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OFFSITES PROCESS STD 1104

FOSTER WHEELER PRESSURE STORAGE OF PAGE 1


PROCESS PLANTS EQUILIBRIUM LIQUIDS REVISION Rev 0
DIVISION DATE Dec 1999

CONTENTS

SECTION SUBJECT

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Purpose
1.2 Scope
1.3 Units

2. DESCRIPTION OF STORAGE FACILITIES


2.1 Types of Tanks
2.2 Storage Vessel Fabrication
2.3 Vessel Working Capacity
2.4 Layout of Storage Area
2.5 Design Pressure and Design Temperature
2.5.1 Design Pressure
2.5.2 Design Temperature

3. PRESSURE AND THERMAL RELIEF


3.1 Pressure Relief
3.2 Thermal Relief

4. EMERGENCY SHUTDOWN VALVES

5. EXCESS FLOW VALVES

6 CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION


6.1 Level Instruments
6.2 Pressure Instruments
6.3 Temperature Instruments
6.4 Density Measurement

7 DEWATERING OF LIQUEFIED GAS STORAGE VESSELS

8. PUMPING FACITILITES
8.1 Net Positive Suction Head
8.2 Spill back Lines
8.3 Pump Seals

9 FIRE FIGHTING SYSTEMS


9.1 Fire Protection
9.2 Fire Fighting Facilities

10 DRAINAGE IN LIQUEFIED GAS STORAGE AREAS

11 UTILITY REQUIREMENTS
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12 GAS HYDRATES

13 COMMISSIONING CONSIDERATIONS

14 SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS

15 GLOSSARY

16 REFERENCES AND STANDARDS


16.1 Design Codes
16.2 Company Standards
16.3 Bibliography

Appendix I Design and installation of LPG storage - Wytch Farm


Project
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1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Purpose

This standard provides guidance on the selection of appropriate


vessel(s) and associated systems for the storage of liquefied gases
under pressure.

This standard gives guidance on the safety provisions applicable to


pressure storage systems. Safety provisions are particularly
important given that the materials stored are generally explosive
and/or toxic if released to atmosphere.

The objective of this standard is to provide sufficient information to


enable process engineers to select, design and specify suitable
pressure storage systems.

Engineers responsible for designing pressure storage facilities for


flammable and/or toxic liquefiable gases must become familiar with
the relevant project standards and agreed code. In this regard, IP
Code Part 9 is a valuable starting point.

1.2 Scope

This standard covers pressure storage vessels for liquefied gases.

Storage for liquefied gases can be:

fully-refrigerated where the liquid is stored at its bubble point at


near-atmospheric pressure

full-pressure, where the liquid is stored at ambient temperature

semi-refrigerated, an intermediate approach where the liquid is


stored below ambient temperature and at a pressure above
atmospheric

This standard covers full-pressure storage of liquefied gases.

On refineries it is common for liquefied gases (eg LPG) to be stored


at full pressure.

In cases where larger volumes of liquefied gases have to be stored


(eg on a LNG plant or at a crude oil stabilising plant), it is common
for the storage to be refrigerated. The reason is the capital cost (per
unit volume) of refrigerated storage is less than that of full-pressure
storage for large volumes.
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Refrigerated storage is covered in process standard 1105.


Gases which have a critical temperature above ambient (eg propane,
propylene, butane, butylene, ammonia) can be stored under pressure
with no refrigeration.

Gases which have a critical temperature below ambient (eg


methane, ethane, ethylene, oxygen, nitrogen) can only be stored
with refrigeration.

1.3 Units

Quantities are given in SI metric units, with equivalents in American


or British units. These are not exact conversions and should not be
used as such. It is assumed that engineers will be working in a
consistent system of units, and will therefore be using the practical
rounded values appropriate to that system of units, rather than
precise conversions from another system e.g. an engineer working in
metric will use 7bar, not 6.9 bar = 100 psi, whereas his
counterpart working in US units will work at 100 psi, not 102 psi =
7 bar. Conversions are therefore only exact where this is essential,
for example in converting limits from codes or regulations.

2 DESCRIPTION OF STORAGE FACILITIES

2.1 Type of Tank

Full-pressure storage tanks are either cylindrical vessels (known as


bullets) or spheres.

Bullets are installed either horizontally or vertically. Horizontal bullets


are installed either at grade, buried below grade or mounded (ie
covered with earth above grade). In general, vertical bullets are used
only when plot space is at a premium.

A large horizontal bullet could be 5 m (16 ft) in diameter and 25 m


(80 ft) in length, giving a capacity of approx 500 m3 (18,000 ft3). A
very large horizontal bullet could be 7.5 m (25 ft) in diameter and 80
m (260 ft) in length, giving a capacity of approx 3,500 m3 (125,000
ft3)

A large sphere could be 25 m (80 ft) in diameter, giving a capacity of


approx 8,000 m3 (283,000 ft3). Spheres are generally elevated 2 to 3
m (6 to 10 ft) above grade.

The selection of spheres or bullets depends on many factors, including


capital cost, local codes, client preference and safety considerations.
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Historically, spheres were generally used for volumes per vessel in


excess of 2,000 to 3,000 m3 (70,500 to 106,000 ft3). However,
there is a trend towards installing mounded bullets rather than
spheres. There are several reasons for this trend. Firstly, mounded
bullets are considerably less vulnerable to mechanical damage/loss
due to, for example, a nearby explosion. Secondly, by covering the
bullets with earth, fire impingement and the consequent firewater
demand and relief requirements are also greatly reduced, which can
be a major benefit.

Mounded bullets are either ••fully mounded••or ••partially mounded••, as


shown in figure 1. The design of the mounding (i.e. the depth of
earth above the bullet, etc.) is a Civil Engineering consideration.
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In order to maximise the integrity of a liquefied gas storage vessel, it


is important to minimise the number of connections onto the vessel

to Flare
H
LA

from Process

Flare
Fully-mounded Bullet
KO Drum
to Pumps

to Storage
H HH H
PIA LA LIA
EFV
(Excess Flow Valve)
L L from Process

Partially-mounded Bullet

to Pumps

Liquefied Gas
Storage Vessel

Figure 1
Schematic Diagram showing
Fully-mounded and Partially-
mounded Bullets for storing
Liquefied Gas to Pumps
ESD Valve PEG/OFF/03 Rev 0 February 1997

(TSO)

1
Figure 2
Schematic Diagram showing
key Items/Instrumentation
associated with Liquefied
Gas Storage Facilities
PEG/OFF/03 Rev 0 February 1997
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below the maximum liquid level. In general, there is only one such
connection per vessel, that being the outlet to the pumping facilities,
as shown in figure 2.

2.2 Storage Vessel Fabrication

Bullets for storing liquefied gas are usually shop fabricated and
designed either to ASME Section VIII or to BS 5500. Additionally it
may be required to apply supplementary qualifications required in the
country of usage. National and local code requirements, where more
severe, always govern the design.

Spheres for storing liquefied gas are site welded from shop pre-
formed plates. This type of construction defines the vessel size
limitation because the maximum thickness of a site welded plate is
specified by the construction codes used. This in turn, for a given
design pressure, defines the maximum volume of liquid which can
be stored.

Bullets/spheres are fabricated in either carbon steel or high-impact


carbon steel.

2.3 Vessel Working Capacity

For a sphere or bullet, the difference between the nominal (or gross)
capacity of the vessel and the working (or net) capacity of the
vessel, depends on the volumes of fluid required above the high
level alarm setting and below the low level alarm setting.

It is important that by design, at the maximum fill rate there is a


sufficient time after reaching the high-high level alarm for an
operator to take appropriate action.

Hence for small vessels that have high maximum fill rates, the
working capacity is a lower proportion of the nominal capacity,
whereas for larger vessels that have lower maximum fill rates, the
working capacity can, by design, be a higher proportion of the
nominal capacity.

During front end design, a conservative basis on which to proceed is


to set the high level alarm, high-high level alarm and low level alarm
at 90%, 95% and 5% of vessel nominal capacity, respectively. This
gives a working capacity equal to 85% of the nominal capacity.

2.4 Layout of Storage Area


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Important considerations for the layout of vessels are close access


to the to loading facilities and to relief header since discharge from a
relief valve on pressure storage vessels to atmosphere is becoming
subject to increasing environmental controls. Close proximity to the
loading facilities will avoid the need for long loading and vapour
return lines. Proximity to the main flare header will reduce the cost
of installing long flare headers.

Important considerations from the point of safety are the distance


from sources of ignition, heat radiation flux levels resulting from a
fire, accessibility for fire fighting and minimisation of the effect of
spillage. Reference should be made to the IP Model Code of Safe
Practice - Part 9 Liquefied Petroleum Gas Vol. 1 Large Bulk Pressure
Storage and Refrigerated LPG for further information.

2.5 Design Pressure and Design Temperature

2.5.1 Design Pressure

The design pressure of a liquefied gas storage vessel depends very


much on the product to be stored. The applicable pressure vessel
design code specifies the design pressure of a bullet/sphere, taking
into account the vapour pressure of the product at the maximum
temperature within the bullet/sphere.

In cases where the ambient temperature can drop below the


atmospheric boiling point of the fluid being stored (for example n-
butane has an atmospheric boiling point of 0oC (32oF), the vessel
must be designed for vacuum conditions.

For spheres, the maximum plate thickness, which can be welded is


50 to 60 mm (2.0 to 2.5 ins). This figure, plus the design pressure,
the grade of steel and the design code determines the maximum
capacity of a sphere. Some examples are as follows:

Product Typical Design Maximum Sphere Capacity m3


Pressure barg (ft3)
(psig)

Ethylene 21 (300) 1,500 to 2,000 (53,000 to 71,000)


Propane 18 (260) 2,000 to 3,000 (71,000 to 106,000)
Propylene 18 (260) 2,000 to 3,000 (71,000 to 106,000)
Butane 7 (100) 3,000 to 5,000 (106,000 to
177,000)
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Depending on local codes/client standards, mixed LPG storage


vessels may have to be designed for propane pressure, which can
result in a significant increase in capital cost.

2.5.2 Design Temperature

When specifying an upper design temperature, consideration should


be given to the effect of solar radiation.

When specifying a lower design temperature, depending on the


design code/standards being applied, auto-refrigeration (ie cooling on
depressurisation) must be taken into account.

3.0 PRESSURE AND THERMAL RELIEF

3.1 Pressure relief

In assessing the number and capacity of relief valves required to


protect a liquefied gas storage facility, the following relief cases
should be considered:

fire exposure
overfilling
excessive rundown temperature
vapour breakthrough from a processing unit (eg due to
instrument failure)

Due to the different capacities (and potentially different set


pressures) required for the relief cases given above, it is common to
have several sets of relief valves.

For bullets, the relief flow in the fire exposure case is reduced
significantly by mounding the bullets, as shown in figure1. The fire
exposure case should be determined in accordance with API RP520
or equivalent.

In view of the undesirable consequences of a relief valve failing


open, spring-loaded relief valves should be used, rather than pilot-
operated relief valves.

By design it is preferable for the relief valves to discharge to a flare


system, rather than directly to atmosphere. There may be situations
when discharge via a flare cannot be engineered. For example, if
during a scheduled shutdown of refinery process units and the flare
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system, LPG stocks are held in storage, then relief facilities for
spheres/bullets must be maintained (to cater for the fire case).
Under such circumstances a dispersion stack should be installed.

In general each relief valve must have a 100% spare relief valve.

Relief valves which discharge to flare should do so via a local knock


out drum, in order to avoid entraining liquid into the flare system.
The knock out drum should be designed for the storage vessel
minimum design temperature and be fitted with a vaporising coil.
The liquid hold-up volume of the drum is normally 10 to 15 minutes
at maximum fill rate.

Pressure relief systems must comply with the requirements of the


Code to which the bullet/sphere is constructed.

Relief systems must be designed in accordance with FW Process


Standard 602 Safety Relieving Devices, or with Client; s standards, if
applicable.

General installation guidelines for relief systems are contained in IP


Model Code of Safe Practice Part 9.

3.2 Thermal Relief

In general during detailed design the number of isolation valves


should be minimised, thereby reducing the number of thermal relief
valves (TRVs) that are required.

TRVs should discharge either into the flare system, into a knock out
drum or in cascade fashion back into the storage vessel. TRVs
should not discharge to atmosphere.

In general, TRVs are not required on very short sections of


pipework, with volumes below 0.5m3 (17.7 ft3). Some pressure
vessel codes (eg Stoomwesen) include rules for the maximum
volume of material in a pipe that does not require thermal relief.

4.0 EMERGENCY SHUTDOWN VALVES

Emergency shutdown (ESD) valves are fitted to all bottom outlets on


bullets and spheres, in order to safeguard the operation of the
vessels.

ESD valves can be of the hydraulic, pneumatic or electric type.


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An ESD valve is installed as an integral part of the vessel i.e. the


vessel side of the valve is welded to the pipework and the pipework
(minimum length) is welded to the vessel. Hence there are no
flanges between the vessel and the valve (and the pipework and
valve are subject to the vessel Code).

An alternative design is to locate each ESD valve inside the


associated bullet/sphere. This design is generally only used when the
site is in an earthquake zone. The disadvantages of this design are
that it is more difficult to maintain the valve and it is more likely to
lead to pump NPSH difficulties.

On small liquefied gas storage installations, it is common practice for


all the ESD valves to be operated by a single hydraulic system. The
hydraulic/pneumatic leads (small diameter impulse lines) can be
fitted with fusible plugs that release the pressure automatically in
case of a fire.

ESD valves should be of the fire safe type (typically to BS 5146) and
must be fail-safe ie spring-to-close type.

5.0 EXCESS FLOW VALVES

In order to safeguard the operation of pressure storage installations,


all pipework connections to a pressurised storage vessel are
normally protected either by an ESD valve, or a remotely operated
shut-off valve, or an excess flow valve (EFV).

EFVs are generally used in small to medium facilities in addition to or


instead of an ROV. The bottom liquid outlet however should
always be fitted with an ROV or hydraulically actuated valve.

An EFV is a self-actuating shut-off valve that closes automatically


when the flowrate exceeds a certain rated flow, referred to as the
; cut-off; flow rate. The EFV cut-off flow rate is preset during
manufacture. Typically an EFV has a cut-off flow rate of
approximately 150% of maximum flow i.e. of maximum flow in
normal operation.

Hence EFVs can be used to reduce the risk of a major


release/explosion following, for example, downstream pipework
failure. It is important to discuss EFV requirements with vendors as
standard units can be too tight to the design flow giving spurious
shut-offs.

The EFV design generally incorporates a spring-loaded disc assembly


and seat. In normal operation the spring holds the disc off its seat
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and hence the valve remains open. The spring force is set such that
as the flow increases, the fluid creates a counter-acting force on the
disc, causing it to be fully closed at the cut-off flow. A good design
of EFV creates minimal resistance to flow in normal operation.

EFVs are also known as pipe rupture safety valves (PRSVs).

6.0 CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION

With reference to figure 2, liquefied gas storage vessels are normally


provided with the following instrumentation:

6.1 Level Instruments

A liquefied gas storage vessel should have at least two independent


level measuring instruments. If custody transfer of the fluid is to be
carried out by means of level gauging (rather than by flow metering),
only one level instrument need be of "custody transfer" quality. The
readouts should be both local (platform and grade) and remote in the
control room.

A high level alarm and a high-high level trip provide warning of


potential overfilling. When the design filling rate is high (ie typically
when a fluid is being transferred from another vessel or from a ship,
at a high rate relative to the normal rundown rate), the control
system should be designed to shut-off the supply automatically in
the event of high-high level. A low level and low-low level alarm
provide protection for pumps.

Information of level alarm settings and vessel working capacities is


given in section 2.3.

6.2 Pressure Instruments

A liquefied gas storage vessel should have a pressure indicator


which reads the pressure in the vapour space of the vessel. The
readout should be both local and remote in the control room. There
should also be a high pressure alarm and in the case of larger
installations a high high pressure switch.

6.3 Temperature Instruments

The accounting of liquefied gases is normally by weight or by


volume at a standard temperature. Since liquefied gases generally
have a large coefficient of volumetric expansion, it is important to
measure temperatures accurately.
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When very accurate inventory measurement is required or where


large volumes are shipped, it may be necessary to have several
temperature-measuring sensors located at different heights, (or a
multi point TI) from which the average temperature is computed.
This requirement generally applies to large storage vessels.

A minimum of two spot temperature measurements are installed,


one in vapour space, one in the liquid.

6.4 Density Measurement

As stated above, liquefied gases generally have a large coefficient of


volumetric expansion. Accurate density measurement is therefore
very important. A mechanical vibration-type device installed in a
sample loop downstream of the liquefied gas pumping facilities is
commonly used for this purpose.

7.0 DEWATERING OF LIQUEFIED GAS STORAGE VESSELS

The design of a liquefied gas storage vessel should include facilities


to remove any water which may have entered the vessel (eg as a
product contaminant) and accumulated in the vessel.

Dewatering must only be carried out using a secure system.

A secure system consists of (as a minimum) pipework with two


valves spaced at least 0.6m (2 ft) apart but which can be operated
simultaneously by one person. The second valve must be a quick-
acting, spring-loaded type, closing on release.

However it must be remembered that such a system is not 100%


secure, since it is possible for liquefied gas to be released to
atmosphere due to the spring-loaded valve freezing or
malfunctioning in some other way.

A more secure system incorporates a dewatering pot installed


downstream of the two valves described above. Water is drained
into the pot until the interface appears. The valves on the inlet to
the dewatering pot are then closed and a similar pair of valves used
to drain the water from the pot until the interface is low. The drain
valves are then closed and the pot top connection is opened, routing
the gas to flare. Steam tracing the base of the dewatering pot
assists the evaporation of the gas.
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The drainage point and pot (if fitted) should be well away from the
vessel shadow to minimise potential hazards.

8.0 PUMPING FACILITIES

For general guidance on pumping facilities, reference should be


made to FW Process Standard 400-1.0 Pumps - General.

8.1 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)

Given that liquid in pressure storage is under equilibrium conditions,


NPSH available (NPSHA) is a key factor to be taken into account
when selecting a pump to take suction from a pressure storage
vessel.

Care should be taken to ensure the difference between the NPSH


available (NPSHA) and the NPSH required (NPSHR) is sufficient.
Measures that can be taken to help increase (NPSHA - NPSHR)
include the following:

increasing the elevation of the storage spheres/bullets


specifying “canned impeller” vertical pumps, rather than horizontal
pumps
reducing the friction losses in the pipework

For this reason, the pumps should be located as close to the


supplying vessel as practicable.

8.2 Spillback Lines

In order to protect a liquefied gas pump against operation with a


closed discharge line, a spillback system should be installed. The
spillback line is best routed back to the supplying vessel. If the
spillback line is routed into the pipework upstream of the pump there
is a risk vapour locking the pump.

8.3 Pump Seals

Some low pressure liquefiable gases are toxic and almost all are
flammable so that potential failure of pump seals is of great
importance. Normally double mechanical seals with a fluid or vented
interspace are specified as a minimum. Glandless pumps such as
magnetic drive or canned pumps are becoming cheaper, more
reliable and more efficient and should be considered especially if a
major accident potential is predicted. Some clients insist on the use
of glandless pumps.
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9.0 FIRE FIGHTING FACILITIES

9.1 Fire Protection

In the event of a fire, the affected vessel and adjacent bullets or


spheres are protected against radiation by cooling using fixed water
spray systems. Each water spray system consists of headers with
spray nozzles at regular intervals.
Crown ring weir type deluge systems should be avoided as they are
less effective.

When not in service, the spray water headers on spheres/bullets are


maintained dry i.e. they are designed to be self-draining.

For a horizontal bullet which is installed above ground, the spray


water system consists of several horizontal headers equally spaced
around the vessel. For a bullet which is installed below ground or is
mounded, only the exposed areas need to protected by a spray
water cooling system.

For a sphere, the spray water system consists of a cage of spray


headers spaced at 2 to 3 metre (6 to 10 ft) intervals. The spray
headers should preferably run vertically, to aid self-draining.

In addition to spray water systems being required on vessels, spray


water is generally applied to the ESD valve on the bottom outlet of
each sphere/bullet.

When designing a spray water system for a sphere, care must be


taken to ensure that the nozzles at the top of the sphere are
supplied with water at the required pressure to suit the nozzle
specification and are not starved of water due to the static head
differential.

Spray water systems are normally supplied with water from the
firemain. If an alternative water supply is considered (for example
cooling water), the reliability of the supply, relative to the firewater
system, must be considered very carefully. A control system may
be required to switchover to the firewater system automatically in
the event of failure of the alternative water supply.

In order to calculate the radiation levels from fires on liquefied gas


storage vessels, the methods detailed in Appendix 2 of IP Model
Code of Safe Practice, Part 9 should be used.

In order to estimate the spray water rate required for cooling


liquefied gas storage vessels, either NFPA 15 or Appendix 5 of IP
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Model Code of Safe Practice, Part 9 should be used. NFPA quotes a


rate of 10.2 litres/min/m2 (0.25 usg/min/ft2) of vessel surface.

In order to provide some protection against radiation from fires and


against solar heating, bullets and spheres may be insulated. A fire
and hose spray resistant coating should be specified if credit is taken
for insulation to give a reduction in the fire relief load. Some clients
will opt for a fire resistant coating instead of a fixed spray water
deluge system.
This should be resisted due to the possibility of corrosion taking
place beneath the coating.

9.2 Fire Fighting Facilities

It should be noted that LPG fires are not readily extinguished using
water. A jet fire is often left to burn, with the appropriate local spray
water cooling of adjacent equipment, buildings and structures until
the source of the fuel can be isolated. Putting the fire out can leave
a potential for a gas cloud to form, leading to either a UVCE
(Unconfined Vapour Cloud Explosion or a BLEVE (Boiling Liquid
Expanding Vapour Explosion) if the vessel ruptures releasing a
significant quantity of liquid.

If a jet fire needs to be extinguished, it should be tackled with


powder. Spill fires may be tackled with foam or powder. If powder
is used the resultant pool should be secured with medium or high
expansion foam to seal in the vapour, where possible.

10.0 DRAINAGE IN LIQUEFIED GAS STORAGE AREAS

Drainage system design is a Civil Engineering responsibility. A


significant potential danger in LPG storage areas is the accumulation
of heavier than air flammable or explosive mixtures in drainage areas
under and adjacent to tanks. Flammable vapours may travel
significant distances to sources of ignition and the flash back can
then ignite the large pool of vapour causing an explosion or at the
least the ignition the original source of the leak. Another
requirement of drainage design is to ensure that leaking liquid drains
from under the vessel to safe/controlled areas generally away from
equipment, structures boundaries and emergency fire fighting access
ways.

It is important to provide for rapid drainage of any spill away from


the underside of liquefied gas storage vessels. Drainage systems
serving pressure storage areas must be designed to handle the
relatively large flows of firewater which occur as a result of
firefighting.
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The slope should be to one side of the line of vessels and in the
opposite direction from any pump slab. The areas under individual
vessels are generally segregated by low deflection walls. Walled
sections, channels and sumps must not be deeper than 0.61 metres
(2 ft) to avoid creating flammable gas traps.

The drainage system normally includes open channels leading to a


collection pit or interceptor, located away from the storage area.
If the drainage system includes closed drains, traps or separators
must be provided to prevent flammable vapours travelling along the
closed system.

11.0 UTILITY REQUIREMENTS

Pressure storage has, under normal circumstances, little demand for


utilities other than power and instrument air. Nitrogen is required for
commissioning and decommissioning and possibly for relief valve
snuffing.

Steam may be required for vaporising knocked out liquids into flare
systems, for heating drain pots or for steaming out decommissioned
vessels.

12.0 GAS HYDRATES

Hydrates are crystalline structures containing molecules of water


and hydrocarbon. Hydrate formation can lead to blockage of pump
strainers, pipework, isolation valves, relief valves etc. Hydrates can
form in either the liquid phase or the vapour phase.

The conditions which promote hydrate formation are as follows:

gas which is at or is below its water dew point


liquid at or above its saturation content of water
low temperature

Pressurised LPG systems operating at above +60°C (43°F) for


propane and above+3°C (37°F) for butane are safe in terms of
hydrate formation. On pressurised LPG systems, if temperatures
lower than this cannot be avoided, the risk of problems associated
with hydrate formation can be reduced by ensuring that by design
the rundown streams are dried and that systems to remove any free
water are included in the design.
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In situations where hydrate formation is possible, it is advisable to


avoid low points where moisture may collect and/or to install
facilities for steam heating of any vulnerable valves etc.

For more information on hydrates, see section 15 of the GPSA


Engineering Data Book. Section 2 of a Technological Review
“Hydrates in LPG Cargoes” published by SIGTTO (Society of
International Gas Tanker and Terminal Operators) also contains
useful information on this subject.

13.0 COMMISSIONING CONSIDERATIONS

It should be noted that if a bullet is commissioned whilst containing


nitrogen gas, subcooling to a temperature below the atmospheric
boiling point can occur. Under these circumstances it is possible for
a trickle of cold liquid running along the bottom of a bullet to cause
severe damage to the vessel due to differential expansion effects.

It is preferable to advise commissioning personnel either to purge the


nitrogen from the vessel with the relevant vapour at operating
pressure or to commence liquid filling when the vessel is full of
nitrogen at the liquefied gas vapour pressure or higher or to
pressurise the nitrogen inerted vessel with liquefied gas vapour until
at or close to the saturation vapour pressure of the incoming liquid.

14.0 SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS

The storage, handling and loading of flammable and/or toxic low


pressure liquefiable gases constitutes the major plant hazard
potential in many designs. Reference should be made to the IP
Model Code of Safe Practice - Part 9 Liquefied Petroleum Gas Vol. 1
Large Bulk Pressure Storage and Refrigerated LPG for further
information.

15.0 GLOSSARY

API American Petroleum Institute


ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
BLEVE Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion
BS British Standard
EFV Excess Flow Valve
ESD Emergency Shut-Down (Valve)
GPSA Gas Processors Suppliers Association
HSG Health and Safety Guidance
IP Institute of Petroleum
NFPA National Fire Protection Association
NPSH Net Positive Suction Head
PRSV Pipe Rupture Safety Valve
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RP Recommended Practice
SIGTTO Society of International Gas Tanker and Terminal Operators
TRV Thermal Relief Valve
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16.0 REFERENCES AND STANDARDS

16.1 Design codes

BS 5500 Unfired Fusion Welded Pressure Vessels

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code: Section VIII - Unfired


Vessels

API RP520 Design and Installation of Pressure Relieving Systems


in Refineries

API RP521 Guide for Pressure Relieving and Depressuring


Systems

IP Model Code of Safe Practice - Part 9


Liquefied Petroleum Gas Vol. 1 Large Bulk Pressure
Storage and Refrigerated LPG.

GPSA Engineering Data Book

HSG 34 The Storage of LPG at Fixed Installations


(NB this guidance note is currently under revision)

16.2 Company Standards

The FW Process Standards do not specifically address this type of


storage vessel. However Process Standard 101 Drums and Process
Standard 102 Tanks and Tank Fittings contain some useful
information.

On many Projects, Clients have their standards covering the


design/specification of pressure storage facilities.

16.3 Bibliography

In the Oil & Gas Journal, 17 July 1989 there is an article “Burial,
mounding key at Isle of Purbeck”. A copy of this article, which
summarises FWEL’s experience associated with the installation of
LPG bullets on the Wytch Farm Project, is attached to this standard
(see Appendix I).
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APPENDIX I
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Title: Design and Installation of LPG storage - Wytch Farm Project


Author: C G Reed, FWEL
Source: Oil & Gas Journal, 17 July 1989

A1 Introduction

Design and installation of LPG storage for BP Petroleum


Development Ltd.'s Wytch Farm project on the Isle of Purbeck was
guided by the central need to obscure the storage site from view
and preserve the natural beauty of the island.

The Wytch Farm oil field development is an expansion project aimed


at increasing crude oil production from 5,500 b/d to 60,000 b/d.

The oil field is located beneath the southern shores of Poole Harbour
on the south coast of the U.K. in an area of outstanding beauty and
adjacent to sites of special scientific interest (see map (figure 6)).

The area is noted for its high ecological, amenity, and recreational
values. Strict planning conditions were imposed by the Dorset
County Council which required that any development and associated
technical design be of such a standard that these values be
protected against all foreseeable eventualities.

The crude oil is collected via a pipeline system to a central gathering


station on the Isle of Purbeck where the oil is stabilized. Two
additional products of the stabilization process are commercial
grades of liquid propane (290 tons/day or some 3,950 b/d) and
butane (270 tons/day or 3,180 b/d) which are ultimately exported
by rail from Furzebrook some 5 km away.

A2 Storage Needs

A study of the LPG export system showed that 4 days peak


production storage of these products would be required. The
gathering station was chosen as the location for the installation of
the LPG storage because of its sparsely populated remote location.

The type of storage chosen was influenced by consideration of


visual effect.

The facilities would all be constructed within an existing fir forest


which would provide visual screening on all sides. This limited the
height of any equipment or structures to 13 m and eliminated
pressurized sphere or conventional refrigerated tank storage as
potential choices.
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Other options such as underground (cavern) and pressurized or


refrigerated modular cylindrical (lobate) tanks were eliminated on
technical or economic grounds. Ultimately, semi-mounded,
horizontal, cylindrical pressurized storage vessels were chosen.

The transportation of equipment to site was studied and a maximum


acceptable vessel diameter of 3.7 m established. Available plot and
storage volumes were considered, and the number of storage
vessels was set at five per product.

The requirement for a detailed internal inspection every 5 years led


to the addition of one further vessel per product to ensure that this
and other unscheduled maintenance activities would not interfere
with production and export.
The acceptable filling ratio for the vessels was calculated according
to BS 5355 (Ref 1). Vessel-design data are given in Table 1.

A manway into the remote end of each vessel is provided with


purge/ purge test nozzle for decommissioning and access. The short
exposed section at one end of the mound carries all the fixed
pipework and instrument connections.

It was considered that if the vessel connections were also mounded,


regular inspections and maintenance requirements would result in
complex and time-consuming excavation operations. In addition to
the benefits to visual impact, the mounded design would incorporate
a significant level of passive safety.

A3 Mounding, Concrete

The mound material is laid to a cover of approximately 1 m depth


over all of the mounded section to provide passive fire protection for
the bulk of the vessel. If significant mounding material is removed
from any vessel which has been decommissioned, adjacent vessels
which are still operational must not become exposed above a
fraction of approximately 30% of their total surface, unless
alternative and acceptable fire protection methods are applied to the
operational vessels.

Failure to observe this may result in relief provisions (pressure safety


valve capacity) being exceeded.

The exposed ends of the vessels are provided with both a passive
fire protection system and a fixed spray deluge. The mound is
retained by a vertical concrete wall below and a sloping, concrete
apron above the vessel centreline (Fig. 1).
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Openings in the concrete are sealed to prevent firewater and


rainwater ingress into the mound.

A concrete apron is provided underneath and in front of the vessels'


exposed ends and sloped away to a collection channel leading to an
interceptor. This is to assist in safe removal of liquid LPG from
beneath and adjacent to vessels in case of leakage and to recover
for re-use the firewater from spray deluge/hose streams.

The potential hazard of jet flame impingement on the storage vessels


from flange leaks and small-bore nozzles was considered. The
small-bore nozzles are orientated so that failure would not result in
direct jetting onto the vessel.

The piping flanges adjacent to the vessel are insulated with


removable aluminized carbon-steel boxes, internally lined with
preformed mineral fibre insulation. There is a drain hole at the
bottom. This will direct any leaks away from the vessel.

Spiral-wound, metal-backed gaskets are provided on all LPG


pipework flanged joints to reduce to a practical minimum the
probability of jet releases. Fire-safe ball valves are provided for quick
response and ultimate integrity in emergencies.

An advanced microprocessor based, vessel-gauging system (Entis)


with a visual-display unit separate from the gathering station's
distributed control system, gives the total inventory in each vessel at
any time. The system displays and uses temperature, pressure and
level variables from each vessel to calculate liquid and vapour-phase
inventories.

A4 Codes, Regulations.

The U.K. Health and Safety Executive (HSE) was consulted and
advised about the design from the planning application phase
through detailed design development and implementation.

The layout and design of the vessels and associated facilities were
performed to the then-current recommendations of the HSE (Ref.2)
and Institute of Petroleum (IP) guidelines (Ref. 3). These guidelines
were exclusively based on advised safety distances to establish
layout (Fig. 2).

Both these documents were superseded in the latter phase of design


engineering by HSE HS/G 34 and IP Code Part 9 2nd Edition (Refs. 4
& 5). The HSE document was reviewed in detail and each point of
difference was assessed.
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As a result, changes were made in accordance with the new


recommendations.

A5 Pressure Resistance

Design was specified to BS 5500 Category 1. The design concept


required each vessel to withstand internal pressure or vacuum at
temperatures from 73oC down to the auto-refrigeration temperature,
in addition to accepting external loading from the mound.

Vessel support is direct onto the ground, with no conventional


support saddles.

The vessel design was assessed for the controlling vacuum plus
external load condition.

It was found that stiffeners were required. These were placed


internally to simplify external coating and to avoid loading from
thermal growth or shrinkage. Being internal, they are also accessible
for inspection.

With code and finite-element methods, detailed analysis of the


stiffeners was undertaken to assess the effects of vacuum, the
loads from the earth mound and differential settlement. This analysis
resulted in many internal "tee" stiffeners being required.

To confirm Foster Wheeler's assessment of these loading conditions,


Professor Mang of Karlsruhe University was consulted (Refs 6,7,8).

The vessels were fabricated in the West Midlands and delivered one
per week to the Wytch Farm site by road. A significant effort was
put into the design and planning for transportation of these vessels,
thereby fixing the transport saddle design and position to suit the
approved route.

The vessels had to be transported on their sides to avoid low


bridges. For site installation, this required additional clips welded to
the vessel to aid rotating and jacking and skidding it into position on
site.

A6 Fracture, Cracking Concerns

Loss of containment of the LPG storage vessels could be caused by


brittle fracture or stress-corrosion cracking. Hence, the two
considerations that influenced the choice of steel grade and the
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decision whether to apply post-weld heat treatment were low design


temperatures and sour service.
Lower design temperatures of -46oC and -15oC were set for
propane and butane, as a result of considerations of the atmospheric
flash temperatures arising from possible auto-refrigeration.

Neither propane nor butane vessels were considered to be in sour


service during normal operation. Sour (wet H2S) conditions could
exist at commissioning (or recommissioning) at a system pressure
high enough in the propane vessels for the partial pressure of H2S to
be "sour," as defined by Fig. 1 of NACE MR-01-75. These vessels
were therefore stress relieved.

The butane drums were still not sour by this definition, having a
lower H2S partial pressure, and were therefore not stress relieved.

None of the drums was sufficiently thick to require post-weld heat


treatment for code reasons.

Steel grades BS 1501-224-460 LT 20 and LTO were selected for


the plate in the propane and butane drums, respectively. Each
combination of steel grade, wall thickness, and heat treatment was
chosen to meet the requirements of Appendix D of BS 5500.

In order to provide resistance to hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC) in


sour service, Z-quality steel was specified for propane storage. The
sulphur content was restricted to 0.007% maximum, and plate was
subject to ultrasonic testing in accordance with BS 5996-Grade LC3
and to a through-thickness tensile test (30% minimum reduction in
area and 18% minimum elongation required).

Z-quality plate was also used for the butane drums to make the total
tonnage more attractive to potential steel plate manufacturers and to
standardize and prevent mixing of steel plates during fabrication.
British Steel Corp. was the eventual steel supplier.

Nozzles and flanges were ASTM A333 GR6 and A350 LF2. A
maximum carbon equivalent was specified, but no specification was
made for low sulphur content.

Weld consumables were restricted to 1 % maximum nickel to avoid


possible H2S stress-corrosion cracking of weld metal. This is a
requirement of NACE MR-01-75 (para 5.3: "Welding").
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A7 Coating Criteria

The resistance to cathodic disbondment, adhesion, impact


resistance, and flexibility characteristics of coating types were of
prime importance during selection of coating material for these
vessels.

The coating specified was a solvent-free urethane/tar coating applied


at a minimum dry-film thickness (DFT) of 1 mm.

The specification for the coating application included the


prequalification requirements of the coating-application contractor
and material.

In the prequalification trial, the wet and dry film thicknesses were
monitored and the dry-film thickness recorded.

The panels were also 100% holiday tested to check for pin-holing.
Because all panels passed the holiday test and had acceptable film
build-up, they were sent for tests covering cathodic disbondment,
flexibility, impact resistance, adhesion, and water immersion.

A8 Cleaning, Application

The vessels were blast-cleaned to a surface finish of Sa 2.5 with an


expendable mineral slag abrasive (blast pressure of 110 psi) to
obtain an average profile of 100 !m.

Following the blowing clean with dry compressed air, an airless


spray applied the coat of primer to 30 !m minimum / 50 !m
maximum DFT. Due to problems of measuring accurately such a thin
film thickness on a high profile surface, an acceptable thickness was
established. Spot checking of wet-film thickness (WFT) was also
carried out.

Prior to finish coat, the vessel surface was thoroughly cleaned with
compressed air, a stiff brush, and vacuuming.

With a heated proportioning airless spray unit with fixed volumetric


mix ratio, the coating was then applied by multi-pass application to
achieve a minimum thickness of 1 mm. Throughout application, WFT
checks were carried out.

After completion of DFT checks, 100% holiday test and any


resultant remedial work, the vessel was moved through the shop to
a storage area. Here the transport support saddles were positioned
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to enable access for coating the saddle areas previously inaccessible


when the vessel was in the paint shop.

Removable temporary "tents" made to fit the vessel profile were


used to ensure a controlled environment during coating and to
prevent contamination of the surrounding areas during blasting and
spraying.

On arrival at the site, following offloading and vessel rotation, any


damaged areas that would be inaccessible after positioning were
repaired. After final positioning any remaining damaged areas, e.g.,
where transport saddles had been cut away from fixing lugs/plates,
were repaired.

Final coating repairs, which were minimal, were carried out with a
brush-applied version of the finish coat.

A9 Sand Bed Foundations

The most practical and economic method was to install the vessel
on a sand bed foundation. The vessels transfer their load uniformly
to the underlying sand with the entire area acting as a flexible
foundation.

This system has been widely used in Europe since 1975. The main
advantages offered by this approach are:

No heavy foundation works required.


Very low ground-bearing pressure is imposed by vessels.
Construction technique is uncomplicated and installation costs are
low.
Installation of the vessels occurs early in construction program and
allows a shorter construction period.
Vessel loadings are predictable for use in vessel design.

The soil of the gathering station at Wytch Farm is sands and cIays
of the Poole Formation (Bagshot Beds).

Boreholes in the LPG area identified two main near-surface strata,


which consisted of a medium dense to dense silty sand up to 5 m
thick overlaying very still sandy clay. The soil stratification was non-
uniform with inconsistent inclusions in all layers.

The groundwater table varied between 3 and 5 m below ground


Ievel, which reflected the inconsistent stratification.
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Because of the variable soil strata and the presence of clay bands,
settlement of the natural ground in the LPG area from the combined
weight of the tanks and the soil mound gave rise to two main design
considerations.
These were the distortion of the LPG tanks along their length as a
result of differential settlements affecting structural design of the
tanks and long-term differential settlement of tanks and connecting
pipework.

Finite-element analysis (FEA) and consolidation analyses were


carried out with the most conservative interpolation of cross
borehole data to provide both civil and vessel design data.

Taking into account the deformation of the vessels in a fully


mounded condition, the maximum bearing pressure below a vessel
was calculated to be 93 KN/sq m, which is well below the bearing
capacity of the compacted sand bed.

The total volume of the compacted sand used to form the LPG
mound above grade level was 26,000 cu m.

The maximum depth of sand was 9m above the natural ground level,
imposing a ground surcharge of 160 KN/sq m. The mass of the sand
mound was the major influence for design, as the weight of the
vessels and their contents are less than their equivalent volume of
sand.

A10 Earthworks

The gathering station’s earthworks were constructed in October


1987 by cut and fill to form the required site grade levels. As part of
these earthworks, the LPG area was filled with compacted sand cut
from the higher areas of the site. The excess cut sand material from
the earthworks was stored for the mounding of the LPG vessels.

Following the earthworks, the lower section of the LPG mound was
constructed with compacted free-draining sand material up to the
level of the underside of the LPG tanks (mound preloading) in
February 1988, in preparation for vessel installation (Figs. 3 and 4).

At the exposed ends of the LPG vessels, a reinforced concrete


retaining wall extends vertically from the concrete apron up to the
centreline of the vessels.

Above the vessel centreline, the mound is sloped back at 45o and
covered with reinforced sprayed concrete to protect the mound from
jet flame and firewater-jet impingement.
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A 100 mm wide gap between the concrete and the vessel


exposed-end fireproofing is allowed for differential settlement and
construction tolerances. The gap all around each vessel will be
filled with compressible fire-resistant injected foam.

To allow for possible vessel horizontal expansion and contraction, a


slip membrane is provided in between the vessel fire protection
material (vermiculite concrete) and the injected foam fill.

The final slope required on the east face of the mound is 1:1.5 and
is reinforced horizontally in layers with grid matting during
mounding. The surface of the slope is covered with a
soil-strengthening membrane to stabilise the surface and receive the
stone chipping finish.

Surface rainwater is drained from the top of the mound via gravel
trench drains, which are piped to the site's clean water drainage
system.

The top of the mound is drained to prevent possible ponding of


rainwater and overspill erosion of the embankments. The entire
mound surface finish is dark recessive stone to meet the
environmental requirements.

As already stated, the vessel diameter was fixed early in order to


allow process design to proceed.

After several months of detailed studies by Foster Wheeler and the


selected haulage contractor, it was concluded that transportation in
one piece was possible with significant on-site labour savings.

Work then progressed on the detailed planning of the route and


liaison with the local authorities and police forces.

The 12 vessels were scheduled to move at one per week starting in


September 1988 and to be completed by Christmas. The journey
was scheduled to take 5 days starting in the West Midlands on a
Sunday with final offloading at site on a Friday.

A11 Preparation, Installation

The area selected for the LPG storage was the lowest part of the
site and was raised to the final site grade level by a cut-and-fill
exercise early in the construction program.
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This area was then preloaded with the sand to a depth of 2.25 m in
preparation for receipt of the vessels. This was to encourage as
much settlement as possible before vessel installation (Figs. 1, 3,
and 4).

Between September and December 1988, the 12 LPG vessels were


installed. Work on the storage area was completed in spring 1989.

Completion and commissioning of the entire complex (Fig. 5) was


set for early 1990.

Each vessel was skidded into position across the preloading mound
on skidding beams and jacked down onto a preformed sand bed
groove. The groove was formed to strict tolerances in the sand bed
with a steel template drawn along steel road forms spaced 3 m
apart and was constructed to the shape of the vessel so that the
vessel was supported along its length in a 40o cradle (Fig. 3).

Immediately after the installation of each LPG vessel, vibrated wet


sand was placed either side of the vessel for stabilization.

The mounding of the LPG vessels started in October 1988 after


three adjacent vessels had been installed.
With previously stored selected sand material, the sand fill was
placed between vessels by a grab crane located at an elevated
position on the west side of the LPG installation. The sand fill was
hand compacted up to one third the height of the vessel.

The remaining sand fill above this height was placed loose by
machine pushing the material from the elevated west side over the
buried vessel ends (Fig. 5).

It was intended that piping to the LPG vessels be connected as late


as possible prior to commissioning to ensure that most of the
settlement of the vessels and the surrounding LPG area had taken
place.

The 16 inch. LPG outlet transfer line is provided with spring pipe
supports to accommodate predicted settlements, and possible
horizontal vessel expansion/contraction is accommodated by the
flexibility of the pipe.

A12 Settlement Monitoring

During construction of the mound, settlements have been monitored


at fixed monitoring stations around the LPG mound and at the LPG
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manways to study the rate of ground consolidation in comparison


with the predicted settlements.

The monitoring showed that virtually no vertical settlement occurred


during the construction period. This was not unexpected.
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Based on the design consideration that most of the settlement


would take place during construction of the mound and the resulting
small settlements recorded, it is not anticipated that future
settlements will approach the design limits for vessel and piping
design.

Nevertheless, monitoring of settlements and vessel horizontal


movement will continue during commissioning and operation of the
plant to ensure that the design movements are not exceeded.

References.

1 BS 5355: 1976 Specification for filling ratios and developed


pressures for liquefiable and permanent gases. BSI.

2 Health and Safety Executive: Guidance Note CS5 (1981).


The Storage of LPG at Fixed Installations.

3 Institute of Petroleum: Model Code of Safe Practice Part 9


Liquefied Petroleum Gas (1967).

4 Health and Safety Executive: Health and Safety series booklet


HS/G 34 (1987). The Storage of LPG at Fixed Installations.

5 Institute of Petroleum: Model Code of Safe Practice Part 9


LPG Vol. 1 Large Bulk Pressure Storage and Refrigerated LPG,
second edition (1987).

6 Mang, F., Berechnung und Konstruktion ringversteifter


Druckrohrleitungen, Springer-Verlag, Berlin/Heidelberg/New York,
1966.

7 Mang, F., AGroszrohre und Stahlbehalter, Festigkeits und


Konstruktions Problems@, Verlag fur angewandte Wissenschaften
GmbH, Baden-Baden, 1971.

8 Mang, F., ADesign Study - mounded LPG storage@, 17 Oct


1985.
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Table 1- Vessel Design Data

Propane Butane
No of Vessels 6 6
Design Pressure 17.1 barg and full 5.9 barg and full
vacuum vacuum
Design Temperature – Lower -46 "C -15 "C
- Upper 73 "C 73 "C
Dimensions (diam x length (T/T) 3.7 x 49.5 m 3.7 x 39.6 m
Total capacity, each vessel 558 m3 452 m3

Figure 1

Figures 2 and 3
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Figure 4

Figure 5
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Figure 6 Map of Isle of Purbeck and Surrounding Area

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