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This appendix briefly summarizes some basic formulas and definitions of algebra that will be used
extensively in this book.
Trigonometric identities are often required in the manipulation of Fourier series, transforms, and
harmonic analysis. Some of the most common identities are listed as follows:
Real-Time Digital Signal Processing: Implementations and Applications S.M. Kuo, B.H. Lee, and W. Tian
C 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
⃝
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628 SOME USEFUL FORMULAS AND DEFINITIONS
!α " #
1
sin = (1 − cos α) (A.6a)
2 2
!α " #
1
cos = (1 + cos α) (A.6b)
2 2
2
sin α + cos2 α = 1 (A.7a)
1
sin2 α = [1 − cos(2α)] (A.7b)
2
1
cos2 α = [1 + cos(2α)] (A.7c)
2
e± jα = cos α ± j sin α (A.8a)
1 $ jα %
sin α = e − e− jα (A.8b)
2j
1 $ jα %
e + e− jα
cos α = (A.8c)
2
√
In Euler’s theorem given in Equation (A.8), j = −1. The basic concepts and manipulations of
complex number will be reviewed in Section A.3.
The geometric series is used in discrete time signal analysis to evaluate functions in closed form. Its basic
form is
N −1
& 1 − xN
xn = , x ̸= 1. (A.9)
n=0
1−x
N −1
& N −1
& $ %n 1 − e− jωN
e− jωn = e− jω = . (A.10)
n=0 n=0
1 − e− jω
If the magnitude of x is less than 1 and not equal to zero, the infinite geometric series converges to
&
∞
1
xn = , 0 < |x| < 1. (A.11)
n=0
1−x
Since the complex number z represents the point (x, y) in the two-dimensional plane, it can be drawn
as a vector illustrated in Figure A.1. The horizontal coordinate x is called the real part, and the vertical
coordinate y is the imaginary part.
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COMPLEX VARIABLES 629
Im [z]
y (x, y)
r
θ
Re [z]
0 x
As shown in Figure A.1, the vector z can also be defined by its length (radius) r and its direction
(angle) θ. The x and y coordinates of the vector are given by
where
!
r = |z| = x 2 + y2 (A.15)
Note that addition and subtraction are straightforward in rectangular form, but are difficult in polar form.
Division is simple in polar form, but is complicated in rectangular form.
The complex arithmetic of the complex number x can be listed as
z ∗ = x − j y = re− jθ , (A.20)
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630 SOME USEFUL FORMULAS AND DEFINITIONS
Im [z]
e j(2π/N)
Re [z]
zz ∗ = |z|2 (A.21)
1 1
z −1 = = e− jθ , (A.22)
z r
zN = r N e j Nθ . (A.23)
The solution of
zN = 1 (A.24)
is
z k = e jθk = e j(2πk/N ) , k = 0, 1, . . . , N − 1. (A.25)
As illustrated in Figure A.2, these N solutions are equally spaced around the unit circle |z| = 1. The
angular spacing between them is θ = 2π/N.
Power and energy calculations are important in circuit analysis. Power is defined as the time rate of
expending or absorbing energy, and can be expressed in the form of a derivative as
dE
P= , (A.26)
dt
where P is the power in watts, E is the energy in joules, and t is the time in seconds. The power associated
with the voltage and current can be expressed as
v2
P = vi = = i 2 R, (A.27)
R
where v is the voltage in volts, i is the current in amperes, and R is the resistance in ohms.
In engineering applications, the most popular description of signal strength is decibel (dB) defined as
! "
Px
N = 10 log10 dB. (A.28)
Py
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REFERENCES 631
Therefore, the decibel unit is used to describe the ratio of two powers and requires a reference value, Py
for comparison.
It is important to note that both the current i(t) and the voltage v(t) can be considered as an analog
signal x(t), and thus the power of signal is proportional to the square of signal amplitude. For example, if
the signal x(t) is amplified by a factor g, that is, x(t) = gy(t), the signal gain can be expressed in decibel
as
! "
Px
Gain = 10 log10 = 20 log10 (g), (A.29)
Py
since the power is a function of the square of the voltage (or current) as shown in Equation (A.27). As the
second example, consider that the sound-pressure level, L p , in decibels corresponds to a sound pressure
Px referenced to Py = 20µ Pa (pascals). When the reference signal y(t) has power Py equal to 1 mW,
the power unit of x(t) is called dBm (dB with respect to 1 mW).
Digital reference level dBm0 is the digital milliwatt as defined in ITU-T Recommendation G.168. The
method defined for measuring the input level of the signals is a root mean square (RMS) method. The
dBm0 is measured as
⎡& ⎤
k−N
'+1 2
2
⎢ N x i ⎥
⎢ i=k ⎥
Pk = 3.14 + 20 log ⎢⎢
⎥ (A-law encoding),
⎥ (A.30a)
⎣ 4096 ⎦
⎡& ⎤
k−N
'+1
2
⎢ N
xi2 ⎥
⎢ i=k ⎥
Pk = 3.17 + 20 log ⎢
⎢
⎥ (µ-law encoding),
⎥ (A.30b)
⎣ 8159 ⎦
where Pk is signal level in dBm0, xi is linear equivalent of the PCM encoded signal at time i, k is a
discrete time index, and N is the number of samples over which the RMS measurement is made.
References
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