0.011 0.00 0.51 0.81 4.7 4.1

WELDING RESEARCH
Deviation

N.R. = Not Reported

Table 6 — Individual Laboratory Test Results E2209-15

Laboratory A B C D E F G H I J K L M N P Q Interlaboratory
Position Area Average FN of Individual Laboratory Average SD,
FN FN
Top surface 7 27.6 32.6 28.8 30.0 31.7 31.0 31.4 32.9 30.9 32.4 30.4 36.6 39.1 32.1 32.3 28.5 32.0 2.86
(ground) 8 27.3 29.6 28.1 28.9 29.5 30.0 30.6 30.8 29.0 30.8 30.0 34.8 37.7 29.7 31.1 26.7 30.5 2.69
9 29.3 32.7 27.8 34.0 33.0 33.0 33.6 34.1 31.7 32.7 31.4 38.2 37.5 34.3 32.9 29.6 33.1 2.68
Top surface 10 27.6 33.8 31.7 33.6 35.7 33.0 34.6 34.9 34.5 35.2 33.0 38.9 38.0 35.5 36.0 30.3 34.4 2.75
(polished) 11 29.6 37.5 35.0 35.4 38.2 35.0 37.5 38.5 36.2 35.5 36.2 42.4 40.3 35.5 38.6 30.5 36.8 3.20
12 29.2 35.6 32.9 34.0 35.7 34.0 35.3 35.5 34.5 34.1 34.0 40.8 40.5 34.0 36.9 33.7 35.1 2.76
Top surface 13 28.3 36.3 33.6 33.8 35.4 35.0 34.7 36.3 35.3 36.1 31.9 38.3 37.7 34.3 35.0 28.7 34.8 2.78
(as welded) 14 30.7 42.0 37.0 37.9 38.3 36.0 34.7 45.3 39.0 38.3 33.6 38.8 43.2 34.5 44.6 31.6 38.3 4.35
15 27.0 34.7 32.2 36.9 36.8 34.0 34.9 37.2 34.1 33.4 30.7 39.2 38.6 31.0 32.3 27.8 34.2 3.55
Top surface 16 31.2 33.9 32.6 33.1 34.6 34.0 33.8 36.5 35.0 34.0 33.0 39.7 40.9 34.6 36.0 31.9 34.9 2.59
(filed) 17 29.1 32.2 30.0 30.8 32.1 32.0 31.8 32.6 31.7 32.5 31.3 37.2 38.2 31.6 33.5 29.3 32.4 2.44
18 33.4 38.2 34.2 35.0 38.3 37.0 38.6 39.7 36.7 36.6 35.8 43.7 44.3 38.3 39.0 32.7 37.9 3.23

for OES analysis and a bag of chips for
combustion/fusion analysis were circu-
lated to each of the participants. Figure 2
presents the carbon analysis results of the
16 participating laboratories. Figure 3
presents the chromium analysis results of
the 16 participating laboratories. Figure 4
presents the results for nickel, and Fig. 5
presents the results for nitrogen. Appre-
ciable scatter is evident in the analyses for
each of these elements. This scatter affects
the FN predicted by the WRC-1992 dia-
gram (or by any other FN prediction
method).
Table 3 presents all of the chemical
analysis results for the E308H-16 weld
metal, excluding sulfur and phosphorus.
Also included in Table 3 are calculated
WRC-1992 diagram chromium and nickel
equivalents for the chemical analysis of
each laboratory. Finally, the predicted FN
corresponding to each laboratory’s analy-
sis is included in the table.
It should be noted that the chemical
analysis results for each laboratory were
entered into the FerritePredictor software
(Ref. 19) to provide consistent calcula-
tions. As a result, a few predicted FNs are
slightly different from those reported in
IIW Document II-1440-01 (Ref. 12). This
was done because some of the participants
used their own approximation of the
WRC-1992 diagram, which accounts for
the slight differences in Table 3 vs. IIW
Document II-1440-01. For comparison,
the original calculated FN values from
Document II-1440-01 are included in
Table 3. It can be seen that the 95% confi-
dence interval (equal to 2 times the stan-
dard deviation) for each of C, Cr, Ni, and
N is somewhat larger than that expected
according to Table 1. This may be due to
the fact that weld metal is not as homoge-
neous as base metal.
Farrar (Ref. 15) noted that a larger
variation in chemical analysis of weld
metal, as compared to homogenized base
metal, is not surprising. It can also be seen
that there is a large range of predicted FN
values; the spread is from a low of 1.2 to a
high of 10.5 FN. The statistical standard

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Kotecki and Zhang Supplement June 2013_Layout 1 5/15/13 10:38 AM Page 180

Table 7 — Round Robin Chemical Analysis Results Reported for E2209-15 Weld Metal

Laboratory C Mn Si Cr Ni Mo Cu N Nb Creq Nieq II-1440-01 WRC-92

Calculated Ferrite
FN Predictor
FN
A 0.036 1.25 0.34 23.85 8.84 3.39 0.14 0.166 0.01 27.2 13.5 50.0 49.6
B 0.034 1.26 0.30 23.90 9.10 3.33 0.13 0.185 <0.010 27.2 14.0 37.0 43.4
C 0.043 1.22 0.35 23.54 8.95 3.39 0.13 0.169 <0.001 26.9 13.9 N.R. 42.1
D 0.031 1.28 0.72 23.40 8.80 3.52 0.14 0.190 N.R. 26.9 13.7 43.8 43.8
E 0.045 1.27 0.32 23.57 9.12 3.46 0.14 0.212 0.01 27.0 15.0 30.4 30.4
F 0.044 1.26 0.39 23.56 8.81 3.43 0.16 0.148 0.00 27.0 13.4 48.5 48.4
G 0.032 1.22 0.28 24.80 8.00 3.87 0.15 0.161 <0.005 28.7 12.4 78.6 78.5
H 0.057 1.23 0.36 23.50 9.07 3.43 0.16 0.157 0.01 26.9 14.2 N.R. 37.6
I 0.041 1.28 0.32 23.56 8.89 3.37 0.15 0.160 N.R 26.9 13.6 42.5 45.7
J 0.040 1.23 0.28 23.50 8.90 3.42 0.14 0.164 <0.01 26.9 13.6 56.0 45.1
K 0.039 1.19 0.26 23.61 10.03 3.24 0.16 0.176 0.02 26.9 15.0 29.2 29.2
L 0.038 1.05 0.26 23.54 8.01 3.51 0.42 0.166 0.00 27.1 12.8 57.6 57.6
M 0.032 1.09 0.27 23.46 8.54 3.40 0.21 0.171 0.02 26.9 13.1 50.1 49.8
P 0.033 1.03 0.57 23.10 9.12 3.20 0.10 0.160 N.R 26.3 13.5 40.5 39.6
Q 0.050 1.08 0.56 23.10 8.97 3.19 0.10 0.162 N.R 26.3 14.0 35.0 33.5
R 0.043 1.10 0.30 24.00 7.70 3.45 N.R 0.150 N.R 27.5 12.2 N.R. 69.7
Average 0.040 1.19 0.37 23.62 8.80 3.41 0.16 0.169 0.01 27.05 13.61 46.1 46.5
Standard 0.007 0.09 0.13 0.39 0.55 0.16 0.08 0.016 0.01 0.52 0.77 13.3 13.2
Deviation
WELDING RESEARCH

N.R. = Not Reported

deviation is 2.3 FN. This last result is more
than 7 times as large as the standard devi-
ation observed in the measured Ferrite
Numbers, which was about 0.3 FN as
noted in Table 2.
A second weld metal evaluated in the
IIW Commission II round robin is of the
AWS E309Mo-17 classification. This elec-
trode is mainly used for carbon steel to
stainless steel joints and is designed for a
considerably higher FN than the E308H-
16. Table 4 presents the averaged meas-
ured FN results on each of the 12 meas-
urement areas numbered 7 through 18 for
each of the 16 laboratories. For each of the
ten measurement areas, the interlabora-
tory average FN is around 16, and the in-
terlaboratory standard deviation is be-
tween 1.0 and 1.7 FN.
Table 5 presents the chemical analysis
results for the top surface of the E309Mo-
17 weld metal along with the WRC-1992
diagram calculated chromium and nickel
equivalents, the original FN values re-
ported in IIW Document II-1440-01, and
predicted FN values obtained using Fer-
ritePredictor herein. The original pre-
dicted FN values from IIW Document II-
1440-01 are sometimes more than slightly
different from the calculated WRC-1992
FNs calculated with the FerritePredictor
software; the worst case is Laboratory B,
which reported 12.0 vs. 13.8 FN calculated
by FerritePredictor. It is noteworthy that
the interlaboratory average of the pre-
dicted FNs is about 16 (same as for the
measured FNs), but the interlaboratory
standard deviation is about 4.1 FN, about
2.5 to 4 times as large as the standard de-
viations observed for the measured values
in any of the 12 areas measured.
A third weld metal considered in the
round robin is from E2209-15 electrodes.
This filler metal is designed for welding
2205 duplex stainless steel. Table 6 pres-
ents the averaged measured FN values at
each of the 12 locations for each of the 16
laboratories. It can be seen that the inter-
laboratory average FN measured at any of
the 12 locations is about 35 FN with an in-
terlaboratory standard deviation of about
3 FN. The range of interlaboratory stan-
dard deviations is 2.44 to 4.35 FN.
Table 7 presents the chemical analysis
results from the round robin for this weld
metal along with the WRC-1992 diagram
calculated chromium and nickel equiva-
lents, the original predicted FN values re-
ported in IIW Document II-1440-01, and
predicted FN values obtained using Fer-
ritePredictor herein. The original pre-
dicted FN values from II-1440-01 are
again sometimes more than slightly differ-
ent from the calculated WRC-1992 FNs
calculated with the FerritePredictor soft-
ware — worst cases are Laboratory B (37.0
vs. 43.4) and Laboratory J (56.0 vs. 45.1).
The predicted interlaboratory average FN
is 46.5, compared to the measured average
FN of about 35, and the interlaboratory
standard deviation of predicted FN is 13.2
FN. The predicted interlaboratory FN is
within one standard deviation of the meas-
ured interlaboratory average FNs. The
standard deviation of predicted FN based
upon chemical analysis is about 3 to 5
times as great as is the standard deviation
of measurement of FN.
The IIW Commission II round robin
included two other weld metals, but these
had low FNs, so that some predicted FNs
are zero, and these weld metals do not as
clearly indicate the effects of variability in
chemical analysis on variability of pre-
dicted FN as the three weld metals already
discussed.
It has been noted that some of the par-
ticipants in the round robin of IIW Docu-
ment II-1440-01 (Ref. 12) used their own
approximation of the WRC-1992 diagram
in reporting predicted FNs given in Tables
3, 5, and 7. Some of those predicted FNs are
appreciably different from the FNs calcu-
lated by the software used herein.
However, it can be seen by comparing
the last two columns of Tables 3, 5, and 7
that the interlaboratory average FN and
interlaboratory standard deviation by
those methods are virtually the same as
the corresponding values predicted using
the FerritePredictor software. In other
words, the method of calculating the pre-
dicted FN does not influence the overall
variability.
Conclusions
Based on the results described above, it
should be clearly evident that the variabil-
ity in FN prediction based upon chemical
analysis and a method such as the WRC-
1992 diagram, a neural net model, or a
mathematical expression, can be expected
to be considerably greater than the vari-
ability of FN measurement made with in-
struments calibrated according to ISO
8249 or AWS A4.2. This leads to several
important conclusions.
1. Ferrite requirements for weld metals
should be based as much as possible upon

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Kotecki and Zhang Supplement June 2013_Layout 1 5/15/13 10:41 AM Page 181
measurement of FN by instruments cali-
brated according to the ISO 8249 or AWS
A4.2 standards.
2. It is unrealistic to write a specifica-
tion that requires both a measured FN and
predicted FN to both conform to some
range. If the measured FN conforms, it is
pointless to be concerned about the pre-
dicted FN. Requiring both the measured
FN and predicted FN to conform to a
range in order for a weldment to be ac-
ceptable is analogous to your son saying
that, even though the sun is shining, he
cannot mow the lawn today because the
morning newspaper forecasts rain.
3. Searches for improved FN predic-
tion methods, whether the proposed
method is a constitution diagram, neural
net, mathematical equation, or some as
yet undeveloped method, need to take
into account the variability in chemical
analysis of a stainless steel weld metal. If
they do not, they are likely to produce
unrealistic expectations of FN prediction
accuracy.
References
1. Lefebvre, J. 1993. Guidance on specifi-
cations of ferrite in stainless steel weld metal.
Welding in the World 31(6): 390 to 407.
2. AWS A4.2M/A4.2:1997, Standard Proce-
dures for Calibrating Magnetic Instruments to
Measure the Delta Ferrite Content of Austenitic and
Duplex Ferritic-Austenitic Stainless Steel Weld
Bring Brand
Awareness to Your Company
By Placing Your Product Video on the AWS Website
For more information visit our website at http://
Rob Saltzstein
salty@aws.org
(800) 443-9353, ext. 243
Metal. American Welding Society, Doral, Fla.
3. Schaeffler, A. L. 1949. Constitution dia-
gram for stainless steel weld metal. Metal
Progress 56(11): 680 to 680B.
4. Long, C. J., and DeLong, W. T. 1973. The
ferrite content of austenitic stainless steel weld
metal. Welding Journal 52(7): 281-s to 297-s.
5. Kotecki, D. J., and Siewert, T. A. 1992.
WRC-1992 constitution diagram for stainless
steel weld metals: A modification of the WRC-
1988 diagram. Welding Journal 71(5): 171-s to
178-s.
6. Babu, S. S., Vitek, J. M., Iskander, Y. S., and
David, S. A. 1997. Prediction of ferrite number of
stainless steel welds. Science and Technology of
Welding and Joining 2(6): 279 to 285.
7. Vitek, J. M., Iskander, Y. S., and Oblow,
E. M. 2000. Improved ferrite number predic-
tion in stainless steel arc welds using artificial
neural networks – Part 1: Neural network de-
velopment. Welding Journal 79(2): 33-s to 40-s.
8. Vitek, J. M., Iskander, Y. S., and Oblow,
E. M. 2000. Improved ferrite number predic-
tion in stainless steel arc welds using artificial
neural networks – Part 2: Neural network re-
sults. Welding Journal 79(2): 41-s to 50-s.
9. Vitek, J. M., David, S. A., and Hinman,
C. R. 2003. Improved ferrite number predic-
tion model that accounts for cooling rate ef-
fects – Part 1: Model development. Welding
Journal 82(1): 10-s to 17-s.
10. Vitek, J. M., David, S. A., and Hinman,
C. R. 2003. Improved ferrite number predic-
tion model that accounts for cooling rate ef-
fects – Part 2: Model results. Welding Journal
82(2): 43-s to 50-s.
11. Bermejo, M. A. V. 2011. Modelization
of δ-ferrite content in austenitic stainless steel
weld metals. IIW Document IX-H-740-11, In-
http://videos.aws.org
/videos.aws.org
v or please contact:
Lea Paneca Sandra Jorgensen
lea@aws.org sjorgensen@aws.org
(800) 443-9353, ext. 220 (800) 443-9353, ext. 254
ternational Institute of Welding, Paris.
12. Farrar, J. C. M., and Zhang, Z. 2001. Pre-
liminary summary report on round robin exper-
iment – Ferrite measurement and prediction in
real weldments. IIW Document II-1440-01, In-
ternational Institute of Welding, Paris.
13. Siewert, T. A., and Siewert, E. A. 2002.
Statistical evaluation of a round robin experi-
ment: Uncertainties in ferrite measurement in
weldments. IIW Document II-1466-02, Inter-
national Institute of Welding, Paris.
14. Farrar, J. C. M., and Zhang, Z. 2003.
Round robin on ferrite measurement and
chemical analysis – further review of chemical
analysis. IIW Document II-1510-03, Interna-
tional Institute of Welding, Paris.
15. Farrar, J. C. M. 2005. The measurement
of ferrite number (FN) in real weldments – final
report. Welding in the World V49, N5/6: 13 to 21.
16. ASTM E1086-08, Standard Test Method
for Atomic Emission Vacuum Spectrometric
Analysis of Stainless Steel by Point-to-Plane Exci-
tation Technique. ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, Pa.
17. ASTM E1019-08, Standard Test Methods
for Determination of Carbon, Sulfur, Nitrogen,
and Oxygen in Steel, Iron, Nickel, and Cobalt Al-
loys by Various Combustion and Fusion Tech-
niques. ASTM International, West Con-
WELDING RESEARCH
shohocken, Pa.
18. ISO 8249:2000, Welding – Determination
of Ferrite Number (FN) in Austenitic and Duplex
Ferritic-Austenitic Cr-Ni Stainless Steel Weld
Metals. ISO (International Organization for
Standardization), Geneva, Switzerland.
19. FerritePredictor software was developed
by the American Welding Institute, which went
out of business some years ago, then distributed
by The Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, Ohio.
WELDING JOURNAL 181-s
Wang Supplement June 2013_Layout 1 5/15/13 1:22 PM Page 182

Shunting Effect in Resistance Spot Welding

Steels — Part 1: Experimental Study
Shunting in resistance spot welding is affected by the process variables involved
and caution must be taken when welding with narrow weld spacing

BY B. WANG, M. LOU, Q. SHEN, Y. B. LI, AND H. ZHANG

termined by the relative values of the re-

ABSTRACT
sistances along the shunting and welding
paths. An estimate of these resistances is
Shunting in resistance spot welding is difficult to avoid, as multiple welds are
helpful for assessing the amount of elec-
commonly designed in a specific area for strength and other considerations. This
tric current and, therefore, heat, diverted
experimental study investigates the effects of several variables on shunting, in-
through the shunting path. However, the
cluding material, surface condition, welding schedule, and other process parame-
resistances along these two paths do not
ters. The experimental results show that weld spacing and surface condition have
remain constant during welding. The ris-
the largest effects on shunting. The electrode force in general helps avoid shunt-
ing temperature, as well as metallurgical
ing, with the exception that for a narrow weld spacing it actually promotes shunt-
changes, has a great effect on the resist-
ing by reducing the electrical resistance in the shunting path. It was found that
WELDING RESEARCH

ance levels. In addition, the contact area at

shunted welds may have larger/darker indentation marks than the shunt welds, al-
though they are smaller in weld size. In general, it was found that the variables are
tightly coupled and their interaction is complex, making it difficult to single out the
influence of individual factors in shunting.
Introduction
In industrial applications of resistance
spot welding, there are usually several
welds arranged next to each other in the
same region of a part. This is usually by de-
sign for structural and handling purposes,
and may also result from weld repair work.
Therefore, a premade neighboring
weld(s) often exists when making a new
weld. The existing welds may divert the
electric current intended for the new weld,
a phenomenon called shunting. As the ap-
plied electric current is shared by the weld
to be made (the shunted weld) and the ex-
isting weld (the shunt weld), the heat gen-
erated in the shunted weld may not be suf-
ficient for it to grow to the designated size.
Although the shunting effect is well rec-
ognized by the resistance welding commu-
nity, it has been discussed only in a few
publications such as the work by Howe
(Ref. 1), the book by Zhang and Senkara
(Ref. 2), and ASM Handbook on Welding
(Ref. 3).
The shunting process can be visualized
through a simple schematic as shown in
Fig. 1. The proportions of the electric cur-
rent through the shunting and welding
B. WANG is with Zhejiang Normal University,
Jinhua, China. M. LOU, Q. SHEN, and Y. B. LI
are with Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shang-
hai, China. H. ZHANG is with University of
Toledo, Toledo, Ohio.
paths are determined by the relative val-
ues of electric resistances along these
paths. These resistances can be catego-
rized as follows:
Shunting path: contact resistances at
the electrode-sheet interfaces at both the
top and bottom surfaces, and the bulk re-
sistance along the shunting path through
the shunt weld.
Welding path: contact resistances at
the electrode-sheet interfaces at both the
top and bottom surfaces, bulk resistances
of the top and bottom sheets, and the con-
tact resistance at the faying interface
where the shunted weld is to be made.
The contact resistances at the elec-
trode contact can be assumed identical for
these two paths, and they can be lumped
as Rc for simplicity. The electric circuit of
the welding setup can be simplified as
shown in Fig. 2. In this diagram the total
applied electric current, I, is split into a
welding current and a shunting current, IW
and IS, respectively. These two currents,
and therefore the amounts of heat, are de-
KEYWORDS
Resistance Spot Welding
Shunting
Mild Steel
Dual-Phase Steel
Weld Spacing
the faying interface along the welding path
experiences a large change from an inti-
mate contact of two sheets to a single piece
of metal due to melting, at which point the
contact resistance Rcw disappears. As the
contact resistance dominates the total re-
sistance in the welding path, the resistance
ratio of the two paths is expected to
change drastically during welding. How-
ever, considering the detailed actual
processes in welding would make it im-
possible to analyze the shunting phenom-
enon. As a matter of fact, the relative re-
sistances at the beginning of welding can
be used to simplify the analysis, and it
should produce a reasonable estimate of
the shunting effect as the initial state of
the electrical resistance is crucial in deter-
mining the electrical current distribution
and the heat generation throughout the
welding process. There are many factors
influencing shunting or the distribution of
electric current during resistance spot
welding. They can be classified into the
following three groups:
Electrical Factors
The electrical factors are as follows:
Bulk resistance. The bulk resistance is
a function of temperature for a certain
material with fixed chemical composition.
Such a temperature dependence is signif-
icant, although it is not accurately known
for most of the metals beyond their melt-
ing points. As the total resistance along
the shunting path is proportional to the
bulk resistance, a large weld spacing
would result in a long shunting path and
thus a small amount of shunting.
Contact resistance. Shunting is also af-
fected by the contact resistance at the fay-

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Wang Supplement June 2013_Layout 1 5/15/13 1:22 PM Page 183

Fig. 1 — Schematic of shunting in welding (adapted from Fig. 2.6 of Zhang and Senkara, Ref. 2).

ing interface. A resistive surface may form
due to surface contaminants such as ox-
ides and greases. The contact resistance at
the sheet faying interface plays a signifi-
cant role in determining the proportions
of the shunting and welding currents, es-
pecially at the beginning of welding. Its di-
electrical current is inversely proportional
to the ratio of the resistances along the
welding and shunting paths, increasing the
bulk resistivity of the workpieces de-
creases the resistance ratio (Rcw +
Rbw)/Rbs and, therefore, increases the pro-
portion of welding current. That is, weld- Fig. 2 — An electric circuit of the welding and

WELDING RESEARCH
rect impact diminishes once melting starts ing a metal with large bulk resistivity may shunting paths during resistance spot welding.
and the contact area disappears. However, require a small weld spacing to avoid the
the influence of contact resistance exists shunting effect. Therefore, a smaller weld
beyond melting as it affects the heat gen- spacing may be needed when welding welding path due to a lower (Rcw +
eration in the sheet stack-up at the early steels than when welding aluminum alloys. Rbw)/Rbs ratio.
stage of welding, which in turn dictates the Different metals exhibit different rates of Phase change. A change in bulk resis-
resistivity distribution and, therefore, fur- increase in bulk resistivity with tempera- tivity is always associated with the phase
ther heat generation as welding proceeds, ture. As seen from Fig. 2.2 of Zhang and transformation in the solid state, and
even when the original contact area is Senkara (Ref. 2), aluminum and magne- there is always a jump in resistivity in
completely replaced by the molten metal. sium have significantly lower bulk resistiv- metals when they melt, as seen in Fig. 2.2
It is necessary to consider this effect only ity than iron in their respective tempera- of Zhang and Senkara (Ref. 2). However,
in the welding path, not the shunting path ture ranges up to the melting point. The the total resistance monitored during
as there is no contact area along this path. metallurgical properties of the coatings welding usually does not reveal such a
There are many variables affecting the are also of importance, as they directly af- sudden change in resistivity occurring at
contact resistance. For instance, zinc coat- fect the contact resistivity. For instance, phase transformation, largely due to the
ing for corrosion protection significantly hot-dipped galvanized (HDG) steels pos- competing changes in resistivity during
reduces, while other contaminants pro- sess lower contact resistance than galvan- heating (which increases the total resist-
mote, contact resistance. nealed sheets and, therefore, may need ance) and melting (which decreases the
Welding time. Although it is not strictly smaller weld spacing because of a larger total resistance as it eliminates the con-
electrical, welding time directly interacts proportion of current passing through the tact resistance).
with other electrical factors in welding.
For instance, joule heating is proportional
to the welding time. Extending the weld-
ing time may lessen the shunting effect by Table 1 — Materials Used in the Experiment
creating sufficient adhesion at the faying
Material Sheet Thickness (mm) Coating Yield Strength (MPa)
interface. It is also beneficial to homoge-
nizing the variation in the distribution of Mild Steel 1.0 Bare 205
electrical resistivity in the sheet stack-up. Mild Steel 1.5 Bare 205
Welding current. The electrical cur- Mild Steel 2.0 Bare 205
rent used in welding is directly related to DP590 1.2 HDG 590
joule heating. Its effect in shunting is sim- DP780 1.25 HDG 780
ilar to that of the welding time. In general,
a large welding current is preferred to re-
duce the shunting effect.
Table 2 — Nominal Chemical Composition (wt-%) of the Test Materials
Metallurgical Factors
Material Si C Mn S P Cr Mo Al V Fe
The metallurgical influence in shunt- Mild Steel 0.01 0.07 0.26 0.012 0.014 — — — — Bal.
ing is reflected in the dependence of elec- DP590(a) 0.44 0.12 1.8 0.006 0.021 0.26 — — — Bal.
trical resistivity on the chemical composi- DP780(Ref. 5) 0.23 0.1 2.33 — — 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.06 Bal.
tions and phase changes of the metals.
Material composition. As the ratio of (a) The nominal chemical composition of DP590 is that for DP600 in Ref. 4.

WELDING JOURNAL 183-s

Wang Supplement June 2013_Layout 1 5/15/13 1:22 PM Page 184
Fig. 3 — Welding sequence.
Fig. 4 — Cross-sectional views of the shunt and shunted welds made on a 2-mm bare mild steel, with
8-mm weld spacing. The parameters were welding current = 6 kA, welding time = 500 ms, and elec-
trode force = 2.8 kN. A — #9 in Table 4 and 1.8 kN; B — #11 in Table 4.
WELDING RESEARCH
Table 3 — Welding Schedules and Weld Spacings
Material Current (kA) Time (ms)
1.0-mm Mild Steel 6.0 200
1.5-mm Mild Steel 6.0 400, 500
2.0-mm Mild Steel 6.0 500
1.2-mm DP590 8.0 500
1.25-mm DP780 8.0 500
Mechanical Factors
In addition to the electrical and metal-
lurgical effects in shunting, an often over-
looked effect comes from the mechanical
aspect of welding.
Electrode force. It directly affects the
contact resistance at the faying interface
along the welding path. A large electrode
force creates a contact area with small
electrical resistance and is, therefore, ben-
eficial to reducing the shunting effect.
Yield strength. The effect of electrode
force is directly influenced by the resist-
ance of the sheet metals to deformation.
As plastic deformation of the metals is
necessary for creating the electric contact
at the sheet faying interface, the yield
strength of the sheets should be consid-
ered a factor in shunting study.
Workpiece geometry. Other influential
mechanical factors include sheet fit-up,
electrode geometry (dimensions and
shape), and electrode alignment (axial
and angular misalignments). Sheet dimen-
sions, such as thickness, also directly affect
the mechanical resistance to plastic defor-
mation under an electrode force. In gen-
eral, any geometric conditions that are
beneficial to creating a close contact at the
184-s JUNE 2013, VOL. 92
A
B
Force (kN) Weld Spacing (mm)
1.8, 2.8 8.0, 15.0, 25.0
1.8, 2.8 8.0, 15.0, 25.0
1.8, 2.8 8.0
3.5, 5.0 8.0, 15.0, 25.0
3.0, 3.5, 4.3, 5.0 8.0, 15.0, 25.0
faying interface reduce the required weld
spacing. Therefore, thick sheets require
large weld spacing as they are difficult to
deform in order to create intimate contact
when an electrode force is exerted. The ef-
fect of sheet thickness in shunting is also
reflected in the relative lengths of the
shunting and welding paths for electric
current.
Because of the large number of vari-
ables, their intensive interactions, and
their (often unknown) temperature-
dependent properties, it is not viable to
quantify their effects on shunting. Experi-
mental studies are common in such inves-
tigations. In the work by Howe (Ref. 1),
several types of steels of various gauges
and surface (coating) conditions were
studied in order to understand the shunt-
ing effect in these materials. As the weld
spacing used in the tests was fairly large,
larger than those specified by the recom-
mendations of the International Institute
of Welding (Ref. 4), the conclusion was
that weld spacing was not a significant fac-
tor. Caution must be taken in practical
welding as the experiments in Ref. 1 were
not designed to determine the minimum
weld spacing.
This investigation explored, in steel
welding, the influence on shunting by a
number of variables, including material
(composition and strength), gauge, sur-
face condition (coating, use of resistive in-
sert), as well as welding parameters, most
of them were not included in the previous
studies. An experimental matrix was de-
signed in which several values were se-
lected for each of the variables. Their ef-
fects were then discussed based on the
experimental observations, and a statisti-
cal analysis was conducted to test the sig-
nificance of the combinations of the
variables.
Experimental Procedure
Based on the material availability,
three types of mild steels (MS) and two
dual-phase (DP) steels were selected in
this study. They are as listed in Table 1, and
the nominal chemical compositions of
these commercial sheet metals are listed
in Table 2.
Several surface conditions were cre-
ated to understand the effect of contact
resistance. Bare steel surface, zinc-
coated [hot-dipped galvanized (HDG)]
surface, and a plastic film insertion in
combination with either bare or coated
surfaces were created to represent the
normal surface conditions and extremely
low and high resistive surface conditions.
The plastic insertion used was a 0.05-
mm-thick PVC (polyvinyl chloride) film.
As it has a melting temperature range of
160° ~ 180°C, a large portion of the plas-
tic film at the faying interface disappears
through melting and vaporization at the
beginning of welding. As the purpose
was to explore the effect of contact re-
sistance on shunting, plastic films were
only used when making the shunted
welds, not the shunt welds.
The sheet materials were cut into 30- ×
155-mm coupons, and welds were made
according to Fig. 3, with preselected weld
spacing. Two toggle clamps, one on each
side of the electrodes, were used to hold a
sheet stack-up during welding. Two, three,
or four (shunted or test) welds, depending
on the weld spacing, were made using the
same schedule as the first (shunt) weld on
each specimen with fixed spacing. The
welding schedules were selected to make
ideal-sized shunt welds for the respective
sheets, based on experience and trials.
The shunting effect was assessed by
comparing the sizes of the shunt weld and
the shunted ones on the same coupon. Peel-
ing a weld coupon to measure the weld size
was considered first for convenience. How-
ever, it was proven impractical as the weld
spacing selected in this study was generally
much smaller than that in a normal welding
setting in order to obtain a significant shunt-
ing effect. A much more tedious approach
had to be adopted. The welds were evalu-
ated by longitudinal sectioning of the weld
Wang Supplement June 2013_Layout 1 5/15/13 1:22 PM Page 185

Table 4 — Welding Process Parameters, Measured Widths of the Shunt and Shunted Welds, Difference between the First Shunted and the Shunt
Welds (%), and Statistical T-Test Results

# Material Thickness Current Time Force Spacing Surface Shunt Shunted Shunted Shunted Shunted Change Standard t_Value p_Value
(mm) (kA) (ms) (kN) (mm) Condition Weld Weld_1 Weld_2 Weld_3 Weld_4 (%) Deviation
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)

1 MS 1.5 6 400 2.8 8 bare 4.4 4.0 4.1 4.1 4.2 9.1 0.0812 -7.348 0.00266
2 MS 1.5 6 400 2.8 8 plastic 4.2 3.6 3.7 4.0 3.9 14.3 0.1826 -4.382 0.01123
3 MS 1.5 6 400 1.8 8 plastic 4.0 3.6 3.7 3.7 3.8 10.0 0.0816 -7.348 0.00266
4 MS 1.5 6 400 1.8 8 bare 4.1 3.8 3.5 3.7 3.7 7.3 0.1258 -6.755 0.00358
5 MS 1.0 6 200 2.8 8 bare 4.4 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.2 9.1 0.0957 -5.745 0.00530
6 MS 1.0 6 200 2.8 8 plastic 4.3 3.7 3.6 3.8 3.9 14.0 0.1291 -8.521 0.00211
7 MS 1.0 6 200 1.8 8 bare 4.5 4.0 4.2 4.1 4.3 11.1 0.1291 -5.422 0.00632
8 MS 1.0 6 200 1.8 8 plastic 4.2 2.8 2.7 2.7 2.6 33.3 0.0816 -36.742 0
9 MS 2.0 6 500 2.8 8 bare 5.0 4.5 4.6 4.6 4.8 10.0 0.1258 -5.960 0.00481
10 MS 2.0 6 500 2.8 8 plastic 4.6 4.3 4.2 4.4 4.4 6.5 0.0957 -5.745 0.00530
11 MS 2.0 6 500 1.8 8 bare 4.9 4.6 4.7 4.9 4.8 6.1 0.1291 -2.324 0.02096
12 MS 2.0 6 500 1.8 8 plastic 4.8 4.5 4.7 4.7 4.8 6.3 0.1258 -1.987 0.07561
13 DP780 1.25 8 500 4.3 8 HDG 6.5 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.4 4.6 0.0957 -3.656 0.01790
14 DP780 1.25 8 500 3 8 HDG 6.7 6.5 6.5 6.7 6.7 3.0 0.1155 -1.732 0.09342
15 DP780 1.25 8 500 3.5 8 HDG 6.6 6.4 6.5 6.5 6.6 3.0 0.0816 -2.449 0.04709
16 DP780 1.25 8 500 3.5 8 HDG + plastic 6.5 6.2 6.3 6.2 6.4 4.6 0.0957 -4.700 0.00921
17 DP780 1.25 8 500 5 8 HDG 6.3 5.8 6.1 6.2 6.1 7.9 0.1732 -2.887 0.03390
18 DP780 1.25 8 500 5 8 HDG + plastic 6.1 6.0 6.0 6.1 6.1 1.6 0.0577 -1.732 0.09342
19 DP590 1.2 8 500 5 8 HDG 5.8 5.7 5.7 5.7 5.7 1.7 0 -3.077 0.02817
20 DP590 1.2 8 500 5 8 HDG + plastic 5.9 5.8 5.8 5.9 5.9 1.7 0.0577 -1.732 0.09342
21 DP590 1.2 8 500 3.5 8 HDG 6.6 6.4 6.4 6.5 6.5 3.0 0.0577 -5.196 0.00703
22 DP590 1.2 8 500 3.5 8 HDG + plastic 6.3 6.1 6.1 6.2 6.3 3.2 0.0957 -2.611 0.04221
23 DP590 1.2 8 500 5 15 HDG 5.6 4.7 5.1 5.2 16.1 0.2646 -3.928 0.03178

WELDING RESEARCH
24 DP590 1.2 8 500 5 15 HDG + plastic 5.8 5.4 5.5 5.5 6.9 0.0577 -10.0 0.00495
25 DP590 1.2 8 500 3.5 15 HDG 6.0 5.3 5.5 5.4 11.7 0.1 -10.392 0.00472
26 DP590 1.2 8 500 3.5 15 HDG + plastic 6.2 5.6 5.7 5.9 9.7 0.1528 -5.291 0.01721
27 DP780 1.25 8 500 3.5 15 HDG 6.3 5.7 5.8 5.8 9.5 0.0577 -16.0 0.00228
28 DP780 1.25 8 500 3.5 15 HDG + plastic 5.6 5.4 5.4 6.5 3.6 0.6351 0.455 0.65047
29 DP780 1.25 8 500 5 15 HDG 5.6 5.2 5.4 5.5 7.1 0.1528 -2.646 0.06358
30 DP780 1.25 8 500 5 15 HDG + plastic 5.8 5.4 5.5 5.5 6.9 0.0577 -10.0 0.00495
31 MS 1.0 6 200 2.8 15 bare 4.2 3.7 3.6 3.8 11.9 0.1 -8.660 0.00671
32 MS 1.0 6 200 2.8 15 plastic 4.3 3.4 3.8 3.7 20.9 0.2082 -5.547 0.01560
33 MS 1.0 6 200 1.8 15 bare 4.7 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.3 0 -2.887 0.05203
34 MS 1.0 6 200 1.8 15 plastic 4.5 4.0 4.1 4.0 11.1 0.0577 -14.0 0.00255
35 MS 1.5 6 400 1.8 15 bare 5.5 5.0 5.0 5.1 9.1 0.0577 -14.0 0.00255
36 MS 1.5 6 400 1.8 15 plastic 5.3 4.7 4.6 4.8 11.3 0.1 -10.392 0.00472
37 MS 1.5 6 400 2.8 15 bare 5.2 4.7 4.8 4.9 9.6 0.1 -6.928 0.01014
38 MS 1.5 6 400 2.8 15 plastic 5.1 4.7 4.8 4.7 7.8 0.0577 -11.0 0.00435
39 MS 1.5 6 500 2.8 15 bare 4.9 4.7 4.6 4.8 4.1 0.1 -3.464 0.04016
40 MS 1.5 6 500 2.8 15 plastic 5.0 4.4 4.6 4.7 12.0 0.1528 -4.914 0.01959
41 MS 1.5 6 500 1.8 15 bare 5.2 4.9 4.9 5.0 5.8 0.0577 -8.0 0.00766
42 MS 1.5 6 500 1.8 15 plastic 5.3 5.0 5.1 5.1 5.7 0.0577 -7.0 0.00992
43 DP590 1.2 8 500 5 25 HDG 6.1 5.7 6.0 6.6 0.2121 -1.667 0.17524
44 DP590 1.2 8 500 5 25 HDG + plastic 5.5 5.4 5.4 1.8 0 -1.010 0.34363
45 DP590 1.2 8 500 3.5 25 HDG 6.5 6.3 6.4 3.1 0.0707 -3.000 0.04855
46 DP590 1.2 8 500 3.5 25 HDG + plastic 6.3 6.1 6.3 3.2 0.1414 -1.000 0.34206
47 DP780 1.25 8 500 3.5 25 HDG 6.5 6.2 6.4 4.6 0.1414 -2.000 0.14834
48 DP780 1.25 8 500 3.5 25 HDG + plastic 6.0 6.0 6.0 0.0 0 1.00000
49 DP780 1.25 8 500 5 25 HDG 6.5 6.1 6.2 6.2 0.0707 -7.000 0.04732
50 DP780 1.25 8 500 5 25 HDG + plastic 6.5 6.0 6.3 7.7 0.2121 -2.333 0.13339
51 MS 1.0 6 200 2.8 25 bare 5.2 4.8 5.1 7.7 0.2121 -1.667 0.17524
52 MS 1.0 6 200 2.8 25 plastic 4.7 4.4 4.6 6.4 0.1414 -2.000 0.14834
53 MS 1.0 6 200 1.8 25 bare 5.0 4.6 4.9 8.0 0.2121 -1.667 0.17524
54 MS 1.0 6 200 1.8 25 plastic 4.5 4.1 4.3 8.9 0.1414 -3.000 0.04855
55 MS 1.5 6 400 1.8 25 bare 6.0 5.5 5.9 8.3 0.2828 -1.500 0.18944
56 MS 1.5 6 400 1.8 25 plastic 5.4 5.0 5.3 7.4 0.2121 -1.667 0.17524
57 MS 1.5 6 400 2.8 25 bare 5.6 5.2 5.4 7.1 0.1414 -3.000 0.04855
58 MS 1.5 6 400 2.8 25 plastic 5.1 4.7 5.0 7.8 0.2121 -1.667 0.17524
59 MS 1.5 6 500 2.8 25 bare 5.3 4.7 5.2 11.3 0.3536 -1.400 0.19796
60 MS 1.5 6 500 2.8 25 plastic 5.5 4.5 5.2 18.2 0.4950 -1.857 0.10289
61 MS 1.5 6 500 1.8 25 bare 5.3 5.0 4.7 5.7 0.2121 -3.000 0.04855
62 MS 1.5 6 500 1.8 25 plastic 5.5 4.3 3.0 21.8 0.9192 -2.846 0.11039

coupon, and metallurgical examination was
conducted to obtain the dimensions and
other characteristics of welds. Fixed weld
spacing was used in welding for conven-
ience. The welding schedules and weld
spacing for welding the sheets shown in
Table 1 are listed in Table 3.
Truncated flat-face Cu-Cr-Zr elec-
trodes with a 5-mm tip diameter were used
for welding the steels. The electrodes were
conditioned by making 50 welds before
being used in the experiments.
Results and Discussion
The welded coupons were sectioned
and specimens prepared following stan-
dard metallographic examination proce-
dures. The weld width was measured on
the sectioned specimens using an optical
microscope. The measurements are listed
in Table 4, and the effects of various vari-
ables are discussed in the following
sections.

WELDING JOURNAL 185-s

Wang Supplement June 2013_Layout 1 5/15/13 1:22 PM Page 186
Fig. 5 — Weld widths on the coupons in the order of welding sequence. In the group on the left are the
specimens with four shunted welds and 8-mm spacing; the center group has three shunted welds with 15-
mm spacing; and the one on the right has two shunted welds with 25-mm spacing.
5 mm
Fig. 6 — Typical welded specimens of 1.5-mm bare m ild steel sheets with 8-mm weld spacing. A — Welds
made with the original bare surfaces (weld specimen #1 in Table 4); B — those made using a plastic film
as insert (weld specimen #2 in Table 4). The welding sequence is from left to right.
WELDING RESEARCH
Effect of Shunting on Weld Geometry,
Microstructure, and HAZ
In addition to the weld size, the metal-
lographic cross-sectional views also re-
vealed other useful information. Figure
4A shows a shunt weld with four subse-
quently made shunted welds. The shunt-
ing effect is apparent, as there is a clear
difference in heat input, reflected by the
weld size, between the shunt and shunted
welds; and the coarser grains in the shunt
weld than in the shunted ones are the re-
sult of more concentrated heating when
making the shunt weld. In addition to the
smaller size of the shunted welds than of
the shunt weld, the differences in weld
height, weld shape, and shape of the heat-
affected zone (HAZ) are also visible from
the figure. The first shunted weld (the sec-
ond weld in the sequence) is smaller than
the shunt weld, and its shape is more oval
than that of the shunt weld, which is more
rectangular. The four shunted welds have
similar shapes, and the weld size slightly
increases along the welding sequence
away from the shunt weld. Another differ-
ence is the shape of the HAZ. Those of the
shunted welds have corners extending to
the edges of the contact areas between the
electrode and sheets, indicating concen-
trated heating at these locations. There-
fore, the shunted welds may experience a
different heating from the shunt weld, re-
sulting in asymmetrical HAZ due to
shunting.
Effect of Electrode Force in Shunting
The electrode force is responsible for
186-s JUNE 2013, VOL. 92
5 mm
creating sufficent electric contact at the
faying interface. Part of it is consumed to
deform the separated sheets and close the
gap, and the rest is used to create an area
of electric contact. Sheet separation or
distortion may result from fabrication or
from welding the shunt weld. The first
shunt weld generates the largest sheet sep-
aration because of the undiverted heating,
and subsequent shunted welds create
gradually reduced separation as the weld-
ing current is diverted due to shunting.
The effect of electrode force is evident in
Fig. 4. The coupons in Fig. 4A, B were cre-
ated under identical conditions except the
electrode force, which was 2.8 and 1.8 kN
for the specimens in Fig. 4A, B, respec-
tively. The first (shunt) weld in Fig. 4B has
a different size and shape from its coun-
terpart in Fig. 4A, possibly due to the
smaller contact area at the faying interface
created by the smaller electrode force
used when making this weld. The shunted
welds are drastically different from the
shunt weld and from each other in the se-
quence. The first shunted one is signifi-
cantly smaller than the shunt weld, appar-
ently due to the fact that a large portion of
the applied electric current was diverted
from the welding path to the shunting
path, and resulted from the large contact
resistance at the faying interface created
under a small electrode force. The subse-
quent shunted welds in the sequence get
larger, away from the shunt weld, due to
the smaller amount of the diverted electric
current from their respective shunt welds,
the immediate welds prior to the welds
being made. It is interesting to see that the
4th shunted weld (the 5th in the sequence)
is actually slightly smaller than the 3rd
shunted weld (the 4th in the sequence),
possibly due to a sufficiently large shunt-
ing effect from its shunt weld (4th in the
sequence), which grew to a certain size
larger than its shunt welds. The level of
electrode force, 1.8 kN, appears insuffi-
cient in deforming the separation of 2-mm
steel sheets created by the shunt weld.
Under the same electrode force, the
shunting effect may become smaller when
welding more compliant sheets. For in-
stance, there is a 5.8% drop in the size of
the first shunted weld when welding 1.5-
mm bare steels (Specimen #41 in Table 4),
while the drop is 6.1% when welding 2.0-
mm bare steels (Specimen #11 in Table 4).
Effect of Shunting on Weld Size
The shunting effect on weld size along
the welding sequence is summarized in
Fig. 5. The shunt and shunted welds on the
same weld coupons are plotted in three
groups according to the weld spacing, re-
gardless of the material and welding pa-
rameters. In each of the three groups, with
weld spacing of 8, 15, and 25 mm, the dual-
phase steels take the upper portion in the
figure because more heat was used when
making these welds, resulting in larger
welds than the mild steels. There is a di-
rect correspondence between the lines in
Fig. 5 and the specimens in Table 4. All
three groups of specimens show a size
drop in the first shunted welds compared
with their respective shunt welds. After
the initial drop, subsequent shunted welds
tend to recover from the shunting effect
with an increase in size. The concave
downward trend is observed in most cases
in these groups. The second shunted welds
are generally larger than the first shunted
ones, and the upward trend is of different
magnitudes depending mainly on the weld
spacing, in addition to other variables. On
each of the weld coupons with 8-mm spac-
ing, the shunted welds continue to grow in
size in the welding sequence. The growth
rate is slower when the spacing is in-
creased to 15 mm, and similar trend is ob-
served on the coupons with 25-mm spac-
ing. The increase in the shunted weld size
is the result of an increase in the resistance
in the shunting path from the preceding
shunt welds and an increase in the contact
area for the welds being made.
There are a few anomalies in Fig. 5. For
instance, a linear drop in weld size is ob-
served in one of the specimens with 25 mm
weld spacing (Specimen #62 in Table 4),
as a result of significant shunting effect
when welding 1.5-mm sheets with a small
electrode force of 1.8 kN and plastic film
insert at the interface.
In Table 4, the welds with an 8-mm
spacing are smaller on the MS coupons
than those on the DP steels, as less heat in
Wang Supplement June 2013_Layout 1 5/15/13 1:22 PM Page 187
5 mm 5 mm
5 mm 5 mm
5 mm 5 mm
Fig. 7 — Welded coupons of 1.0-mm bare mild steel sheets, without (left)
and with (right) the plastic insert of 8-, 15-, and 25-mm weld spacing.
welding was put into the mild steels than
into the DP steels, which require higher
welding current and longer welding time
to compensate for the zinc coating. In gen-
eral, welding HDG DP steels requires
higher electric current, longer welding
time, and larger electrode force as shown
in Table 3. Table 4 also shows that a larger
drop in weld size from the shunt weld to
the shunted ones occurs when a layer of
plastic film was inserted into the faying in-
terface on which the shunted welds were
made, compared with welding the same
materials under identical conditions with-
out a plastic insertion.
Effect of Shunting on Weld Appearance
Table 4 shows a significant reduction in
size in the shunted welds, compared to the
shunt weld, in almost all the specimens
made using all the three weld spacings.
The shunt and shunted welds on the same
weld coupon can also be distinguished by
their appearance. Figure 6 shows a series
of welds made on 1.5-mm bare mild steel
sheets with a very tight spacing: 8 mm from
center to center. As a result, the impres-
sions of the neighboring welds overlap. By
observing only the indentation marks of
the welds on the coupons in the figure, one
may conclude that the first weld (the shunt
weld) has the smallest weld nugget as its
impression mark is smaller than those of
the shunted ones. This was proven untrue
as the metallographic examination of
these specimens reveals the opposite. The
weld widths for the specimens in Fig. 6, as
listed in Table 4, have a reduction of more
than 10% from the shunt weld to the first
shunted one, in both cases with the origi-
nal bare surface and the plastic insert.
Such an observation, i.e., the welds having
large impression marks but smaller sizes
has been obtained in other specimens as
5 mm
5 mm
5 mm
Fig. 8 — Welded coupons of 1.2-mm HDG steel sheets, without (left) and
with (right) the plastic insert of 8-, 15-, and 25-mm weld spacing.
well. Therefore, it is important to recog-
nize that in the case of multiple welding, it
may be misleading to judge the weld qual-
ity by visual inspection of the weld inden-
tation alone. The welds in Fig. 6 have
slightly skewed indentation marks, result-
ing from angular misalignment of the elec-
trode tips.
In addition to the sizes of the impres-
sion marks, another difference in appear-
ance can be observed in the distinct burn-
ing marks on the surfaces between the
shunt and shunted welds, as seen in Fig. 6,
with and without the plastic insert. The
shunted welds have darker and larger burn
marks than the shunt weld; even their sizes
(widths) are smaller. As a matter of fact,
this was observed on all the welded
coupons, although some of them are not
as obvious as others. Several representa-
tive welded coupons made on the mild
steels with various spacings are shown in
Fig. 7. With 8-mm spacing, the shunted
welds have significantly wider and darker
burn marks. The differences become less
obvious as the weld spacing get larger to
15 mm and then 25 mm with original
(bare) faying interfaces. The use of plastic
inserts at the faying interfaces when mak-
ing shunted welds appears to amplify the
difference in burn marks. The appearance
clearly distinguishes the shunt weld from
the shunted ones even for those of 15- and
25-mm spacings when the shunted welds
were made using plastic inserts. When
welding zinc-coated steels, as shown in
Fig. 8 for 1.2-mm DP590 steels, the welds
appear to be very similar judging from the
weld marks, even for the 8-mm spaced
weld coupons.
The difference in weld marks between
the shunt and shunted welds, when weld-
ing the uncoated mild steels, can be at-
tributed to the role played by the contact
resistance at the electrode-sheet inter-
5 mm
5 mm
5 mm
faces. A rise in the contact resistance at
the faying interface, Rcw, increases the
shunting current IS and reduces the weld-
WELDING RESEARCH
ing current IW, according to Fig. 2. It is rea-
sonable to assume that the contact resist-
ance at the electrode-sheet interface is
identical when making the shunt weld and
the shunted weld, as shown in Fig. 2 as Rc.
Assume that the total resistance in the sec-
ondary loop, excluding Rc, is RT when
making a shunted weld, and RT´ when
making the shunt weld. The existence of
the shunting path lowers the resistance in
the weld stack-up, i.e., RT´ > RT. There-
fore, the proportion of heating, in terms of
heating rate, resulted from joule heating
at the electrode-sheet interface to the en-
tire secondary loop, is not the same when
making the shunt weld and the shunted
weld, i.e.,
I 2R I 2R
C < C
I 2⎛
⎜ RC + RT'
⎝
⎞
⎟
⎠
I 2
(R
C
+R
T )
This means the heating at the elec-
trode-sheet interface is faster, relative to
the rest of the secondary loop, when mak-
ing a shunted weld than when making a
shunt weld. Therefore, the temperature at
this interface rises faster relative to that at
the faying interface than in making the
shunt weld. As a result, the resistance at
the electrode-sheet interface increases at
a faster pace that in turn produces more
heat at this interface than at the faying in-
terface, compared with the heating when
making the shunt weld. The larger amount
of heat generated at the electrode-sheet
interface in a shunted weld than in a shunt
weld is responsible for the larger and/or
darker burn marks on the shunted welds.
There is little difference in the indentation
WELDING JOURNAL 187-s
Wang Supplement June 2013_Layout 1 5/15/13 1:22 PM Page 188
marks between the shunt and shunted
welds when welding coated DP steels, as
seen in Fig. 8. This could be attributed to
the fact that the molten zinc from the coat-
ing forms a conducting ring at the faying
interface from the beginning of welding,
which smooths out the difference between
RT´ and RT. The molten zinc at the elec-
trode-sheet interface also results in low
contact resistance, and less heat is gener-
ated at this location.
Effect of Weld Spacing on Shunting
Shunting is affected by many factors,
and they interact with each in shunting.
Therefore, the effect of one factor should
be discussed with the consideration of
other factors. Some of the influential fac-
tors are analyzed together in the follow-
ing, considering the interactions among
the factors. As shunting is almost always
significant when welding with 8- or 15-mm
spacing, the roles of process variables de-
pend largely on the weld spacing. There-
fore, the influence of various variables on
WELDING RESEARCH
shunting is discussed in the categories of
weld spacing.
1. Mild steels with 8-mm weld spacing.
This weld spacing represents an extreme
of small weld spacing that may make the
process parameters affect the welding and
shunting processes in a different way from
welding with larger weld spacing.
For the bare mild steels, the average
changes in weld size depend on the sheet
thickness. They are 10.1, 8.2, and 8.1% for
steels of 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 mm, respectively,
in thickness. The effect of sheet thickness
on shunting comes from two parts: the
lengths of the shunting and welding paths,
and the resistance to bending under an
electrode force that affects the contact re-
sistance at the faying interface. These fac-
tors interact with others such as weld spac-
ing in affecting shunting.
With the plastic insertion when making
the shunted welds, the drop in weld size is
more dramatic. An average of 23.7, 12.15,
and 6.4% for the 1.0-, 1.5-, and 2.0-mm
sheets, respectively, was calculated using
the data in Table 4. The electrode force
also appears to be influential. A sharp in-
crease in the shunting effect, from a 14%
drop to a 33% drop in weld size is ob-
served in the 1.0-mm sheets, which is a far
larger change than welding without the
plastic insert. Similar to welding bare MS
steels, there is a decrease in shunting ef-
fect when increasing the electrode force
on the 1.5- and 2.0-mm sheets with the
plastic insert. Therefore, the shunting ef-
fect is, in general, inversely proportional
to the sheet thickness, and the plastic in-
sertion at the faying interface amplifies
such an effect.
The increase in shunting with a rising
electrode force on the 1.0-mm sheets, and
188-s JUNE 2013, VOL. 92
a decrease when welding 1.5- and 2.0-mm
sheets clearly indicate an interaction be-
tween the electrode force and sheet thick-
ness. Increasing the electrode force would
normally reduce the contact resistance at
the faying interface along the welding path
and therefore, reduces shunting. When
welding 1.0-mm sheets, however, the
sheets can be easily deformed and the gap
at the faying interface between the welds
closed, as thin sheets have less resistance
to deformation, resulting in increased
shunting.
The 8.0-mm weld spacing used in weld-
ing clearly dictates the role the electrode
force plays in shunting. The 8.0-mm space
between the shunt and shunted welds cre-
ates a distance less than 4.0 mm between
the edges of the welds. The gap along such
a small distance at the faying interface can
be easily closed on the 1-mm stack-ups
under an electrode force. A large elec-
trode force is more effective than a small
one in closing this gap in thin sheets, re-
sulting in a low electrical resistance along
the shunting path and a large shunting ef-
fect. Closing of such a gap is more difficult
to achieve when the stiffness of the sheets,
proportional to the sheet thickness, is
large and, therefore, increasing the elec-
trode force produces decreased shunting
in 1.5- and 2.0-mm sheets.
2. 1.25-mm HDG DP780 steel sheets
with 8.0-mm weld spacing. Without the
plastic insert, the HDG surfaces appear to
make the shunting effect more sensitive to
the electrode force. When the electrode
force is increased from 3.0 to 3.5 kN, 4.3
kN and then 5.0 kN, the decrease in weld
size due to shunting is 3.0, 3.0, 4.6, and
7.9%, respectively. That is, a large elec-
trode force produces more shunting. This
is similar to what had happened in the MS
as discussed previously, i.e., a large elec-
trode force actually helps close the gap be-
tween the shunt and shunted welds and el-
evate the shunting effect when the weld
spacing is small. The molten zinc at the
faying interface easily fills the gap that re-
duces the electrical resistance along the
shunting path.
3. 1.2-mm HDG DP590 steel sheets
with 8-mm weld spacing. Increasing the
electrode force slightly reduces shunting
when welding DP590 sheets with both
zinc-coated only and zinc-coated plus
plastic insert surfaces. This is the result of
an interaction among weld spacing, coat-
ing, and electrode force. The small weld
spacing and the zinc coating together ele-
vate the shunting effect, but the lower
yield strength (compared to the DP780
steels) that makes deforming the sheets
easier under an electrode force, produces
less shunting under a large electrode
force. The opposite effects of electrode
force on shunting when welding with
DP780 and DP590 steels could be attrib-
uted to the difference in yield strength
and, therefore, the different easiness of
collapsing the contact area and lowering
the contact resistance at the faying
interface.
4. Welding with 15-mm weld spacing.
The effect of electrode force is not consis-
tent as observed when welding the MS and
DP steels, with or without the plastic in-
sert. This could be because a 15-mm space
approaches critical weld spacing for some
of the sheets at which the shunting is not
significant and, therefore, the influence of
the process variables appears to be
random.
5. When welding 1.0-mm MS sheets
with a weld spacing of 25 mm, decreased
shunting is observed with an increased
electrode force for both bare and plastic
film-inserted faying interfaces, as the elec-
trode force is responsible for reducing the
contact resistance along the welding path.
With 25-mm spacing, the gap between the
welds is not easily closed, which is differ-
ent from what was observed in welding
with 8- and 15-mm weld spacings. A simi-
lar observation is made on 1.5-mm MS
sheets. When welding 1.2-mm DP590 and
1.25-mm DP780 sheets with a 25-mm weld
spacing, increasing the electrode force
produces an inconsistent effect in HDG
and HDG + plastic insert surfaces. More
experiments are needed to draw conclu-
sions in such cases.
Statistical Analysis of Various Influential
Factors
An analysis was performed to deter-
mine if, under various combinations of
material and process parameters, the
shunting effect is truly significant. A stan-
dard statistical procedure was employed
to test the statistical significance of the dif-
ferences between the shunt and shunted
welds. An appropriate testing statistic in
this case is a t-value (Ref. 5), as the stan-
dard deviations of the weld size popula-
tions are unknown. It can be calculated
using the following formula
d −d
t= 0
s/ n
-
where d0 is the width of the shunt weld, d
is the mean value of the n shunted weld
widths, and s is the standard deviation of
these welds. The t-values were compared
with the critical values of the t-distribu-
tion, and corresponding p-values were
also calculated. They are as listed in Table
4. For the specimens made using 8-mm
weld spacing, 18 out of 22 of them have a
p-value below, and most of them far
below, 0.05; the remaining 4 of them have
p-values between 0.07 and 0.09. There-
fore, it is reasonable to conclude that 8-
Wang Supplement June 2013_Layout 1 5/15/13 1:22 PM Page 189

mm weld spacing results in significant
shunting for the materials tested. When
the weld spacing is increased to 15 mm, the
p-values for 18 out of 20 specimens are far
below 0.05, and for the rest, one is 0.06 and
another is apparently an outlier with a p-
value of 0.65. Therefore, the shunting ef-
fect is significant when the weld spacing is
15 mm. When the weld spacing is further
increased to 25 mm, only 5 out of 20 spec-
imens have p-values just below 0.05. The
p-values of the others are apparently high,
meaning that the shunted welds are statis-
tically not different from their shunt
welds. This analysis indicates that the crit-
ical weld spacing for these materials lies
between 15 and 25 mm.
The t-testing results in Table 4 demon-
strate that the influence of the shunt welds
on the subsequent shunted welds depends
on the size of weld spacing. Using identi-
cal welding schedules, the shunted welds
made on a weld coupon are significantly
smaller than their shunt weld when weld-
ing with narrow weld spacing. Such a drop
in weld size from the shunt weld to the (es-
ances at the faying interface. ANOVA ap-
pears to be inadequate in this situation to
analyze the influence of other factors.
The results obtained in this experi-
mental investigation prove that shunting
in resistance welding is a complex process,
with multiple influencing factors and
strong interactions among these factors.
Conclusions
In this experimental study, the effects
of various factors such as material, surface
condition, welding schedule, and other
process variables were investigated on sev-
eral typical MS and DP steel sheets. The
findings on shunting in resistance spot
welding can be summarized as follows:
1. Weld spacing is the most influential
factor in shunting, and increasing weld
spacing is the most efficient means of
avoiding shunting;
2. As it determines the proportion of
shunting current, the contact resistance
has a significant effect on shunting. In gen-
eral, large contact resistance, created by
5. Although generally smaller in size,
shunted welds may have larger/darker
electrode impressions than their respec-
tive shunt welds. This should be recog-
nized in visual inspection of weld quality.
This study shows that shunting is af-
fected by almost all of the process param-
eters involved in resistance spot welding.
Because of the difficulties in systemati-
cally/simultaneously studying many fac-
tors, shunting experiments are often de-
signed to understand the influence of only
a few parameters, with others fixed. Cau-
tion must be taken when drawing conclu-
sions from such experiments, the experi-
mental conditions must be clearly stated,
and the limitation of applications well
understood.
Acknowledgments
One of the authors, B. Wang, is grate-
ful for the financial support provided by
the Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science
Foundation of P.R. China (Project No.
LQ12E05006).

pecially the first) shunted ones diminishes
when the weld spacing is sufficiently large.
Considering the percent decrease in weld
size from the shunt weld to the first
shunted weld, shown in column 14 of Table
4, the effects of various process parame-
ters can be estimated. Among the vari-
ables involved, the surface condition ap-
pears to play a major role in shunting. As
a matter of fact, it overshadowed the in-
fluence of all other factors. When an
ANOVA (analysis of variance, Ref. 5) was
conducted, all factors, except the surface
condition, appeared to be insignificant.
This clearly is not true, and it is the result
of the overwhelming significance of the
surface condition, as the plastic insert
used in the experiments and the pure zinc
-coated surfaces represent two extremes
of excessively high and low contact resist-
highly resistive surface conditions or low
electrode forces promotes shunting;
3. The chemistry, thickness, and me-
chanical strength of the workpiece mate-
rial play an important role in shunting.
There is a strong interaction between
these material parameters and other
process variables;
4. Shunting is clearly affected by welding
parameters. The electric current and weld-
ing time were selected mainly for making
sizable welds in this study, not for under-
standing their effects. Therefore, it is inap-
propriate to draw conclusions on these two
parameters, although the experimental re-
sults have shown their influence on shunt-
ing. On the other hand, shunting is clearly a
function of electrode force, often under the
influence of other process parameters;
WELDING RESEARCH
References
1. Howe, P. 1994. Spot weld spacing effect
on weld button size. Sheet Metal Welding Con-
ference VI, Paper C03. AWS Detroit Section.
2. Zhang, H., and Senkara, J. 2012. Resist-
ance Welding: Fundamentals and Applications.
CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group, 2nd edi-
tion, Boca Raton, London, New York.
3. Tumuluru, M. D., Zhang, H., and Matte-
son, R. 2011. Procedure development and prac-
tice considerations for resistance welding. ASM
Handbook (Volume 6) on Welding. Materials
Park, Ohio: ASM International.
4. International Institute of Welding. Proce-
dure for spot welding of uncoated and coated
low carbon and high strength steels, draft. Doc-
ument No. III-1005-93, Section 6.
5. Walpole, R. E., Myers, R. H., Myers, S. L.,
and Ye, K. 2011. Probability & Statistics for En-
gineers & Scientists, 9th edition, Prentice Hall.

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WELDING JOURNAL 189-s

Li Supplement June 2013_Layout 1 5/15/13 10:58 AM Page 190

Monitoring and Control of Penetration in

GTAW and Pipe Welding
Weld pool surface development is analyzed from arc voltage measurements and
used to monitor and control weld joint penetration in a case study on orbital and
manual pipe welding at the 5G fixed position

BY X. R. LI, Z. SHAO, Y. M. ZHANG, AND L. KVIDAHL

automatically monitor the penetration

ABSTRACT depth (how far the liquid metal penetrates
along the thickness of the base metal) or
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is the most widely used arc welding process for join- the degree of complete joint penetration as
ing of metals in critical applications such as welding of pipes that are subject to high tem- can a skilled welder.
perature and pressure. For such applications, assurance of weld joint penetration is the The difficulty is primarily due to the in-
most critical requirement. Unfortunately, industry lacks a simple yet effective approach accessibility of the liquid metal bottom sur-
to monitor and control weld joint penetration. Existing automated orbital welding sys- face underneath the weld pool and the ex-
tems use welding parameters preprogrammed per welding position and heavily rely on treme arc brightness. Various methods
WELDING RESEARCH

accurate joint preparation and specific groove shape, both of which are costly and time have been studied, including pool oscilla-
consuming, to produce the required weld joint penetration. Highly skilled pipe welders tion, ultrasound, infrared sensor, etc. The
often have to be employed to manually weld pipes to ensure the weld joint penetration. pioneering work in pool oscillation was
In this paper, a novel method is proposed to determine the weld joint penetration from conducted by Kotecki (Ref. 2), Richardson
arc voltage measurements. This method is based on an observation of the authors on the (Ref. 3), Hardt (Ref. 4), and their cowork-
dynamic development of the weld pool surface during the penetrating process in GTAW; ers. Den Ouden found an abrupt change in
the weld pool surface tends to first expand toward the electrode and then be pushed away the oscillation frequency of the pool during
from the electrode after complete penetration is established. The development of the arc the transition from partial to complete pen-
voltage that reflects the change in the arc length and weld pool surface can thus be ana- etration (Refs. 5, 6). At Georgia Institute of
lyzed to determine the weld joint penetration. A control algorithm has been accordingly Technology, Ume leads the development of
designed and implemented to monitor and control weld joint penetration in pipe weld- noncontact ultrasonic penetration sensors
ing using a square butt joint at the 5G fixed position. Smooth and consistent weld beads based on laser-phased array techniques
were made with guaranteed/feedback-controlled complete joint penetration for both au- (Refs. 7, 8). Because the temperature dis-
tomated orbital welding and manual welding by an electrical engineer as a novice welder. tribution in the weld zone contains abun-
dant information about the welding
process, infrared sensing of welding
Introduction horizontal, vertical, and overhead welding processes has been explored by Chin at
positions. Mechanized/automated systems Auburn University (Refs. 9–12). The pene-
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) has rely on precision control of joint fitup, tration depth has been correlated with the
become an indispensable tool for many in- welding conditions, and tedious program- infrared characteristics of the infrared
dustries because of the high-quality welds ming of welding parameters to produce re- image. At MIT, Hardt used an infrared
produced and low equipment costs (Ref. 1). peatable results. However, precision con- camera to view the temperature field from
Quality welds can be made using the trol of joints and welding conditions is the backside (Ref. 13). The penetration
GTAW process at almost all welding posi- costly and not always guaranteed. To date, depth was precisely estimated from the
tions. Therefore, GTAW is the most widely there are no satisfactory sensors/ways that measured temperature distribution and
used process for welding of pipes.that are can be conveniently carried by the torch to then controlled (Ref. 14). Because of the
often subject to severe service conditions. difficulty of the problem and the urgency
Assurance of weld quality is critical in such for a solution, researchers around the world
applications, but it presents technological KEYWORDS have continued the explorations (Refs.
challenges, especially for welding at the 5G 15–19).
fixed position, where the pipe is fixed and Joint Penetration During his PhD studies at the Harbin
the welding torch travels around the cir- Weld Penetration Institute of Technology, the correspon-
cumference of the pipe joint experiencing Arc Voltage ding author, YuMing Zhang, found that
Arc Signal the average sag depression of the solidi-
Monitoring fied weld bead has a good linear correla-
X. R. LI and Z. SHAO are with Adaptive Intelli-
Control tion with the backside bead width (Refs.
gent Systems LLC, Lexington, Ky. Y. M. ZHANG
(ymzhang@aiswelding.com, ymzhang@engr. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding 20, 21). A structured-light vision sensor
uky.edu) is with Adaptive Intelligent Systems (GTAW) and image processing algorithm were thus
LLC and the University of Kentucky, Dept. of Pulsed GTAW developed to measure the sag geometry in
Electrical and Computer Engineering and Insti- Pulsed Current GTAW. By modeling the arc welding
tute for Sustainable Manufacturing, Lexington, process, an adaptive control system has
Pipe
Ky. L. KVIDAHL is with Huntington Ingalls In- been completed to achieve the desired
dustries, Pascagoula, Miss.

190-s JUNE 2013, VOL. 92

Li Supplement June 2013_Layout 1 5/15/13 10:58 AM Page 191
Fig. 1 — Block diagram of the GTAW process and control system.
backside bead width (Ref. 22). Recently,
the University of Kentucky developed an
innovative method to measure the 3D
geometry of the weld pool surface for both
GTAW and gas metal arc welding
(GMAW) (Refs. 22, 23). It projects a low-
power laser pattern onto the mirror/spec-
ular surface of the weld pool. The laser
pattern reflected from the weld pool sur-
face remains the laser intensity when trav-
eling from the arc and weld pool, but the
arc radiation loses its intensity. The re-
flected laser and arc radiation can thus be
intercepted and imaged on the intercep-
tion plane. Because the arc radiation re-
duces as the travel distance increases, the
reflected laser pattern (signal) can be
clearly distinguished from the arc radia-
tion (background). The 3D weld pool sur-
face that reflects the laser pattern can then
be computed from the measured laser re-
flection pattern and its known incident
pattern based on the law of reflection. A
vision system may thus be developed to
emulate a skilled welder to observe and
control the weld joint penetration. How-
ever, easily measurable arc signals, arc
voltage, and arc current, may be more
durable and cost effective and thus more
suitable for industrial applications.
The possible relationship between weld
joint penetration and arc signals has been
extensively studied at the University of Ken-
tucky Welding Research Lab (Refs. 24–28).
Successful monitoring and control over the
weld joint penetration have been achieved
for the plasma arc welding (PAW) process.
Since PAW is an extension of the GTAW
process with a constrained arc for higher en-
ergy and heat density, it is ideal if the
method for PAW process control can be ex-
tended to GTAW. Unfortunately, the au-
thors found that for the unconstrained free
arc in GTAW, the arc voltage does not in-
crease as the weld penetration increases as
in PAW and as the authors originally ex-
pected. Instead, the arc voltage first de-
creases as the weld penetration increases. It
increases only after complete joint penetra-
tion is sufficiently established. In this paper,
an innovative arc signal-based weld pene-
Fig. 2 — Illustration of dynamic development of weld pool in GTAW.
Table 1 — Welding Parameters for Pulsing
GTAW Experiments
Parameter Value Unit
Base time 1000 ms
Base current 20 A
Peak time 1200 ms
Peak current 110 A
Travel speed 2.0 mm/s
Shielding gas Ar N/A
Shielding gas flow rate 15 ft3/h
Standoff distance 3.0 mm
tration monitoring and control method is
proposed based on this characteristic of the
arc voltage change as the weld pool surface
develops in GTAW and is used to solve the
weld penetration control issue in GTAW
pipe welding.
Experimental System Setup
The system that is demonstrated
through the block diagram in Fig. 1 is used
to monitor and control the weld penetra-
tion during gas tungsten arc (GTA) pipe
welding. It consists of the welding process
and a control system.
The core of the control system is the
embedded controller powered by a
BL5S220 single-board computer (SBC)
from Digi International. The SBC is capa-
ble of executing the monitoring and con-
trol algorithm — to be proposed and de-
tailed later — stored in its flash memory.
A set of isolation amplifiers from
Dataforth are used to isolate the low-
voltage control circuit from the welding
process. The isolation amplifier modules
also provide hardware low-pass filtering to
the welding signals from/to the welding
process. The arc voltage signal is meas-
ured from the welding process, while the
welding current control command signal is
sent back to the welding process by the
control system. A Miller Dynasty® 350
welding power supply is used as a current
source. An HW-20 GTAW torch from
ESAB is mounted on an orbital pipe weld-
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 3 — Dynamic development of weld pool in
GTAW.
ing platform to conduct automatic pipe
welding, or is held by welders for manual
operations. Pure argon is used for shield-
ing and purging.
Dynamic Development of Weld
Pool Surface
In keyhole PAW, as more metal is
melted, the depth of the partial keyhole in-
creases such that the arc length and arc
voltage increase (Ref. 24). Unfortunately,
in GTAW, such positive correlation be-
tween the arc voltage and weld penetra-
tion is not observed as the authors origi-
nally expected. Analysis suggests that the
free arc in GTAW does not severely de-
form the weld pool surface to form a sig-
nificant cavity. Instead, as more metal is
melted, the increase in the volume ele-
vates the weld pool surface toward the
electrode such that the arc length and arc
voltage are decreased. The authors thus
propose an assumption on the dynamic
development of the weld pool and weld
pool surface as illustrated in Fig. 2 for
GTAW on a square butt joint with zero
root opening.
The dynamic development of the weld
WELDING JOURNAL 191-s
Li Supplement June 2013_Layout 1 5/15/13 10:58 AM Page 192
Fig. 4 — Measured arc voltage signal during a typical peak period.
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 6 — Monitoring and control algorithm flow chart.
pool in GTAW is divided into two stages by
the voltage/arc length minimum that is
caused by the establishment of complete
joint penetration. In Stage 1, the increased
volume due to metal melting reduces the
distance from the weld pool surface to the
electrode. In Stage 2, the arc pushes the liq-
uid metal through the bottom surface, and
the ability of the arc to push increases as the
bottom width of the weld pool increases.
More specifically, when the base metal
is melted, its volume increases due to ther-
mal expansion. The increased volume Δv
increases as the melted metal volume v in-
creases. Before the bottom surface of the
base metal is melted, i.e., before complete
joint penetration is established, the in-
creased volume Δv is placed as an eleva-
192-s JUNE 2013, VOL. 92
Fig. 5 — Illustration of pulsing GTAW closed-loop control algorithm.
tion of weld pool sur- decrease as vfv increases. After complete
face above the original joint penetration is established, ebv > 0
base metal surface. The such that efv < Δv. When d(Δv)/dt >
elevation of the front d(ebv)/dt, efv still increases as Δv increases
weld pool (volume be- but at a reduced rate. The arc voltage will
yond the original sur- thus reduce at a reduced rate. However, as
face), efv, equals Δv and the penetration increases such that the
thus increases as the width of the bottom weld pool surface in-
melted metal increases creases, d(Δv)/dt < d(ebv)/dt may occur. As
and the weld penetra- a result, efv will reduce instead. Because
tion depth increases. the capability of the arc to push the liquid
Because of the free arc metal to produce ebv increases with the
in GTAW, the arc penetration, efv will reduce at an increased
length and arc voltage rate as the penetration increases.
are expected to de- This discussion and analysis of the dy-
crease. This is different namic development of the weld pool is il-
from keyhole PAW lustrated using Fig. 3. As can be seen, com-
where a significant cav- plete joint penetration is established first
ity (partial keyhole ex- and the minimum arc length is realized
ists) such that the arc when the change from d(Δv)/dt > d(ebv)/dt
length increases as the to d(Δv)/dt < d(ebv)/dt occurs. The authors
cavity depth increases would argue that the arc length minimum
and the bottom of the is more significant than the establishment
cavity is close to the of complete penetration. This is because,
bottom of the liquid for any practical application, a perfect
metal pool. However, alignment of the arc center with the weld
after the complete joint penetration is es- joint and a perfect symmetry of the weld
tablished, the arc pushes part of the liquid pool are not realistic. Without an ade-
metal beyond the original bottom surface quate bead width on the bottom surface,
of the base metal to form an elevation of the two members of the base metal would
the bottom weld pool surface. Denote the not be fully joined through their entire in-
volume of this part of the liquid metal as terface. The authors would also argue that
ebe. As a result, efv = Δv – ebv. Before com- the penetration achieved when reaching
lete joint penetration is established, ebv = the arc length minimum should not be ex-
0. Hence, this equation also holds before cessive. In fact, d(ebv)/dt is controlled by
complete joint penetration is established. the width of the bottom weld pool surface.
Before complete joint penetration is The arc length minimum thus must occur
established, efv = Δv. Since Δv increases as before the width of the bottom weld pool
penetration increases, efv also increases surface becomes excessive such that more
with the penetration. Because the arc metal moves to the bottom. As a result, the
length is defined approximately as the av- arc length minimum should be a simple yet
erage length from the electrode to the effective indicator for adequate complete
weld pool surface in the arc region, the arc penetration. If the degree of complete
length and its measurement (arc voltage) joint penetration needs to increase or re-
Li Supplement June 2013_Layout 1 5/15/13 10:58 AM Page 193

A B

Fig. 7 — Weld pool surface development at the bottom position without the vertex under insufficient arc pressure. A — Continuous increase in the elevation of
the front weld pool surface; B — oscillation in the elevation of the front weld pool surface.

Table 2 — Welding Parameters for Feedback-

Controlled Process

Parameter Value Unit

Base period 1000 ms A C E

Base welding current 20 A
Minimum peak period 100 ms

Maximum peak period 1500 ms
Peak welding current 130 A
PE_criterion 0.0 V/(100 ms)
Second peak period 200 ms
Second peak current 100 A
Travel speed 2.0 mm/s
Standoff distance 3.0 mm
Shielding gas Argon N/A
Shielding gas flow rate 15 ft3/h
Welding torch ESAB HW-20
duce, the slope of the arc voltage can be
analyzed.
In GTAW, the arc voltage can be consid-
ered proportional to the arc length with cer-
tain accuracy and linearity. Assume the
GTAW torch has a constant standoff dis-
tance from the pipe surface, which is com-
mon in welding practice. By measuring the
arc voltage signal, the arc length, or distance
from the tungsten electrode to the weld
pool surface, can be determined with cer-
tain accuracy. The arc length minimum can
thus be detected as the voltage minimum.
A series of pulsing GTAW experiments
was designed to verify the above observa-
tions, analyses, and assumptions on the
dynamic development of the weld pool.
The welding current was switching be-
tween lower level base period (20~40 A)
and higher level peak period (90~140 A).
To better monitor the weld pool, the
GTAW torch moved for a constant small
distance during each base period, typically
1~2 mm, and then stopped during the
next peak period to gain penetration.
Schedule 10 AISI 304 stainless steel pipes
with 3.5-in. OD (outer diameter) were
used as base metal. Two pieces of pipes
were butt jointed with zero nominal root
opening. A tentative set of welding pa-
rameters is listed in Table 1.
During the experiments, a data acqui-
B D
Fig. 8 — Full position welding results for both sides of the pipe. A — Outer side on top position; B —
inner side on top position; C — outer side on side position; D; — inner side on side position; E —
outer side on bottom position; F — inner side on bottom position.
sition system measured the welding sig-
nals (e.g., arc voltage, welding current) at
a sampling rate of 1 kHz. A typical peak
period is illustrated in Fig. 4.
All stages are marked in Fig. 4. It can
be observed that the arc voltage is de-
creasing continuously during stage 1,
which indicates the increase in the front
weld pool elevation above the pipe sur-
face. The decrease in the arc voltage then
slows down and finally reaches the voltage
minimum. At this point, the arc voltage
reaches the lowest level during the entire
peak period. It indicates that the front
weld pool has achieved its largest eleva-
tion. At the same time, the bottom side of
the pipe joint must have been adequately
melted. If the peak current continues to be
applied, the volume of molten base metal
pushed beyond the bottom surface of the
pipe may become more than necessary. As
expected for Stage 2, the arc voltage starts
to increase, which means the weld pool
surface starts to drop down and adequate
complete joint penetration is said to be
achieved.
The arc voltage signal in the peak pe-
riod (except for the sharp spike at the be-
ginning) is curve fitted. This signal can be
considered to follow a second order
parabola, as indicated in Fig. 3. The vertex
of the parabola indicates the voltage min-
imum. Therefore, an algorithm can be
proposed to continuously measure arc
WELDING RESEARCH
F
voltage signal and find the vertex. By
switching the current from the peak level
to the base level at the vertex, adequate
complete penetration can be produced as
a result of a feedback control.
Monitoring and Control
Algorithm
An algorithm was proposed to detect
the vertex of arc voltage signal during each
peak period in real time and control the
process accordingly. This monitoring and
control algorithm was also optimized to
reduce the computation load to a level ap-
propriate to a real-time implementation in
the embedded control system used.
The monitoring and control algorithm
includes arc voltage signal sampling and de-
cision making. Based on observation of the
fluctuation of the arc voltage measure-
ments, the authors propose 100 ms as the
control period. For the GTAW process, 100
ms is considered an acceptable resolution to
switch the current level to control the de-
gree of weld penetration. During each con-
trol/decision period, the arc voltage is sam-
pled 100 times (one for each millisecond),
and the average is computed to represent
the arc voltage signal during the control pe-
riod. Then, the moving average method was
used to conduct the curve fitting using aver-
age values in consecutive control periods.
The vertex of the fitted parabola can then

WELDING JOURNAL 193-s

Li Supplement June 2013_Layout 1 5/15/13 10:58 AM Page 194

A B

Fig. 9 — Manual welding results for both sides of pipe. A — Front side of the weld; B — back side of the weld.

⎡ ⎤ ⎡y ⎤
⎢1 t t2 ⎥ ⎡a ⎤
Table 3 — Measurements of Weld Bead Width for Three Positions 1 1 ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0⎥ ⎢y ⎥
1 t t2 ⎥
Φ =⎢ 2 2 , θ= ⎢a ⎥ , Y = ⎢ 2 ⎥ (3)
Welding Position Top Side Bottom ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 1⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢   ⎥ ⎢a ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
Average OD bead width (mm) 9 8 7 ⎢1 2 ⎥ ⎣ 2⎦
⎣ t t ⎦ ⎢⎣ y N ⎥⎦
Average ID bead width (mm) 8 7 6 N N

Using the least square algorithm (Ref.

be calculated from the equation of the fit- changed as zero. 29), the coefficient of Model 1 can be es-
ted curve. Once the vertex is reached, the al- Step f: If PE_break = 0, it means the timated by
gorithm switches the current to the base vertex is not reached until the maximum
level to start the next pulse. Figure 5 illus- peak period, then the algorithm will jump ⎛ ⎞−1
θ̂ = ⎜ΦT × Φ ⎟ × ΦT Y (4)
⎝ ⎠
WELDING RESEARCH

trates the theoretical arc voltage and weld-
ing current signal during a typical pulse
where a second peak has been added and
which will be explained later.
The algorithm follows the steps listed
below:
Step a: Initialization of process, includ-
ing welding and control parameters.
Step b: Output the base welding cur-
rent Ib for a base period of Tb. The rela-
tively lower heat allows the weld pool to
cool down and prepare for the peak
period.
Step c: Output the peak welding cur-
rent Ip for a minimum peak period Tp–min.
This minimum peak period is applied in
order for the arc voltage to pass the initial
transient period when the current is
changed.
Step d: Continue to apply the peak
welding current. The controller samples
the arc voltage signal at 1 kHz (one meas-
urement per 1 ms). During each 100-ms
control period, the 100 measurements of
arc voltage are averaged to represent the
peak voltage during this period. N consec-
utive averaged peak voltages are fitted by
a second-order parabola. The slope (first-
order derivative) of the parabola at the
most recent sampling point indicates the
change tendency of the arc voltage.
Step e: If the calculated slope is greater
than a predetermined threshold PE_crite-
rion (penetration criterion, generally set
to 0.0, corresponding to the vertex), the
control algorithm will set the flag variable
PE_break to 1, and continue to step f. If
the slope is still smaller or equal to PE_cri-
terion, jump to step d for another control
period. If the slope is always smaller or
equal to PE_criterion until the maximum
peak period of Tp_max, the algorithm will
still jump to step f and keep PE_break un-
to step b to start the next pulse. If
PE_break = 1, switch to the second peak
current Ip2 and apply this current for the
second peak period Tp2. This period gen-
erally has slightly smaller welding current
compared with that in the peak period.
The primary purpose of this second peak
period is to add some extra heat input to
ensure that the weld bead is smooth. After
this second peak period, the algorithm will
also jump to step b to start the next pulse.
If the welder needs to stop the process (ei-
ther a problem occurs, or the weld joint is
completely welded), jump to step g.
Step g: Stop the process.
A flow chart is also given in Fig. 6 to
further demonstrate the algorithm.
Experiments have been conducted
using a first-order curve fitting to reduce
computation load for the embedded con-
trol system. However, it was found that the
second-order parabola fitting produced
more accurate and timely estimates for the
vertex. The general curve-fitting algo-
rithm is described as follows.
As described earlier, the arc voltage
signal during each peak period behaves
like a parabola. It can be modeled by fit-
ting for the coefficients in the following
second order model:
v = a0 + a1t + a2t2
where v is the average arc voltage in Volt
and t is time measured in 100 ms (one con-
trol period). Assuming N points are used
for the curve fitting, N equations of (1) can
be written in matrix form in Equation 2:
φ×θ=Y
where
where θ̂ is the estimated model coefficient
vector. The slope, or first-order derivative,
at the last point tN is
y'N = a1 + a2tN (5)
To determine the slope of the most re-
cent arc voltage measurement, only two
coefficients need to be estimated. If the
number of sampling points N is fixed for
all curve fitting, the matrix of
(ΦT × Φ)–1 × ΦT can be calculated in an off-
line manner before implementing into the
embedded control system. To obtain the two
coefficients, N×2 multiplication and
(N–1)×2 addition operations are needed.
In order to further reduce computation
load, the sampling time t can be properly
selected that makes tN=0 tN–1 = –1,⋯,t1 =
N–1). In this assumption, Equation 5 can
be further reduced to
y'N = a1 (6)
Hence, only one model coefficient is
needed to determine the slope of fitted
parabola at the most recent sampling
point tN. The calculation load is then re-
duced to only N multiplication and (N–1)
(1) addition operations. This control algo-
rithm was then implemented and tested
with the embedded control system.
Experiment Results
Test experiments were first conducted
using an orbital pipe welding system from
Magnatech LLC. After accepted welds
(2) were produced on the orbital system such
that the feasibility and effectiveness of the
proposed method were verified, tests were

194-s JUNE 2013, VOL. 92

Li Supplement June 2013_Layout 1 5/15/13 10:58 AM Page 195
also conducted for manual welding. All
the welding tests were performed on 3.5-
in. OD Schedule 10, Type 304 stainless
steel pipes.
Problem with Overhead Position and
Peak Current Refining
The 5G horizontal fixed position is the
most commonly used pipe welding posi-
tion, and also is considered to be one of
the most difficult welding positions to
work with (Ref. 30). The pipe is fixed par-
allel to the horizon and the weld is made
vertically around the pipe. When welding
around the pipe joint circumference, sev-
eral common welding positions or their
combinations are encountered, including
1G flat, 3G vertical, and 4G overhead.
The dynamic development of the weld
pool was analyzed without exclusively in-
cluding the gravitational force that
changes with the welding position but sim-
ply assuming that a nonzero width of the
bottom weld pool surface would result in
a sufficient positive e_bv to balance out
and exceed the increase in Δv. At the top
position (1G flat), both the arc force and
gravitational force tend to produce a suf-
ficiently positive ebv. At the side position
(3G vertical), the arc force tends to pro-
duce a sufficiently positive ebv. The dy-
namic development of the weld pool be-
haves as illustrated in Fig. 3.
However, at the bottom position (4G
overhead), the gravitational force acts
against the arc force that pushes the liquid
metal toward the bottom weld pool sur-
face to produce a positive ebv>0. If the arc
force is insufficient to significantly exceed
the gravitational force, the vertex may not
occur even if an adequate width of the bot-
tom weld pool surface has been produced.
Some typical problems at the bottom po-
sition due to an insufficient arc force are
illustrated in Fig. 7.
In Fig. 6, the peak current was 110 A.
In Fig. 7A, the arc pressure was not suffi-
cient to overcome the gravitational force
and surface tension to effectively produce
a sufficient positive ebv to balance out and
exceed the increase in Δv such that
d(Δv)/dt<d(ebv)/dt occurs. In another case
shown in Fig. 7B, the arc pressure was not
sufficient to overcome the gravitational
force and then suppress the oscillation
momentum (force). In both cases, the ex-
pected vertex is not observed and cannot
be detected.
Fortunately, the cause of the problem
in two cases appears to be the insufficiency
in the arc pressure. After appropriately in-
creasing the peak current, and thus the arc
pressure that is proportional to the square
of the current, the occurrence of the ver-
tex is assured. A set of optimal welding pa-
rameters thus resulted for the full position
welding shown in Table 2.
Automated Orbital Welding
The welding parameters used are listed
in Table 2. In comparison with Table 1, the
peak current is increased from 110 to 130
A. A few parameters needed by the feed-
back control are added including the min-
imum and maximum peak periods and
PE_criterion that controls the acceptance
for the vertex. The resultant weld bead for
the full position test is shown in Fig. 8.
The full position test results show that
the weld beads produced at each position
(top, side, and bottom) are smooth and
consistent in width and reinforcement.
Complete joint penetration is guaranteed
through the whole welding process. The
measurement of the weld bead width is
listed in Table 3.
Although the bead widths are not the
same for different welding positions, they
are all acceptable for visual inspection
with complete penetration. In addition,
the welder/operator does not adjust weld-
ing parameters per the position during the
full position welding operation. If a weld-
ing position sensor is used, welding pa-
rameters including the peak current and
PE_criterion may be further optimized to
produce more consistent weld bead width
despite the change in welding position.
Preliminary Manual Welding
With consistent complete joint pene-
tration obtained using an orbital welding
system, a manual welding operation was
also performed but only at the top position
as a preliminary test. Exactly the same set
of welding parameters as listed in Table 2
was used. The GTAW torch was held and
moved by a human operator — an electri-
cal engineer with no prior welding experi-
ence — approximately 2 mm during each
base period. All other welding parameters
including the current, were controlled/ad-
justed by the monitoring and feedback
control algorithm. The weld bead made at
the top position is shown in Fig. 9.
As seen in Fig. 9, the novice welder did
not move the GTAW torch with an identi-
cal interval each time. This is evidenced by
the inconsistency of the weld bead ripples
on the front side. However, with the feed-
back-controlled welding parameters, com-
plete joint penetration was produced
throughout the whole length of the weld-
ing operation. In addition, the weld bead
is smooth without any potential melt-
through and other discontinuities. It is be-
lieved that with the proposed penetration
control method, entry-level pipe welders
should be able to produce high-quality
pipe welds with guaranteed complete pen-
etration and smooth/consistent weld
beads. Further efforts will be directed to-
ward the full verification and demonstra-
tion of the proposed technology in manual
pipe welding through working with ship-
yards or other industries where manual
pipe welding is widely used.
Analysis and Discussion
The establishment of complete joint
penetration is the result of all welding pa-
rameters including welding current, arc
length, and travel speed and other factors
including surface tension, materials prop-
erty, temperature, external force, etc. All
these factors and welding parameters form
the inputs. Using all the inputs to calculate
their result/output, i.e., the establishment of
complete joint penetration, is the classical
method for process analysis. The complex-
ity of the welding process and the deviations
of the actual inputs from their nominal val-
ues made such method not always practical.
An ideal monitoring method is to find a
measurement, or as small a number of
measurements as possible, that has an in-
herent correlation with the one to be mon-
itored such that we can disregard all other
inputs. For the establishment of complete
WELDING RESEARCH
joint penetration, it was found that this
measurement can be the slope of the arc
voltage.
The arc voltage reflects the arc length
in our case in which the GTAW torch stays
stationary before establishment of com-
plete joint penetration is confirmed. The
arc length reflects the elevation of the
weld pool surface. Because of the in-
creased amount of heat input applied, the
base metal melted increasingly. The total
volume of liquid metal increases due to
the thermal expansion. Before complete
joint penetration is established, the in-
creased volume of the liquid metal in the
weld pool has no place to expend except
for the top surface. The weld pool surface
thus moves to the tungsten such that the
arc length reduces before complete joint
penetration is established.
The establishment of complete joint
penetration, especially adequate complete
penetration, adds another direction for the
melted metal to expend. Under the arc pres-
sure, which presses the weld pool metal
away from the tungsten, the weld pool sur-
face will start to move away from the tung-
sten. The arc length will start to increase.
The arc voltage will also start to increase.
This change will occur despite all the other
parameters including the surface tension,
temperature, material property, etc.
The authors believe this finding is truly
fundamental with solid scientific basis. As in
the pool oscillation method, the current is
on purpose changed to excite the pool to os-
cillate to enlarge the oscillation amplitude.
In our case, the current is not intentionally
changed. The oscillation amplitude is small
and will not affect the effectiveness of our
signal process algorithm to detect the
change in the voltage slope.
WELDING JOURNAL 195-s
Li Supplement June 2013_Layout 1 5/15/13 10:58 AM Page 196
Specifically, in this study, the proposed
method was tested on Schedule 10, 3.5-in.-
OD pipes. At Adaptive Intelligent Systems,
further tests have been conducted and con-
firmed that the same method can be used
for pipe wall thicknesses between 1 and 4
mm. However, the welding parameters, es-
pecially peak current, need to be optimized
for the specific thickness. Thinner (under 1
mm) and thicker wall thickness (over 4 mm)
pipes will also be studied.
The proposed method in this study
pulses the torch movement. The welding
speed depends on the distance to be moved
in each base period. The actual weld pene-
tration was formed by the overlapping of
neighboring weld spots made during con-
secutive peak periods. If the torch travels
too fast during the base period, two neigh-
boring weld spots may not well overlap to
form consistent inner side beads. On the
other hand, if two weld spots are too close,
the productivity will be reduced. In addi-
tion, there may also be a chance of melt-
through. Therefore, the distance traveled in
each base period should be within a certain
WELDING RESEARCH
range. By repeated tests, it was determined
that moving the torch 1.5 to 2.5 mm in each
base period would generate consistent weld
bead for Schedule 10, 3.5-in.-OD pipes.
For top and bottom positions, the
travel direction of the torch does not affect
the proposed weld penetration control
method. While the conditions for welding
are symmetrical at two positions, these
conditions are not symmetrical at the side
position because moving the torch uphill
or downhill makes a big difference for the
gravitational force on the liquid metal in
the weld pool in relation to the travel di-
rection. In particular, when the torch trav-
els in an uphill direction (from 6 to 12
o’clock), the produced weld beads will be
similar to the one given in Fig. 8C, D.
However, if the torch travels downhill
(from 12 to 6 o’clock), gravity will pull the
liquid metal in the weld pool downward.
As a result, extra liquid metal will be pres-
ent under the arc such that the develop-
ment of the weld pool will be affected. In
most of the cases with downhill operation,
the inner side bead width will be reduced
with a possibility to lose penetration.
Therefore, it is recommended that the
side position is welded with the torch mov-
ing uphill.
Conclusion
A novel weld penetration monitoring
and control method is proposed and tested
in this paper. The successful experiment re-
sults can be concluded as follows:
A weld penetration monitoring and con-
trol method is proposed for the GTA pipe
welding process. The method is based on
196-s JUNE 2013, VOL. 92
observation of development of the weld
pool during the welding operation.
An effective control system was built and
connected to common GTAW process.
An easy but effective curve-fitting based
control algorithm is proposed to detect the
change on the weld pool elevation, in order
to indicate complete joint penetration.
Smooth, consistent weld beads with
complete joint penetration were obtained
with both the orbital pipe welding system
and manual pipe welding operations.
Acknowledgments
This work was funded by the Navy
SBIR Program under contract N00024-08-
C-4111 and Kentucky Science and Engi-
neering Corp. under agreement KSTC-
184-512-08-048. The approval for public
release was granted (5720/00DT) by the
Department of Navy on June 18, 2012.
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Double stage plasma arc pipe welding process.
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30. Jeffus, L. F. 2002. Welding: Principles and
Applications. Thomson/Delmar Learning.
arcos 1_FP_TEMP 5/15/13 8:38 AM Page C3
Arcos, The Standard of Excellence in
Covered Electrodes and Bare Wire,
offers two outstanding welding
products designed to withstand
critical temperature extremes.
Arcos 625 and Arcos 1N12 (625) are
nickel-chromium-molybdenum products
which are designed to be virtually immune to chloride-
ion stress-cracking. They feature moderate strength,
good fabricability and excellent oxidation resistance.
Each is military-approved and provides superior
corrosion resistance, over a range of temperatures
as 625, 800, 801, 825 and 600.
This covered electrode is the smart
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To learn about the many advantages of specifying Arcos
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Arcos Industries, LLC
from cryogenic to extremely elevated (up to 1,800˚F). Ι{Ê
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Arcos 625 is ideal for welding alloys 625, 601, 802
and 9% nickel. This wire is well suited for welding
piping systems and reactor components in the power
generation industry and for high temperature service
in a wide variety of other engineering applications.
Arcos 1N12 (625) is utilized for welding alloys such

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