Fluid Dynamics IB

Dr Natalia Berloff
§3 IRROTATIONAL FLOWS, aka POTENTIAL FLOWS
Irrotational flows are also known as ‘potential flows’ because the velocity field can be taken
to be the gradient of a
§3.1 Velocity potential.
That is, an irrotational flow has a velocity field u(x, t) that can be represented in the form

for some scalar field φ(x, t). The field φ(x, t) is called the potential, or velocity potential,
for u.
Note the sign convention, opposite to the usual sign convention for force F and force potential Φ.
Note also: it will prove useful to include cases in which φ(x, t) is a multi-valued function of its
arguments.
Such a flow is, indeed, irrotational, since

The converse — that any irrotational velocity field u(x, t) can be written as ∇φ for some
φ(x, t) — is also true, though less obvious.
Given u(x, t) in a simply-connected domain D, we can construct φ(x, t) as a single-valued
function.

In a multiply-connected domain, the path for the integral defining φ can go to one side or
the other of an island; indeed it can wind round an island any number of times. Then φ
can be multi-valued, and will be multi-valued
H whenever the circulation C for a closed curve
encircling an island is nonzero: C = island u · dl 6= 0.

Let us now look at some basic properties of irrotational flows.

Mass conservation ∇ · u = 0 gives ∇ · (∇φ) = 0, i.e.,

∇2 φ = 0 ,

i.e., φ is a harmonic function, in the sense of satisfying Laplace’s equation.

The boundary condition for impermeable boundaries, also called the ‘kinematic boundary
condition’, is that
∂φ
U · n = u · n = n · (∇φ) ≡ ,
∂n
 where U is the velocity of points on boundary as before. *This exemplifies what is called a
Neumann boundary condition for Laplace’s equation.* This is the only boundary condition we
need.
We can now apply techniques from Part IA Vector Calculus and Part IB Methods. For
complicated geometries, one has to use numerical methods — see Part II(a) or (b) Numer-
ical Analysis.

§3.2 Some examples

Because φ satisfies Laplace’s equation ∇2 φ = 0, we can apply all the mathematical ma-
chinery of potential theory (solutions of Laplace’s equation), developed in 1B Methods:
A: Spherical geometry, axisymmetric flow
Recall the general axisymmetric solution of Laplace’s equation obtained by separation-of-
variable methods in the usual spherical polar coordinates, by trying φ = R(r) Θ(θ), etc.,

∞ ½
X ¾
n
φ= An r + B n r −(n+1)
Pn (cos θ),
n=0

where An , Bn are arbitrary constants, Pn is the Legendre polynomial of degree n, r is the

spherical radius (r 2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 ), so that z = r cos θ, and θ is the co-latitude. (Recall
that P0 (µ) = 1, P1 (µ) = µ, P2 (µ) = 32 µ2 − 12 , etc.)
Let us look more closely at the kinds of flows represented by the first three nontrivial
terms, those with coefficients B0 , A1 , and B1 .
(i) all A’s, B’s zero except B0 [Notation: er = unit radial vector = x/|x| = x/r]:

Let us check that incompressibility and mass conservation are satisfied: the outward mass
flux across any surface containing the origin should be independent of the choice of surface:

(ii) all A’s, B’s zero except A1 :

(iii) all A’s, B’s zero except B1 :

(iv) Uniform flow past a sphere r = a; this turns out to be a combination of (ii) and (iii) above:
Irrotational and incompressible, so

Uniform flow at ∞, so

No normal flow across surface of sphere, so

Now cos θ (= P1 (cos θ)) is the only Legendre polynomial ∝ cos θ . Therefore it is worth
trying a solution that superposes (ii) and (iii) above, i.e. of form

If this is to fit the boundary condition at ∞, we must choose

If it is also to fit the boundary condition at r = a, then we must choose

Therefore, the solution is

a3
µ ¶
φ=U r+ 2 cos θ .
2r
The corresponding velocity field ∇φ — it is convenient to calculate its components in
spherical polars, to check that we have satisfied the boundary condition at r = a — is
 B: Cylindrical (circular 2-D) geometry
Much the same pattern as before, except that, as always in 2-D potential theory, the
solutions involve logarithms as well as powers of the radial coordinate r; and potentials
can be multi-valued. Also, there is no particular direction corresponding to the axis of
symmetry in case A.
Recall the general solution obtained by separation of variables in 2-D cylindrical polars
r, θ:
∞
X
An rn cos(nθ + αn ) + Bn r−n cos(nθ + βn )
© ª
φ = A0 log r + B0 θ +
n=1
Again, consider just the first few terms:
(i) all A’s, B’s zero except A0 :

(ii) all A’s, B’s zero except B0 :

(iii) all A’s, B’s zero except A1 :

(iv) all A’s, B’s zero except B1 :

(v) Uniform flow, with circulation, past cylinder (r = a):

Irrotational and incompressible, so

Uniform flow U , plus an irrotational flow with circulation κ at ∞, so we require

No normal flow across cylinder, so we also require

Solution:

Velocity field (in cylindrical polars):

§3.3 Pressure in time-dependent potential flows with conservative forces

Laplace’s equation (linear) gives the solution for the flow, u; but if we want to determine
the pressure field p, then we must also use the momentum equation (Euler’s equation,
nonlinear): · ¸
∂u
ρ + (u.∇)u = −∇p − ρ∇Φ
∂t
We confine attention to conservative (potential) forces, and again use (u.∇)u = ω × u +
∇( 21 |u|2 ), remembering that ω = 0 in potential flows, and that

So we have now found, in summary,

 Two forms of Bernoulli’s theorem
both applying to the flow of an inviscid, incompressible fluid under conservative (potential)
forces −∇Φ per unit mass, and both being corollaries of the momentum equation written
as
∂u 1 ¡ 2 ¢ 1
+ 2 ∇ |u| + ω × u = − ∇p + ∇Φ .
∂t ρ
The two forms, deduced in §2.4 and just above, respectively say that:
IF the flow is
∂u
steady, i.e. ∂t = 0, irrotational, i.e. ∇ × u = 0,

then the quantity

H = 21 |u|2 + ρp + Φ H̃ = ∂φ
∂t + 12 |u|2 + p
ρ +Φ

obeys ³ ´
p ∂φ p
u .∇( 21 |u|2 + ρ + Φ) = 0 ∇ ∂t + 21 |u|2 + ρ +Φ =0

and hence
1 p ∂φ p
2
2 |u| + ρ + Φ = H = constant on ∂t + 21 |u|2 + ρ + Φ = H̃(t), independent
streamlines of spatial position x

We may also summarize, and slightly generalize, the ways of representing the velocity field
in various circumstances, as follows:

Stream function and velocity potential (§§1.8 & 3.1)

IF the flow is
incompressible, i.e. ∇ . u = 0, irrotational, i.e. ∇ × u = 0,

then there exists

*a vector potential A a scalar potential φ
with u = ∇ × A * with u = +∇φ

*In 2-D (or axisymmetric) flow A has

only one component, from which we (φ being called the velocity potential)
define* a stream function ψ (or Ψ)

u ⊥ ∇ψ (or ∇Ψ) so u k +∇φ

ψ (or Ψ) is constant on streamlines

In a multiply connected domain in 2-D:

ψ may be multi-valued
H if ∃ islands/holes φ may be multi-valued Hif ∃ islands/holes
with net outflow: u . n ds 6= 0 with net circulation: u . dl 6= 0