MULTI MACHINING TOOL

Abstract:
In an industry a considerable portion of investment is being made for
machinery installation. So in this project we have a proposed a machine
which can perform operations like drilling, sawing, shaping (grinding)
some lathe operations at different working centers simultaneously which
implies that industrialist have not to pay for machine performing above
tasks individually for operating operation simultaneously. This paper
presents the concept of Multi-Function Operating Machine mainly carried
out for production based industries. We have developed a conceptual model
of a machine which would be capable of performing different operations
simultaneously and is also economically efficient. In this machine we are
actually giving drive to the main shaft to which scotch yoke mechanism is
directly attached, scotch yoke mechanism is used for sawing operation and
shaping operation powered by a AC motor.

INTRODUCTION:
Multi-operation machine as a research area is motivated by questions that
arise in industrial Manufacturing, production planning, and computer
control. Consider a large automotive garage with specialized shops. A car
may require the following work like replace exhaust system, align wheels
and tune up. These three tasks may be carried out in any order. However,
since the exhaust system, alignment and tune-up shops are in different
buildings, it is impossible to perform two tasks for a car simultaneously.
When there are many cars requiring services at the three shops, it is
desirable to construct a service schedule that takes the least amount of total
time.Industries are basically meant for Production of useful goods and
services at low production cost, machinery cost and low inventory cost.
Today in this world every task have been made quicker and fast due to
technology advancement but this advancement also demands huge
investments and expenditure. Every industry desires to make high
productivity rate maintaining the quality and standard of the product at low
average cost. In an industry a considerable portion of investment is being
made for machinery installation.
Induction motor
An induction motor is an AC electric motor in which the electric current in
the rotor needed to produce torque is obtained by electromagnetic
induction from the magnetic field of the stator winding.[1] An induction
motor can therefore be made without electrical connections to the
rotor.[a] An induction motor's rotor can be either wound type or squirrel-
cage type.
Three-phase squirrel-cage induction motors are widely used in industrial
drives because they are rugged, reliable and economical. Single-phase
induction motors are used extensively for smaller loads, such as household
appliances like fans. Although traditionally used in fixed-speed service,
induction motors are increasingly being used with variable-frequency
drives (VFDs) in variable-speed service. VFDs offer especially important
energy savings opportunities for existing and prospective induction motors
in variable-torque centrifugal fan, pump and compressor load applications.
Squirrel cage induction motors are very widely used in both fixed-speed
and variable-frequency drive (VFD) applications.

Parts of a Single Phase Induction Motor

The main components of a single phase motor are the rotor and stator
winding. The rotor is the rotating part, the stator winding helps in rotating
the rotor. In Fig.1 the iron layer lamina which is fitted inside rotor is not
shown, for better viewing of the rotor bars.
 Fig.1 Mains parts of single phase induction motor : Rotor and Stator
The winding has got 2 parts; One main winding and an auxiliary winding.
The auxiliary winding is placed perpendicular to the main winding. A
capacitor is connected to the auxiliary winding.

Fig.2 Single phase motor has got 2 perpendicularly placed wingdings

Working of Single Phase Motor
To understand its working better, let’s assume there is only one coil in the
main and auxiliary winding.
 Fig.3 We will analyse a case with both the wingdings are having one coil
Assume no current is flowing through the auxiliary winding. AC current
passing through the main winding will produce a fluctuating magnetic
field.

Fig.3 AC current passing through main winding

will produce a fluctuating magnetic field
The working of single phase induction motors is simple. Just put one rotor
which is already rotating, inside such a magnetic field. You can note one
interesting thing; the rotor will keep on rotating in the same direction.
 Fig.4 A rotor with initial rotation will
keep on rotating in a fluctuating magnetic field
The reason behind this phenomenon is explained in coming sections.
The Reason – Double Revolving Field Theory
The fluctuating field is equivalent to the sum of two oppositely rotating
magnetic fields. This concept is known as double revolving field theory. By
looking at the figure below, you can easily understand the theory. Here one
fluctuating quantity is represented as a vector sum of 2 oppositely rotating
quantities, for 3 time instances.

Fluctuating field at RHS of each figure is equivalent to sum of

2 oppositely rotating magnetic fields
The effect of the rotating magnetic field on the rotor is interesting. Since
the magnetic field is varying, electricity is induced in the rotor bars due
to electromagnetic induction. In Fig.6 blue arrows on the bars represent
current induced. So here is a situation of current carrying bars are which
are immersed in a magnetic field. This will produce a force according
to Lawrence law, so the rotor will start to rotate.
 Fig.6 Effect of RMF on rotor :
It will induce a starting torque
But here we have got 2 such oppositely rotating magnetic fields, so the
torques produced by them will be equal and opposite. The net effect will be
zero torque on the rotor. So the rotor won’t start, it will simply buzz.

Fig.7 Motor will not be able to start here,

since there 2 torques which are equal and opposite
But if we can somehow give this rotor an initial rotation, one torque will be
greater than other. There will be a net torque in the same direction of initial
rotation. As a result the loop will keep on rotating in the same direction.
This is the way a single phase induction motor works.
Fig.8 An initial rotation of rotor will produce one torque greater than other
How to Provide Initial Rotation ?
But one big problem remains; how to provide such an initial rotation to the
rotor ?. Nikola Tesla, a famous Yugoslav inventor suggested one ingenious
solution to this problem.

If we can cancel any of the rotating fields, we will be able to start the
motor. The auxiliary winding cum capacitor arrangement is used exactly
for this purpose. Auxiliary winding also produces 2 oppositely revolving
magnetic fields. One of them will cancel the RMF of the main winding and
the other will get added up. The result will be a single magnetic field,
which revolves under specific speed. This phenomenon is shown
diagrammatically in the following picture.
 Fig.9 Effect of auxiliary winding cum capacitor arrangement :
One RMF gets cancelled other gets added up
Such a magnetic field can give starting torque to the rotor. Or the motor
will self start. After the rotor has attained a specific speed, even if you cut
the auxiliary winding, it will keep on rotating, as explained earlier. This
cutting action is done through a centrifugal switch.

Scotch yoke :

The Scotch yoke (also known as slotted link mechanism[1]) is

a reciprocating motion mechanism, converting the linear motion of a slider
into rotational motion, or vice versa. The piston or other reciprocating part
is directly coupled to a sliding yoke with a slot that engages a pin on the
rotating part. The location of the piston versus time is a sine wave of
constant amplitude, and constant frequency given a constant rotational
speed.

Applications
This setup is most commonly used in control valve actuators in high-
pressure oil and gas pipelines.
Although not a common metalworking machine nowadays,
crude shapers can use Scotch yokes. Almost all those use a Whitworth
linkage, which gives a slow speed forward cutting stroke and a faster
return.
It has been used in various internal combustion engines, such as the Bourke
engine, SyTech engine and many hot air engines and steam engines.
The term scotch yoke continues to be used when the slot in the yoke is
shorter than the diameter of the circle made by the crank pin. For example,
the side rods of a locomotive may have scotch yokes to permit vertical
motion of intermediate driving axles.

A shaper is a type of machine tool that uses linear relative motion between
the workpiece and a single-point cutting tool to machine a linear toolpath.
Its cut is analogous to that of a lathe, except that it is (archetypally) linear
instead of helical.
A wood shaper is a similar woodworking tool, typically with a powered
rotating cutting head and manually fed workpiece, usually known simply as
a shaper in North America and spindle moulder in the UK.
A metalworking shaper is somewhat analogous to a metalworking planer,
with the cutter riding a ram that moves relative to a stationary workpiece,
rather than the workpiece moving beneath the cutter. The ram is typically
actuated by a mechanical crank inside the column, though hydraulically
actuated shapers are increasingly used. Adding axes of motion to a shaper
can yield helical toolpaths, as also done in helical planing.
Types
Shapers are mainly classified as standard, draw-cut, horizontal, universal,
vertical, geared, crank, hydraulic, contour and traveling head,[1]with a
horizontal arrangement most common. Vertical shapers are generally fitted
with a rotary table to enable curved surfaces to be machined (same idea as
in helical planing). The vertical shaper is essentially the same thing as
a slotter (slotting machine), although technically a distinction can be made
if one defines a true vertical shaper as a machine whose slide can be moved
from the vertical. A slotter is fixed in the vertical plane

Operation[edit]

Shaper linkage. Note the drive arm revolves less for the return stroke than
for the cutting stroke, resulting in a quicker return stroke and more
powerful cutting stroke.
The workpiece mounts on a rigid, box-shaped table in front of the machine.
The height of the table can be adjusted to suit this workpiece, and the table
can traverse sideways underneath the reciprocating tool, which is mounted
on the ram. Table motion may be controlled manually, but is usually
advanced by an automatic feed mechanism acting on the feedscrew. The
ram slides back and forth above the work. At the front end of the ram is a
vertical tool slide that may be adjusted to either side of the vertical plane
along the stroke axis. This tool-slide holds the clapper box and tool post,
from which the tool can be positioned to cut a straight, flat surface on the
top of the workpiece. The tool-slide permits feeding the tool downwards to
deepen a cut. This adjustability, coupled with the use of specialized cutters
and toolholders, enable the operator to cut internal and external gear tooth
 The ram is adjustable for stroke and, due to the geometry of the linkage, it
moves faster on the return (non-cutting) stroke than on the forward, cutting
stroke. This action is via a slotted link (or Whitworth link).

Uses
The most common use is to machine straight, flat surfaces, but with
ingenuity and some accessories a wide range of work can be done. Other
examples of its use are:

 Keyways in the boss of a pulley or gear can be machined without resorting

to a dedicated broaching setup.
 Dovetail slides
 Internal splines and gear teeth.
 Keyway, spline, and gear tooth cutting in blind holes
 Cam drums with toolpaths of the type that in CNC milling terms would
require 4- or 5-axis contouring or turn-mill cylindrical interpolation
 It is even possible to obviate wire EDM work in some cases. Starting from
a drilled or cored hole, a shaper with a boring-bar type tool can cut internal
features that don't lend themselves to milling or boring (such as irregularly
shaped holes with tight corners).
 Smoothness of a rough surface

Drilling:
Drilling machine can be defined as an instrument which is used to drill
holes. Drilling machine plays an important role in mechanical workshops.
The purpose of this project work is to get hold of complete information
pertaining to drilling machines. A drilling machine comes in many shapes
and sizes, from small hand-held power drills to bench mounted and finally
floor-mounted models. Today the Industrial growth is purely depends up on
latest machines; therefore the subject of drilling machines is extended too
widely, because today wide varieties of drilling machines are designed for
various applications. The most advanced version-drilling machine is CNC
(Computer Numeric Control); it is used for drilling the PCB’s (Printed
circuit boards). CNC Drilling is commonly implemented for mass
production.
The machine used for drilling is called drilling machine.
The drilling operation can also be accomplished in lathe, in which the
drill is held in tail stock and the work is held by the chuck.
The most common drill used is the twist drill.
 It is the simplest and accurate machine used in production industries.
The work piece is held stationary i.e., clamped in position and the drill
rotates to make a hole.
Drilled holes are characterized by their sharp edge on the entrance side and
the presence of burrs on the exit side (unless they have been removed).
Also, the inside of the hole usually has helical feed marks.[3]
Drilling may affect the mechanical properties of the workpiece by creating
low residual stresses around the hole opening and a very thin layer of
highly stressed and disturbed material on the newly formed surface. This
causes the workpiece to become more susceptible to corrosion and crack
propagation at the stressed surface. A finish operation may be done to
avoid these detrimental conditions.
For fluted drill bits, any chips are removed via the flutes. Chips may form
long spirals (undesirable)or small flakes, depending on the material, and
process parameters.[3] The type of chips formed can be an indicator of
the machinability of the material, with long chips suggesting poor material
machinability.
When possible drilled holes should be located perpendicular to the
workpiece surface. This minimizes the drill bit's tendency to "walk", that is,
to be deflected from the intended center-line of the bore, causing the hole
to be misplaced. The higher the length-to-diameter ratio of the drill bit, the
greater the tendency to walk. The tendency to walk is also preempted in
various other ways, which include:

 Establishing a centering mark or feature before drilling, such as by:

 Casting, molding, or forging a mark into the workpiece
 Center punching
 Spot drilling (i.e., center drilling)
 Spot facing, which is facing a certain area on a rough casting or forging to
establish, essentially, an island of precisely known surface in a sea of
imprecisely known surface
 Constraining the position of the drill bit using a drill jig with drill bushings
Surface finish produced by drilling may range from 32 to 500 microinches.
Finish cuts will generate surfaces near 32 microinches, and roughing will
be near 500 microinches.
Cutting fluid is commonly used to cool the drill bit, increase tool life,
increase speeds and feeds, increase the surface finish, and aid in ejecting
chips. Application of these fluids is usually done by flooding the workpiece
with coolant and lubricant or by applying a spray mist.[3]
In deciding which drill(s) to use it is important to consider the task at hand
and evaluate which drill would best accomplish the task. There are a
variety of drill styles that each serve a different purpose. The subland drill
is capable of drilling more than one diameter. The spade drill is used to
drill larger hole sizes. The indexable drill is useful in managing chips.[3]
Spot drilling
The purpose of spot drilling is to drill a hole that will act as a guide for
drilling the final hole. The hole is only drilled part way into the workpiece
because it is only used to guide the beginning of the next drilling process.
Center drilling
Center drill is A two-fluted tool consisting of a twist drill with a 60°
countersink; used to drill countersink center holes in a work piece to be
mounted between centers for turning or grinding.
Deep hole drilling

Blast hole several meters long, drilled in granite

Deep hole drilling is defined as a hole depth greater than ten times the
diameter of the hole.[4] These types of holes require special equipment to
maintain the straightness and tolerances. Other considerations are
roundness and surface finish.
Deep hole drilling is generally achievable with a few tooling methods,
usually gun drilling or BTA drilling. These are differentiated due to the
coolant entry method (internal or external) and chip removal method
(internal or external). Using methods such as a rotating tool and counter-
rotating workpiece are common techniques to achieve required straightness
tolerances.[5] Secondary tooling methods include trepanning, skiving and
burnishing, pull boring, or bottle boring. Finally a new kind of drilling
technology is available to face this issue: vibration drilling. This
technology breaks up the chips by a small controlled axial vibration of the
drill. The small chips are easily removed by the flutes of the drill.
A high tech monitoring system is used to control force, torque, vibrations,
and acoustic emission. Vibration is considered a major defect in deep hole
drilling which can often cause the drill to break. A special coolant is
usually used to aid in this type of drilling.
Gun drilling
Gun drilling was originally developed to drill out gun barrels and is used
commonly for drilling smaller diameter deep holes. The depth-to-diameter
ratio can be even greater than 300:1. The key feature of gun drilling is that
the bits are self-centering; this is what allows for such deep accurate holes.
The bits use a rotary motion similar to a twist drill; however, the bits are
designed with bearing pads that slide along the surface of the hole keeping
the drill bit on center. Gun drilling is usually done at high speeds and low
feed rates.
Trepanning
Trepanning is commonly used for creating larger diameter holes (up to
915 mm (36.0 in)) where a standard drill bit is not feasible or economical.
Trepanning removes the desired diameter by cutting out a solid disk similar
to the workings of a drafting compass. Trepanning is performed on flat
products such as sheet metal, granite (curling stone), plates, or structural
members like I-beams. Trepanning can also be useful to make grooves for
inserting seals, such as O-rings.
Microdrilling
Microdrilling refers to the drilling of holes less than 0.5 mm (0.020 in).
Drilling of holes at this small diameter presents greater problems since
coolant fed drills cannot be used and high spindle speeds are required. High
spindle speeds that exceed 10,000 RPM also require the use of balanced
tool holders.
Vibration drilling

Titanium chips – conventional drilling vs vibration drilling

Vibration drilling of an aluminum-CFRP multi-material stack with MITIS

technology
The first studies into vibration drilling began in the 1950s (Pr. V.N.
Poduraev, Moscow Bauman University). The main principle consists in
generating axial vibrations or oscillations in addition to the feed movement
of the drill so that the chips break up and are then easily removed from the
cutting zone.
There are two main technologies of vibration drilling: self-maintained
vibration systems and forced vibration systems. Most vibration drilling
technologies are still at a research stage. It is the case of the self-maintained
vibrations drilling: the eigen frequency of the tool is used in order to make
it naturally vibrate while cutting; vibrations are self-maintained by a mass-
spring system included in the tool holder.[6] Other works use a piezoelectric
system to generate and control the vibrations. These systems allow high
vibration frequencies (up to 2 kHz) for small magnitude (about a few
micrometers); they are particularly suitable for drilling small holes. Finally,
vibrations can be generated by mechanical systems: [7] the frequency is
given by the combination of the rotation speed and the number of
oscillation per rotation (a few oscillations per rotation), the magnitude is
about 0.1 mm.
This last technology is a fully industrial one (example: SineHoling®
technology of MITIS). Vibration drilling is a preferred solution in
situations like deep hole drilling, multi-material stack drilling (aeronautics)
and dry drilling (without lubrication). Generally it provides improved
reliability and greater control of the drilling operation.
Circle interpolating

The orbital drilling principle

Circle interpolating, also known as orbital drilling, is a process for creating
holes using machine cutters.
Orbital drilling is based on rotating a cutting tool around its own axis and
simultaneously about a centre axis which is off-set from the axis of the
cutting tool. The cutting tool can then be moved simultaneously in an axial
direction to drill or machine a hole – and/or combined with an arbitrary
sidewards motion to machine an opening or cavity.
By adjusting the offset, a cutting tool of a specific diameter can be used to
drill holes of different diameters as illustrated. This implies that the cutting
tool inventory can be substantially reduced.
The term orbital drilling comes from that the cutting tool “orbits” around
the hole center. The mechanically forced, dynamic offset in orbital drilling
has several advantages compared to conventional drilling that drastically
increases the hole precision. The lower thrust force results in a burr-
less hole when drilling in metals. When drilling in composite materials the
problem with delamination is eliminated.[8]

Material[edit]
Drilling in metal[edit]

High speed steel twist bit drilling into aluminium with methylated spirits
lubricant
Under normal usage, swarf is carried up and away from the tip of the drill
bit by the fluting of the drill bit. The cutting edges produce more chips
which continue the movement of the chips outwards from the hole. This is
successful until the chips pack too tightly, either because of deeper than
normal holes or insufficient backing off (removing the drill slightly or
totally from the hole while drilling). Cutting fluid is sometimes used to ease
this problem and to prolong the tool's life by cooling and lubricating the tip
and chip flow. Coolant may be introduced via holes through the drill shank,
which is common when using a gun drill. When cutting aluminum in
particular, cutting fluid helps ensure a smooth and accurate hole while
preventing the metal from grabbing the drill bit in the process of drilling
the hole. When cutting brass, and other soft metals that can grab the drill
bit and causes "chatter", a face of approx. 1-2 millimeters can be ground on
the cutting edge to create an obtuse angle of 91 to 93 degrees. This prevents
"chatter" during which the drill tears rather than cuts the metal. However,
with that shape of bit cutting edge, the drill is pushing the metal away,
rather than grabbing the metal. This creates high friction and very hot
swarf.
Magnetic Drilling Machine (manufactured by BDS Maschinen GmbH,
Germany)
For heavy feeds and comparatively deep holes oil-hole drills are used in the
drill bit, with a lubricant pumped to the drill head through a small hole in
the bit and flowing out along the fluting. A conventional drill
press arrangement can be used in oil-hole drilling, but it is more commonly
seen in automatic drilling machinery in which it is the workpiece that
rotates rather than the drill bit.
In computer numerical control (CNC) machine tools a process called peck
drilling, or interrupted cut drilling, is used to keep swarf from
detrimentally building up when drilling deep holes (approximately when
the depth of the hole is three times greater than the drill diameter). Peck
drilling involves plunging the drill part way through the workpiece, no
more than five times the diameter of the drill, and then retracting it to the
surface. This is repeated until the hole is finished. A modified form of this
process, called high speed peck drilling or chip breaking, only retracts the
drill slightly. This process is faster, but is only used in moderately long
holes, otherwise it will overheat the drill bit. It is also used when drilling
stringy material to break the chips.[9][10][11]
When it is not possible to bring material to the СNС machine it is time to
use Magnetic (Base) Drilling Machine. With Magnetic Base it can be
properly fixed on the metal. This base allows to make holes in horizontal
position and even on ceiling. Usually for this machines is better to use
cutters because they can drill much faster with less speed. Cutters sizes
varies from 12 mm up to 200mm DIA and from 30 to 200mm DOC(depth
of cut). This machines are widely used in construction, fabrication, marine
and oil & gas industries. In oil and gas industry usually used pneumatic
magnetic drilling machines to avoid sparks and special tube magnetic
drilling machines that could be fixed on pipes of different sizes, even
inside.
Drilling in wood[edit]
Wood being softer than most metals, drilling in wood is considerably easier
and faster than drilling in metal. Cutting fluids are not used or needed. The
main issue in drilling wood is assuring clean entry and exit holes and
preventing burning. Avoiding burning is a question of using sharp bits and
the appropriate cutting speed. Drill bits can tear out chips of wood around
the top and bottom of the hole and this is undesirable in
fine woodworking applications.
The ubiquitous twist drill bits used in metalworking also work well in
wood, but they tend to chip wood out at the entry and exit of the hole. In
some cases, as in rough holes for carpentry, the quality of the hole does not
matter, and a number of bits for fast cutting in wood exist, including spade
bits and self-feeding auger bits. Many types of specialised drill bits for
boring clean holes in wood have been developed, including brad-point
bits, Forstner bits and hole saws. Chipping on exit can be minimized by
using a piece of wood as backing behind the work piece, and the same
technique is sometimes used to keep the hole entry neat.
Holes are easier to start in wood as the drill bit can be accurately positioned
by pushing it into the wood and creating a dimple. The bit will thus have
little tendency to wander.

Cutting:
A hacksaw is a fine-tooth hand saw with a blade held under tension in a
frame, used for cutting materials such as metal or plastics. Hand-held
hacksaws consist of a metal arch with a handle, usually a pistol grip, with
pins for attaching a narrow disposable blade.
A screw or other mechanism is used to put the thin blade under tension.
The blade can be mounted with the teeth facing toward or away from the
handle, resulting in cutting action on either the push or pull stroke. On the
push stroke, the arch will flex slightly, decreasing the tension on the blade,
often resulting in an increased tendency of the blade to buckle and crack.
Cutting on the pull stroke increases the blade tension and will result in
greater control of the cut and longer blade life.
Shaping:
The shaping machine is used to grind flat metal surfaces especially where a
large amount of metal has to be removed. Other machines such as milling
machines are much more expensive and are more suited to removing
smaller amounts of metal, very accurately. A shaper is a type of machine
tool that uses linear relative motion between the work piece and a single-
point cutting tool to machine a linear tool path. Its cut is analogous to that
of a lathe, except that it is (archetypal) linear instead of helical. (Adding
axes of motion can yield helical tool paths, as also done in helical
planning.) A shaper is analogous to a plane, but smaller, and with the cutter
riding a ram that moves above a stationary work piece, rather than the
entire work piece moving beneath the cutter. The ram is moved back and
forth typically by a crank inside the column; hydraulically actuated shapers
also exist.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION ABOUT BEVEL GEARS AND DRIVE

MECHANISMS:
Gear:
A gear or cogwheel is a rotating machine part having cut teeth, or cogs,
which mesh with another toothed part in order to transmit torque, in most
cases with teeth on the one gear being of identical shape, and often also
with that shape on the other gear. Two or more gears working in tandem
are called a transmission and can produce a mechanical advantage through
a gear ratio and thus may be considered a simple machine. Geared devices
can change the speed, torque, and direction of a power source. The most
common situation is for a gear to mesh with another gear; however, a gear
can also mesh with a non-rotating toothed part, called a rack, thereby
producing translation instead of rotation.

The gears in a transmission are analogous to the wheels in a crossed belt

pulley system. An advantage of gears is that the teeth of a gear prevent
slippage.

When two gears mesh, and one gear is bigger than the other (even though
the size of the teeth must match), a mechanical advantage is produced, with
the rotational speeds and the torques of the two gears differing in an inverse
relationship.

In transmissions which offer multiple gear ratios, such as bicycles,

motorcycles, and cars, the term gear, as in first gear, refers to a gear ratio
rather than an actual physical gear. The term is used to describe similar
devices even when the gear ratio is continuous rather than discrete, or when
the device does not actually contain any gears, as in a continuously variable
transmission.

Spur gear

Comparison With Drive Mechanisms:

The definite velocity ratio which results from having teeth gives gears an
advantage over other drives (such as traction drives and V-belts) in
precision machines such as watches that depend upon an exact velocity
ratio. In cases where driver and follower are proximal, gears also have an
advantage over other drives in the reduced number of parts required; the
downside is that gears are more expensive to manufacture and their
lubrication requirements may impose a higher operating cost.

Spur Gears
General: Spur gears are the most commonly used gear type. They are
characterized by teeth which are perpendicular to the face of the gear. Spur
gears are by far the most commonly available, and are generally the least
expensive.
Limitations: Helical gears have the major disadvantage that they are
expensive and much more difficult to find. Helical gears are also slightly
less efficient than a spur gear of the same size
Advantages: Helical gears can be used on non parallel and even
perpendicular shafts, and can carry higher loads than can spur gears.
Bevel Gears:
General: Bevel gears are primarily used to transfer power between
intersecting shafts. The teeth of these gears are formed on a conical surface.
Standard bevel gears have teeth which are cut straight and are all parallel to
the line pointing the apex of the cone on which the teeth are based. Spiral
bevel gears are also available which have teeth that form arcs. Hypocycloid
bevel gears are a special type of spiral gear that will allow nonintersecting,
non-parallel shafts to mesh. Straight tool bevel gears are generally
considered the best choice for systems with speeds lower than 1000 feet per
minute: they commonly become noisy above this point. One of the most
common applications of bevel gears is the bevel gear differential.

Limitations: Limited availability cannot be used for parallel shafts, can

become noisy at high speeds.
Advantages: Excellent choice for intersecting shaft systems.

Worm Gears
General: Worm gears are special gears that resemble screws, and can be
used to drive spur gears or
helical gears. Worm gears, like helical gears, allow two non-intersecting
'skew' shafts to mesh. Normally, the two shafts are at right angles to each
other.
A worm gear is equivalent to a V-type screw thread. Another way of
looking at a worm gear is that it is a helical gear with a very high helix
angle.Worm gears are normally used when a high gear ratio is desired, or
again when the shafts are perpendicular to each other. One very important
feature of worm gear meshes that is often of use is their irreversibility:
when a worm gear is turned, the meshing spur gear will turn, but turning
the spur gear will not turn the worm gear. The resulting mesh is 'self-
locking', and is useful in ratcheting mechanisms.

Limitations: Low efficiency. The worm drives the drive gear primarily with
slipping motion, thus there are high friction losses.
Advantages: Will tolerate large loads and high speed ratios. Meshes are self
locking (which can be either an advantage or a disadvantage).
Racks (straight gears)
General: Racks are straight gears that are used to convert rotational motion
to translational motion by means of a gear mesh. (They are in theory a gear
with an infinite pitch diameter). In theory, the torque and angular velocity
of the pinion gear are related to the Force and the velocity of the rack by
the radius of the pinion gear, as is shown below: Perhaps the most well-
known application of a rack is the rack and pinion steering system used on
many cars in the past.
Limitations: Limited usefulness, difficult to find.
Advantages: The only gearing component that converts rotational motion to
translational motion. Efficiently transmits power. Generally offers better
precision than other conversion methods.
Ball bearing
A ball bearing is a type of rolling-element bearing that uses balls to
maintain the separation between the bearing races.
The purpose of a ball bearing is to reduce rotational friction and
support radial and axial loads. It achieves this by using at least two races to
contain the balls and transmit the loads through the balls. In most
applications, one race is stationary and the other is attached to the rotating
assembly (e.g., a hub or shaft). As one of the bearing races rotates it causes
the balls to rotate as well. Because the balls are rolling they have a much
lower coefficient of friction than if two flat surfaces were sliding against
each other.
Ball bearings tend to have lower load capacity for their size than other
kinds of rolling-element bearings due to the smaller contact area between
the balls and races. However, they can tolerate some misalignment of the
inner and outer races.

Pillow block bearing

A pillow block usually refers to a housing with an included anti-friction
bearing. A pillow block refers to any mounted bearing wherein the
mounted shaft is in a parallel plane to the mounting surface, and
perpendicular to the center line of the mounting holes, as contrasted with
various types of flange blocks or flange units. A pillow block may contain
a bearing with one of several types of rolling elements, including ball,
cylindrical roller, spherical roller, tapered roller, or metallic or synthetic
bushing. The type of rolling element defines the type of pillow block.
These differ from "plumber blocks" which are bearing housings supplied
without any bearings and are usually meant for higher load ratings and a
separately installed bearing.
The fundamental application of both types is the same, which is to mount a
bearing safely enabling its outer ring to be stationary while allowing
rotation of the inner ring. The housing is bolted to a foundation through the
holes in the base. Bearing housings may be either split type or solid type.
Split type housings are usually two-piece housings where the cap and base
may be detached, while others may be single-piece housings. Various
sealing arrangements may be provided to prevent dust and other
contaminants from entering the housing. Thus the housing provides a clean
environment for the environmentally sensitive bearing to rotate free from
contaminants while also retaining lubrication, either oil or grease, hence
increasing its performance and duty cycle.
Bearing housings are usually made of grey cast iron. However, various
grades of metals can be used to manufacture the same, including ductile
iron, steel, stainless steel, and various types of thermoplastics and
polyethylene-based plastics. The bearing element may be manufactured
from 52100 chromium steel alloy (the most common), stainless steel,
plastic, or bushing materials such as SAE660 cast bronze, or SAE841 oil
impregnated sintered bronze, or synthetic materials.
MAINTENANCE AND LUBRICATION:
Many bearings require periodic maintenance to prevent premature failure,
although some such as fluid or magnetic bearings may require little
maintenance. Most bearings in high cycle operations need periodic
lubrication and cleaning, and may require adjustment to minimize the
effects of wear. Bearing life is often much better when the bearing is kept
clean and well-lubricated. However, many applications make good
maintenance difficult. For example bearings in the conveyor of a rock
crusher are exposed continually to hard abrasive particles. Cleaning is of
little use because cleaning is expensive, yet the bearing is contaminated
again as soon as the conveyor resumes operation. Thus, a good
maintenance program might lubricate the bearings frequently but never
clean them.
Packing:
Some bearings use thick grease for lubrication, which is pushed into the
gaps between the bearing surfaces, also known as packing. The grease is
held in place by a plastic, leather, or rubber gasket (also called a gland) that
covers the inside and outside edges of the bearing race to keep the grease
from escaping. Bearings may also be packed with other materials.
Historically, the wheels on railroad cars used sleeve bearings packed with
waste or loose scraps cotton or wool fiber soaked in oil, than later used
solid pads of cotton.

VI. BRIEF DESCRIPTION ABOUT BEVEL GEARS

Bevel gears are used to transmit power between two non-parallel shafts.
The shafts may be intersecting or non-intersecting. Bevel gears can be
described as conical gears as they are cut on conical blanks (tapered). They
are not interchangeable and always designed in pairs. The commonly used
bevel gears are: straight, spiral and hypoid based on the geometry as given
below:
Straight Bevel Gears:
The straight bevel gears are the simplest types of bevel gears. They are the
important gears to transmit power between intersecting shafts. Straight
bevel gears are shown in Figure below. The teeth are cut straight, have a
taper, and if extended inward, would intersect each other on the axis of
shaft. The meshing gears have line contact. Hence, they are not smooth in
operation; generate more vibrations and noise at high-speed. They produce
thrust load on shaft bearings. Straight bevel gears are used for speed ratio
1:1. Their precision is as good as parallel helical gears, but higher than
crossed helical gears, spiral bevel gears, hypoid bevel gears and worm
gears.

Spiral Bevel Gears:

These gears are mounted on shaft whose axes are intersecting. The pitch
surface is conical as shown in Figure below. Spiral bevel gears have curved
oblique teeth (spiral), which allow contact to develop gradually and
smoothly. They have more contact length and area and less power
transmission efficiency compared to straight bevel gears. They are useful
for high-speed applications and others requiring less noise and vibration.
They are difficult to design and costly to manufacture, as they require
specialized and sophisticated machinery for their manufacture. They
produce more thrust load on shaft bearings than straight bevel gears.
Their advantages compared with straight bevel gears at high speeds are: (a)
smoothness and quietness of operation; (b) strength; and (c) durability due
to the followings:
Longer contact length and larger contact ratio compared to straight bevel
gears of same size.
Teeth engage gradually, the contact beginning at one end and gradually
working over other end; whereas in the straight bevel gear the contact takes
place along the entire face of the tooth at the same instant.
Hypoid Bevel Gears:
Hypoid bevel gears are used to connect shafts whose axes do not intersect.
They are very similar to spiral gears. However, their pitch surfaces are
hyperpoloids rather than cones. As a result, their pitch axes do not intersect.
They permit certain amount of sliding action along the direction of tooth
element, which requires good lubrication. Their power transmission
efficiency is poor compared to other straight and spiral bevel gears. In
general, hypoid gears are most desirable for those applications requiring
large speed reduction ratios, nonintersecting shafts, and also great
smoothness and quietness of operation.
Miter and Angular Bevel Gears:
In majority of bevel gear drives, the shafts of the meshing gears are 90º to
each other. If the angles between the shafts are 90°, and the two gears of a
pair are having the same number of teeth, then it is called as “Miter Gear”.
A pair of spiral miter gears is shown in Figure. In some bevel-gear drives,
the angles between the shafts may not be 90°, but either more or less than
90°. These gears are called ‘Angular bevel gears’. A pair of angular bevel
gears is shown in Figure below.

Applications of Bevel Gears:

Straight bevel gears are used primarily for low speed application with pitch
line velocities up to 300 m/min. They are widely used in textile machines.
Few of applications are listed below:
drive to bobbin rail on roving machine
 drive between the doffer and feed roller on low speed carding machines
drive from calendar roller to coiler rollers, top coiler to bottom coiler
plates in card, comber and drawing machine
drive between calendar roll and lap stop mechanism-lever in lap former
of conventional blow room
Further Operation:
Cleaning.
Assembling.