Bibliography on Conservation and Development in Appalachian NC

Ellie Dudding, Research Assistant

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Austin, Kelly, and Brett Clark. "Tearing Down Mountains: Using Spatial and Metabolic
Analysis to Investigate the Socio-Ecological Contradictions of Coal Extraction in
Appalachia." ​Critical Sociology ​38, no. 3 (2012): 437-57. doi:10.1177/0896920511409260.

Published Abstract​: Mountaintop removal is the most profitable and efficient way to extract the
low-sulfur, bituminous coal found in Appalachia. This form of mining involves the blasting and
leveling of entire mountain ranges, which dismantles integrated ecosystems and communities.
We employ a political-economy perspective in order to assess the uneven capitalist development
and socio-ecological contradictions of mountaintop removal. In particular, we use theorization
on spatial inequalities to employ and extend a metabolic analysis to coal extraction. This
approach reveals how metabolic rifts are created in the nutrient, carbon, and water cycles,
producing a myriad of social and ecological problems in the Appalachian region. Mountaintop
removal embodies the unsustainable characteristics of an economic system predicated on the
constant accumulation of capital.

Their Keywords:
political economy, mountaintop removal, spatial analysis, metabolic rift analysis, economic
development, climate change, environment, sustainability

Our Notes:
Clark and Austin uses the Marxist theory of metabolic analysis to draw a direct correlation
between large commercial coal extraction in the region (specifically through the means of
mountaintop removal) and ​poverty​. Patterns of ​absentee land ownership​ and the transfer of
natural resources to distant sites of production contribute to the uneven development of
capitalism, as capital is depleted from the region. The authors discuss the region as an
“environmental sacrifice zone” in that the resources taken from the region are used to primarily
benefit consumers outside the region in spite of the environmental consequences and effects on
the region, such as nutrients being washed away from soil. “Profits and electricity flow out of the
region while ​poverty​ and ecological destruction are concentrated in the extracted area.” (452)
This is one of the strongest articles in correlating the environmental issues of the region with a
direct effect on ​poverty​. The article however makes no mention of conservation efforts and only
focuses on the commercial effects on the environment and ​poverty​.

Our Keywords:
environmental sacrifice zone, call to action, environmental justice, Absentee Land Ownership,
resistance

Boyer, Jefferson C. "Reinventing the Appalachian Commons." ​Social Analysis ​50, no. 3
(2006). doi:10.3167/015597706780459377.

Published Abstract:
​It was a momentous occasion. Just 10 days before the community celebrated the ‘saving’ of the
2000-acre Elk Knob region from developers, Dr. Patricia Beaver and several Appalachian
Studies students met with 80-year-old Council Main on his family land with a spectacular view
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of Elk Knob and, stretching out beyond it, Ashe County, North Carolina’s Long Hope Ridge, and
Peak Mountain. Pleased about the saving of his homeland and heritage, Council was identifying
wild plants and explaining about their medicinal uses and how they were harvested.

Their Keywords:
Sustainable agriculture​, Communities,Sustainable development, Sustainable communities,Family
farms, Appalachian studies, Neighborhoods,Cultural identity, Renewable energy, Community
structure

Our Notes:
The article is particularly relevant in that it discusses Western North Carolina, specifically Elk
Knob in Watauga County. This is a case study in the evolution and dissipation of ​commons​ use
around Elk Knob, the practice of utilizing land for personal use collectively, sharing the land.
Boyers notes that the practice really stops with the influx of larger landowners using the land for
commercial use. The practice was formally abolished in 1901, yet habits of reciprocity continued
in the community as a “​form of resistance”​ to capitalism. Boyers calls for a reinvention of the
Appalachian ​commons​ as a method to amend inequality, that through solidarity the region can
draw power back from corporations. It would be interesting to seek conservation efforts that
employ Boyer’s theory of the reinvented ​commons​ to see if it exists and whether its contributed
to an economic effect.

Our Keywords:
Commons, Sense of Place, North Carolina, Environmental Justice, Resistance, Tenancy

James, Deaton B. 2005. "Land "in Heirs": Building a Hypothesis Concerning Tenancy in
Common and the Persistence of Poverty in Central Appalachia." Journal Of Appalachian
Studies no. 1/2: 83.

No published abstract.

Our Notes:
Deaton looks into the private land ownership that is held “in heirs” or legally “​tenancy
commons”​ in which land is owned by more than one person usually relatives, but not only.
While in the title he specifies central Appalachia, his research is limited to Letcher County,
Kentucky. Deaton hypothesizes that privately land in central Appalachia is tied up “in heirs” at
an above average rate, though he does not provide a national average for comparison. His
argument comes down to land that is held “in heirs” is less likely to be developed for capital
because owners are limited in their use of the land by other owners, he argues that this limitation
is a contributing factor to ​poverty​. He notes that land “in heirs” is land that is often inherited.
This hypothesis as it is presented in the article is not developed enough to contribute to our
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research but is important to understanding the research that has been done in correlating land use
to ​poverty​ in Appalachia.

Our Keywords:
Sense of Place, Tenancy, Land Use/Access, Distribution of Benefits

Feldman, David Lewis, and Lyndsay Moseley. "Faith-based environmental initiatives in

Appalachia: Connecting faith, environmental concern and reform." ​Worldviews: Global
Religions, Culture, and Ecology​ 7, no. 3 (2003): 227-252.

Published Abstract:
Christian faith-based environmental reform efforts in Appalachia advance a framework for
policy change based on the view that the roots of the contemporary environmental crisis are
moral and spiritual in nature. We examine how this framework is advanced among twenty
faith-based organizations in Appalachia—a region with a legacy of serious environmental
problems and a strong Christian tradition. We argue that these groups call for a new paradigm for
assessing the causes of environmental problems—and for alleviating them. Unlike the traditional
paradigm for change, which emphasizes political alterations, faith-based initiatives in Appalachia
seek to advance environmental reform by promoting a transformation of personal values,
attitudes, and conduct in support of an environmental ethic of care. Furthermore, these
initiatives’ strategies focus on educational and other strategies that can bring about this personal
transformation—and, eventually, societal change. The major assumptions promoted by the
traditional paradigm are seen by these Appalachian initiatives as key reasons for continued
environmental degradation, while the underlying values of the new paradigm constitute a vision
for an earth-keeping community having individual and global dimensions.

Our Notes:
This article addresses conservation efforts in Appalachia specifically as their presented through
Christian organizations. The authors address Appalachia as an uniquely religious region and that
Christian organization are often at the forefront of community leadership. Conservation efforts
through these organizations focus on changing the habits of the individual and the community, as
opposed to more secular advocacy efforts that focus on governmental level policy change. The
term “​stewardship​” is common in Appalachia Christian conservation efforts as the term already
has meaning within a Christian framework that translates well to environmental conservation.
The article addresses Christian conservation organizations efforts in North Carolina.

Our Keywords:
Stewardship, Call to Action, Individual Approach, Resistance
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Law, Justine, and Kendra McSweeney. 2013. "Looking under the canopy: Rural
Smallholders and Forest Recovery in Appalachian Ohio." Geoforum 44, no. Global
Production Networks, Labour and Development: 182-192.

Published Abstract:​ ​Political ecologists and other critical geographers have been steadily
chipping away at the tenets of forest transition theory, which equates forest return with economic
modernization. The role of rural smallholders in post-industrial forest recovery, however,
remains largely unexplored. These local landowners are the focus of this work, which we ground
in a case study of Appalachian Ohio, formerly a hotbed of both underground coal mining and
strip-mining. In this tumultuous landscape of ecological devastation and subsequent recovery, we
find an ideal landscape to investigate how marginalized rural smallholders have (or have not)
facilitated forest return. We also examine how their roles and visions for the forest are
conceptualized and perhaps challenged by outsiders. Drawing primarily from interviews, our
research demonstrates that local landowners, contrary to their depiction by many foresters and
outside interest groups, are highly engaged, active, shrewd, and organized forest ​stewards​. In
many ways, the forests of Appalachian Ohio flourished because of smallholder landowners’
management practices and deliberate efforts to resuscitate what was a post-industrial wasteland
mere decades ago. But, now that the forest has reached maturity, the battle over the region’s
ecosystems, resources, and future has begun anew.

Our Notes:
This article is a response and a critique of FTT (Forest Transition Theory) the primary view held
in shaping forest management that views small landholders as a hindrance in forest recovery.
The authors counter the commonly held view that reforestation is passive when left alone by
commercial exploitation and argue that rural smallholders were active, intentional agents that
were critical in bringing the forests in Southeastern Ohio from 15% forestation in the 1920s to
80% currently. The authors argue that it is important to recognize and give credit to the rural
smallholders as agents in reforestation. This is an important article for our research because it
addresses rural residents, Appalachians, as conservation agents outside the context of a
conservation organization. In also addresses elements of distrust between the rural smallholders
and more recently conservation organizations, the article provided anecdotes of rural
smallholders addressing this mistrust as they felt the conservation organization was composed of
outsiders to their network and community.

Our Keywords:
Trust, Insiders/Outside, Timber, Individual Approach, Resistance
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Marré, Alexander, and John Pender. "The Distribution Of Household Net Worth Within
And Across Rural Areas: Are There Links To The Natural Resource Base?." ​American
journal of agricultural economics​ 95, no. 2 (2013): 457-462.

Published Abstract:
Recent research in rural economic development has focused on ​wealth​, defined as the stock of
all assets net of liabilities that can contribute to the well-being of an individual or group (Pender,
Marré, and Reeder 2012a; 2012b). While the concept of ​wealth​ is not new, there are renewed
efforts to conceptualize and measure ​wealth​, and investigate how ​wealth​ generates valued
economic, social and environmental outcomes in various rural contexts. One area in need of
more research is measurement of the ​distribution​, composition and dynamics of ​wealth
available to rural households. This is critically important since ​wealth​ is closely linked to
economic well-being. A good starting point to better understand household ​wealth​ is household
net worth: the value of marketable assets, minus liabilities. Marketable assets are convenient to
examine when studying household ​wealth​ since these assets have market prices that allow for
comparisons across households. Also, data on household net worth is readily available, in
contrast to intangible household ​wealth​ such as social capital, which can be more difficult to
measure and compare across geographic contexts.
This paper shows how existing data on household net worth may be viewed through a
geographic lens by using publicly available data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics
(PSID) to examine the ​distribution and dynamics of household net worth​ across and within
resource regions for metropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas. This data is also used to investigate
linkages between changes in household net worth and the resource base of regions. We find
declines in net household worth between 2001 and 2009 across almost all regions and
metropolitan categories, except for remote rural areas in the Corn Belt. In these remote rural
areas, we find an increasing mean net worth that appears to be due in part to the boom in
farmland values that occurred during this period. The linkages between the natural resource base
of a region and the net worth of households residing in the region are complex and difficult to
trace. In general, the linkages depend on how important the resource in question is to the local
economy, and the degree to which households in the region own the resource. For example, the
value of farmland in a farming-dependent region is likely to be closely related to the net worth of
households in that region. Even nonfarm residents who own or work in businesses that serve
farmers are likely to be affected by changes in the economic prosperity of the agricultural sector.
By contrast, in a region with natural resources that are owned primarily by non-residents,
changes in the value of these assets have little or no direct effect on the net worth of households
in the region, although local governments may collect ​property taxes​ that are then invested in
local assets. Also, the management decisions of non-local owners can have impacts on local
wealth.​ For example, federal government decisions not to harvest ​timber​ on federal forestland
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can create spillover effects on adjacent land by preserving scenic amenities that can increase the
value of nearby private property (Chen and Weber 2012).

Our Notes:
This article looks at the ​distribution of household net worth​ as it relates to natural resources in
a variety rural areas across the United States. It concludes that generally during the time it
examined from 2001-2009, rural household net worth decreased with the exception of the
midwest Corn Belt, the authors generally contribute this decline to the recession. However, it is
relevant to note that there was a correlation to resident land ownership and an increase in
household ​wealth​. Where there was high industry of farming, household ​wealth​ went up even
among non-farmers in the area. There was no increase in household ​wealth​ in areas where the
land was primarily owned by non-residents which is the case for non-residents. The article also
makes note that “the management decision of non-local owners can have on local ​wealth​.” The
article provides the example of the prevention of logging of federal forestland increasing the
value of nearby private property.

Our Keywords:
Tenure, Wealth, Land Use/Access, Distribution of Benefits, Taxation

Appalachian Regional Commission. ​Moving Appalachia Forward: Appalachian Regional

Commission Strategic Plan, 2011-2016​. Appalachian Regional Commission, 2010.

Appalachian Regional Commission. ​Investing in Appalachia’s Future: The Appalachian

Regional Commission’s Five-Year Strategic Plan for Capitalizing on Appalachia’s
Opportunities 2016-2020​. Appalachian Regional Commission, 2015.

No published abstract

Our Notes:
This resource structures to the goals of the ARC from 2011-2016. I included this resource
because it illustrates a broader perspective on how issues of conservation and its economic ties
are being addressed. Most of the goals outlined in the strategic plan are rooted in strengthening
economic growth and two of the general goals have smaller environmental objectives. In the goal
of increasing job opportunities, there is an objective to “encourage sustainable economic use of
natural resources” and in the goal to develop infrastructure the ARC presents and objective to
“preserve and enhance environmental assets.” In the structured goals from 2016-2020,
environmental goals came together as a unified general goal of “Natural and Cultural Assets”
that strives to: preserve and strengthen existing natural assets in support of economic
opportunities that generate local and regional benefits, support strategic investments in natural
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and cultural heritage resources to advance local economic growth, and support preservation and
stewardship​ of community character to advance local economic growth. This shows an
increasing investment in the environment as an asset to the goals of the ARC.

Our Keywords:
Land Use/Access, Poverty,

Porter, Rob, and Michael A. Tarrant. "A Case Study of Environmental Justice and Federal
Tourism Sites in Southern Appalachia: A GIS application." ​Journal of Travel Research ​40,
no. 1 (2001): 27-40.

Published Abstract:
This article uses an environmental justice framework to determine whether inequalities exist for
certain socioeconomic and racial groups with respect to the distribution of federal ​tourism​ sites
in Southern Appalachia (SA). Federal ​tourism​ sites and campsites were mapped along with the
census block groups (CBGs) using geographic information systems. CBGs within a 1,500-meter
radius of these federal lands were identified and examined based on five socioeconomic
variables (race, education, household income, occupation, and local heritage). These CBGs were
then compared with the remaining CBGs in SA that were outside the 1,500-meter radius. Results
show that a negative relationship exists between income and occupation and location of a
number of federal ​tourist​ sites. CBGs with a low-income, blue-collar makeup were significantly
more likely to be situated within the 1,500-meter radius than outside. Additional study should
determine the desirability of ​tourism​-based land use with respect to factors such as urban
sprawl, noise, and pollution.

Our Notes:
This article looks at the environmental justice as it relates to ​tourism​ in the Southern
Appalachians. “The results of our study back previous research, which suggests that
environmental injustice exists with respect to income and job quality surrounding ​tourist​ areas.”
(37) ​Tourism​ and outdoor recreation does little to increase incomes of the surrounding area.
Industry surrounding ​tourism​, motels, ​second homes​, specialty stores, increase land prices
making low-income housing less accessible.

Our Keywords:
Distribution of Benefits, Tourism, Insiders/Outsiders, Displacement, Environmental Justice

Robertson, David P., and R. Bruce Hull. "Biocultural Ecology: Exploring the Social
Construction of the Southern Appalachian Ecosystem." (2003).
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Published Abstract:
The idea of a Southern Appalachian Ecosystem is now so much a part of our everyday language
that many of the people who talk, write, and make decisions about the place are unaware of the
long and complicated history behind the idea. One primary purpose of this case study was to
demonstrate how the Southern Appalachian Ecosystem has been socially constructed and reified
as a scientific fact in contemporary environmental discourse. In addition, we discuss the
implications of this particular sense of place for ​biodiversity​, land use, and community
development. Ultimately, our goal is to help establish a common ground between the infinite
number of competing visions that are possible and plausible for this one unique place. We do so
primarily by advocating a more bicultural worldview- a view of the world that seeks to transcend
the dichotomous categories of nature and culture perpetuated by modern, western thought. Our
intention is to contribute to the creation of not merely a sustainable but a truly desirable
postmodern future of human ecosystems rich in biocultural diversity.

Our Notes:
The article presents the Southern Appalachian Ecosystem as a social construction considering
that the Southern Appalachian Ecosystem has no real boundaries or core area. It is in the author’s
own words “an idea that exists in the collective conscious of a loose coalition of concerned but
diverse stakeholders.” (181) Given its position as such, the author fears that the concern and
attention given to the SAE will disappear. The authors address three different social
constructions in the article; the SAE as a socio-economic landscape, a ​biodiversity​ hotspot, and
a biocultural landscape. “In the socio-economic landscape of Southern Appalachia, nonlocal,
colonial minded capitalists have tended to exploit the natural resources for personal and
nationalistic gains. As a ​biodiversity​ hotspot, the ecosystem is managed to preserve and
maintain rare and endangered ​species ​and ecological processes that are considered of value to the
global environment. In the discourse of bioculturalism, the SAE is of value to local communities
and global society for the distinct environmental conditions that make this cultural landscape a
unique and desirable place for humans to live on Earth.” (186)

Our Keywords:
Species Loss, Call to Action, Environmental Justice, Philanthropic Organizations, Biodiversity

Scott, Shaunna. "The Appalachian Land Ownership Study Revisited." ​Appalachian

Journal​ 35, no. 3 (2008): 236-252.

No published abstract.

Our Notes:
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Scott prov​ides a “retrospective” on The Appalachian Land Ownership Study, a study that
uncovered the extent of ​absentee​ and corporate land ownership and its consequences due to
taxes​ that were not fairly paid. Consequences that include inadequate housing, poor school
systems, and limited infrastructure. The study made a series of recommendations based on its
findings such as shifting the ​tax burden​, protecting land owner’s​ rights​, and regulation of land
use and environmental impacts. This article investigates how those recommendations were
implemented and the primary conclusion is that they mostly were not implemented and that not
much has changed since the report was originally made 25 years prior to this article. There are
exceptions such as a new ​tax​ on unmined ​minerals​, and the study inspired a new crop of
grassroots organizations to confront the issues their communities are facing.

Our Keywords:
Absentee Land Ownership, Tenancy, Distribution of Benefits, Taxation, Mineral Rights

Taylor, Betsy. "“Place” as Prepolitical Grounds of Democracy: An Appalachian Case

Study in Class Conflict, Forest Politics, and Civic Networks." ​American Behavioral Scientist
52, no. 6 (2009): 826-845.

Published Abstract​:
This article argues for democratization as the crafting of democratic public space. Through
ethnography of grassroots contestation in Appalachia, the article examines the social substrate of
collective mobilization on environmental issues. It proposes shared ​stewardship​ of “place” as
important grounds for democratization—helping to overcome divisions of class, culture, and
ideology and to encourage integrative deliberation and knowledge. Collective ​labors​ to ​steward
particular places create understandings of a shared world arising from civic and environmental
commons. Place-​stewardship​ can engender integrative forms of knowledge—multicausal,
multiscalar, multitemporal—as people deliberate about complex ecological and social
phenomena over time. However, citizens typically face an environmental policy system that
displaces integrated, community-centered perspectives into specialized government mandates
and scholarly expertise. Against this fragmenting political terrain, civil society develops “counter
expertise” based on multiscalar and multi-issue.

Our Notes:
The concept of this article comes down to looking towards common ground in which
communities can realize they are in the same boat as a foundation for democracy. The author
discusses the concept very broadly but uses a case study “of environmental contestation that
occurred in western North Carolina in the late 1990s” (Taylor 827) which is notable for its
location. Civil Society Organizations and Grassroot Networks were ideologically on different
pages in their activism which made it more difficult for collective action. A new organization
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formed called Citizens for Sensible Forestry which broke barriers including class barriers and
originally succeed in bringing unlikely constitutes together. This unity however did not last long,
and divisions along class lines again divided the group.

Our Keywords:
Philanthropic Organizations, Call To Action, Stewardship

Titon, Jeff Todd. "Orality, Commonality, Commons, Sustainability, and Resilience."

Journal of American Folklore 129, no. 514 (2016): 486-497.

Published Abstract: Folklore studies of orality (sound) and commonality (​commons​) suggest a
contribution to the current heritage discourse that emphasizes collective values rather than
(economic) value, ​stewardship​ rather than ownership, and resilience as a strategy to help sustain
a community’s expressive culture.

Our Notes:
While this essay in more rooted in culture rather than environmental or economic concerns, it
presents an argument that the ​commons ​is rooted in folklore along with the concept of
stewardship​. The shared story and the care of the story is a responsibility that belongs to a group
of people, it does not belong to a single owner. “Mary Hufford is most Thoreau-like, exploring
commons​ in what she has been calling a narrative ecology, the relationships among humans and
with nature, mediated by language and narrative, in those highland Appalachian ​commons​ where
inhabitants hunt and gather plants such as ginseng, morel mushrooms, and ramps.” The author
goes to extend the metaphor into the idea of sustainability, preserving these stories in the same
mentality of preserving landscape. This is not profoundly relevant to our research but is
interesting in how other disciplines adapt the idea of the ​commons ​into their understanding of
the region.

Our Keywords:
Stewardship, Commons

Veteto, James R. "The History and Survival of Traditional Heirloom Vegetable Varieties in
the Southern Appalachian Mountains of Western North Carolina." Agriculture and
human values 25, no. 1 (2008): 121-134.

Published Abstract: ​Southern Appalachia is unique among agro-ecological regions of the

American South because of the diverse environmental conditions caused by its mountain
ecology, the geographic and commercial isolation of the region, and the relative cultural
autonomy of the people that live there. Those three criteria, combined with a rich agricultural
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history and the continuance of the homegardening tradition, make southern Appalachia an area
of relatively high crop ​biodiversity​ in America. This study investigated the history and survival
of traditional heirloom vegetable crops in western North Carolina and documented 134 heirloom
varieties that were still being grown. I conducted interviews with 26 individuals from 12 counties
in western North Carolina. I used a snowball sampling method to identify individuals or
communities that maintained heirloom vegetable varieties, and used the ‘‘memory banking’’ of
farmers’ knowledge as a strategy to complement the gathering of seed specimens. Most of the
varieties were grown and saved by home gardeners; beans were the most numerous. Results
indicate that usually only one or two individuals in a community maintained significant numbers
of heirloom varieties and that many communities have lost their heirloom vegetable heritage
altogether. The decline of the farming population combined with a lack of cultural continuance
in family seed-saving traditions threatens the ability of communities to maintain crop
biodiversity.​ Some of the cultivars may represent the last (small) populations of endangered
varieties.

Their Keywords:
Crop biodiversity, Southern Appalachia, Western North Carolina, Heirloom vegetable varieties,
Homegardens

Our Notes:
Veteto notes that Western Carolina has a higher​ biodiversity​ of crops than compared to the rest
of the United States but these crop varieties also have a higher threat to their survival as
subsistence farming in Western North Carolina has dramatically declined since the 1950s. Much
of the seed preservation is lead by home gardeners but since there is no organized plan to seed
save it is likely that crop diversity will continue to decline. Limited crop​ biodiversity​ can lead to
too many genetically similar crop strains which become vulnerable to blights and crop failure
resulting in food scarcity. There is not enough relevant data to show how the correlation of crop
diversity would affect livelihoods or deepen economic hardship, so this article may not be
pertinent to understanding how ​biodiversity​ of crops would affect ​poverty​ or ​wealth​.

Our Keywords:
North Carolina, Species Loss, Individual Approach, Biodiversity

Wunderlich, Gene. "Land Ownership in Appalachia: The Limits of Public Interest

Research." Appalachian Journal 11, no. 4 (1984): 432-436.

No published abstract

Our Notes:
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This article is listed as a research article but often reads like a book review of “Who Owns
Appalachia: land ownership and its impact” it offers some interesting critiques like suggesting
that the study fails to distinguish between concentration and ​absenteeism​. It also provides some
interesting insights regarding the ​taxation​ of the land as being a major issue, pointing out that
the ​low taxation​ of the land causes more issues like poorly funded schools and other resources.
He makes a very brief point but one worth noting that has not been addressed by other articles
discussing the study stating black landowners were particularly vulnerable to corporations
buying up land in the region.

Our Keywords:
Absentee Land Ownership, Taxation, Displacement,

Abrams, Jesse B., Hannah Gosnell, Nicholas J. Gill, and Peter J. Klepeis. "Re-creating the
rural, reconstructing nature: An international literature review of the environmental
implications of amenity migration." Conservation and Society 10, no. 3 (2012): 270.

Published Abstract:
The term '​amenity migration​' describes a broad diversity of patterns of human movement to
rural places in search of particular lifestyle attributes. This review of international literature,
drawn from the authors' own prior research and searches on relevant databases, synthesises
findings on the implications of ​amenity migration​ for the creation and ​distribution of
environmental harms and benefits​. Further, we critique common framings of ​amenity
migration​-related environmental transformations and offer suggestions for future research.
Analysis is positioned within a review of five common themes reflected in the cases we consider:
land subdivision and residential development; changes in private land use; cross-boundary
effects; effects on local governance institutions; and ​displacement​ of impacts. Within each of
these themes, we discuss the uneven geographies of environmental transformation formed by
diverse conceptions of 'nature', patterns of local management of amenity-driven transformations,
and ecological contexts. We conclude that, through both intended and unintended environmental
consequences of dominant activities and land uses, ​amenity migration​ results in a
redistribution of environmental harms​ and benefits at multiple scales, as rural landscapes are
(partially and incompletely) re-created in line with the ideals and expectations of ​amenity
migrant​ populations.

Their Keywords:
amenity migration, land use change, rural landscape, governance, production of nature

Our Notes:
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While the article never addresses Appalachia directly, it does provide critical information
regarding how ​amenity migration​ affects rural communities and the environment.
“Fundamentally, this paper is a response to an intensification of interest in diverse patterns of
rural change (e.g., Marsden et al. 1993; Holmes 2006; Lawson et al. 2010; McDonagh et al. In
press) and associated environmental implications, including concerns centred on loss of
agricultural land, food security, natural resource scarcity,​ biodiversity,​ and pressure on
ecosystems.” (271) The article examines the ​distribution of wealth​ that comes from ​amenity
migration​ and the outcomes in regards to its relationship to resources and environmental change.
The effects are both positive and negative ranging from increased housing making land less
affordable for long term residents to ecological restoration of degraded lands and waters

Our Keywords:
Amenity Migration, Displacement, Biodiversity

Otto, John S. "Forest fallowing in the southern Appalachian Mountains." Culture,

Agriculture, Food and Environment 8, no. 33 (1987): 1-4.

No published abstract.

Our Notes:
Forest fallowing, the practice of allowing land to reforest after it has been harvested to allow the
land to restore nutrients back into the soil is a very old agricultural method that had all but died
out by the nineteenth and twentieth century with few exceptions. However, one exception of the
survival of this practice was Southern Appalachia. Early reporting from journalist and local color
writers “discovering” the region recorded these practices. The practice of forest fallowing in
Southern Appalachia has since disappeared. Otto attributes this disappearance to population
increases, the influx of extractive industrialization, and the practice of distributing land amongst
multiple heirs, shrinking land ownership making forest fallowing a less viable agricultural
practice. What the article does not address is the extent of this practice and how the cessation of
this practice affected the local populations ​distribution of wealth​. Otto directing ties the end of
this practice to the placement of “land in heirs.” It is difficult to decipher how the end of this
practice changed local economies, it seems that this practice ended because of an economic and
social change

Our Keywords:
Distribution of Benefits, Tenancy, Tenure

Harvey, Amanda. "Poverty Alleviation through Tourism in Appalachia: Policies and

Practices in Three Sites in Eastern Tennessee." (2016).
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Published Abstract:
This thesis provides a critical analysis of ​tourism​ trends in the northeastern corner of Tennessee.
My intended audience is policymakers at the regional and local level, who can use this document
to understand the effects of policy trends on localities. I present a literature review on cultural
heritage and ​eco-tourism​ as they pertain to cultural sustainability, and more specifically on
Appalachian ​Tourism​. After an introduction to the region (both culturally and geographically)
and to sustainable ​tourism​, including data points from various resources that give context to the
region’s demographic makeup, I introduce three local ​tourist​ attractions and briefly describe
their situation to the communities they impact. Using these sites, I explore the public policies
that drive funding, zoning, and other issues behind the sites. I explore the effect these policies
have on the ​tourist ​sites as well as on the communities at large, paying special attention to issues
that the community is at odds with. I explore of the barriers and enabling forces that connect the
community with the policy makers (and impede this connection). In my conclusions, I present
policy best practices from the literature research and how these could be implemented in the
region studied to the benefit of the community.

Our Notes:
Harvey writes about the effects of tourism in the Eastern Tennessee near the border of Western
Carolina, she is supportive of the ​tourism​ industry and hopes “such enterprises
will be a boon to the economy, the environment, and the culture of the region.” (Harvey 7) She
reflects on several facets of ​tourism​ including ​ecotourism​. She does create separate
designations of tourism referring to the early forms of ​tourism​ in Appalachia as “​classic
tourism​” and relates its complex history as often environmentally and economically exploitive.
Her conclusions are varied, noting the case studies of ​tourism​ in different communities had
different effects though the most positive case study promoted ​tourism ​as an aspect of a diverse
economy. In her case study of Dollywood, where​ tourism​ was the primary industry in the
community job opportunities were limited to low-paying service positions with little room for
economic growth among the workers, reminiscent of what Harvey would consider “​classic
tourism.​”

Our Keywords:
Tourism,

Coalition, Castle. "State Report Card: Tracking Eminent Domain Reform Legislation since
Kelo." June (available at: http://www. castlecoalition. org) (50).

No published abstract.
 15

Our Notes:
This is just website resource but it provides excellent information regarding ​eminent domain
law per state and offers information on how ​eminent domain​ is being reformed. It is not
academic but provided necessary perspective in understanding how ​eminent domain​ works in
Appalachia and comparatively to the rest of the United States.

Our Keywords:
Displacement, Eminent Domain, Tenure

Campbell, Thomas C. "Eminent Domain: Its Origin, Meaning, and Relevance to Coal
Slurry Pipelines." Transportation Journal (1977): 5-21.

No published abstract.

Our Notes:
The age of this article nearly renders it irrelevant since the issues its addressing happened over
40 years ago, that and the fact that using ​eminent domain​ for the purpose of installing coal
slurry pipelines never came to pass. However, it does make an important distinctions between
the use of ​eminent domain​ for public vs. private purposes and offers a usefully history of
eminent domain​ use. Traditionally, ​eminent domain​ was used for public purposes such as in
the cases of railroads as railroads serve the public interests. ​Eminent domain​ has also been used
in the case of oil and gas pipelines again under the regard for public interests after debate and
other circumstances such as war, coal slurry pipelines however are not understood to be in the
public interest. A proposed bill allowing the use ​eminent domain​ to be used to construct coal
slurry pipelines passed the Senate but failed in the House.

Our Keywords:
Eminent Domain, TENURE

Gosnell, Hannah, and Jesse Abrams. "Amenity migration: diverse conceptualizations of

drivers, socioeconomic dimensions, and emerging challenges." GeoJournal 76, no. 4 (2011):
303-322.

Published Abstract:
Rural communities throughout the post- industrial world are in the midst of a significant
transition, sometimes referred to as rural restructuring, as traditional land uses, economic
activities, and social arrangements transition to those associated with "post-productivist" or
"multifunctional" landscapes. ​Amenity migration​, the movement of people based on the draw of
natural and/or cultural amenities, can be thought of as both driver and implication of this
 16

transition, resulting in significant changes in the ownership, use, and governance of rural lands,
as well as in the composition and socioeconomic dynamics of rural communities. In concert with
other social, economic and political processes, ​amenity migration​ is contributing to the
fundamental transformation of rural communities throughout the world.This paper presents a
review of the social science literature related to the concept of ​amenity migration​, focusing on
the ways in which it has been conceptualized, theorized, and documented by different
communities of scholars. We then profile and summarize diverse perspectives on drivers and
socioeconomic impacts, highlighting emerging challenges and opportunities related to this type
of migration occurring at multiple scales and in multiple sites. The paper also identifies and
discusses particular areas where further research is needed.

Their Keywords:
Amenity migration, Counterurbanization, Rural restructuring, Post-productivist transit

Our Notes:
This article places ​amenity migration​ as a focal point in the “rural restructuring” taking place in
rural communities. It presents more questions than provides answers and Gosnell and Abrams
designate this area of research as new and underdeveloped, the questions are particularly relevant
to our own interests. The article is interested in how the influx of ​amenity migration​ into rural
areas alters the community in regards to its socio-economic standing, organization of leadership,
and the implications for ecosystems. The article refers to “rural gentrification” several times
alluding to the influx of wealthy home buyers driving up real estate prices making land less
affordable for long term residents. This is a growing issue as the US baby boomer population
retires and seeks the quiet comforts of country life. The authors call for more research and more
exchange of research among academics doing the work.

Our Keywords:
Amenity Migration, Distribution of Benefits, Poverty, Wealth,

Mittlefehldt, Sarah. "The People's Path: Conflict and Cooperation in the Acquisition of the
Appalachian Trail." Environmental History 15, no. 4 (2010): 643-669.

Published Abstract:
When Congress passed the National Trails Act of 1968, the Appalachian Trail shifted from
being a regional grassroots endeavor to being part of the national park system. As the National
Park Service began to acquire land for the corridor, private citizens who once maintained the trail
through informal handshake agreements became directly involved in one of the most complex
federal land acquisition programs in U.S. history. Local communities responded to the unusual
public private partnership in a variety of ways?from cooperation to contestation. This analysis
 17

reveals the relational, complex, and fluid nature of the categories of "public" and "private" and
demonstrates how a dynamic interplay of power and authority between different interests blazed
the way for the kinds of public-private partnerships that have come to characterize twenty-first
century environmental policy.

Their Keywords:
Trails​, Hiking trails, Landowners, National parks,Land conservation, Nature trails, Public
land,Volunteerism, Private land, Environmental history

Our Notes:
This article follows the long and what the author refers to as “tortuous” road in acquiring lands to
build the Appalachian Trail. “An analysis of how the categories "private" and "public" were
employed during the construction of the Appalachian Trail offers a complex view of the
relationship between the centralized state and decentralized citizen actor.” (663) Many of the
decentralized citizen actors would consider the loss of their land for the trail an abuse of ​eminent
domain.

Our Keywords:
Eminent Domain, Displacement, Insiders/Outsiders,

Moriarty, Marilyn. "The Taking of Dead Horse Hollow: Eminent Domain Abuse." The
Antioch Review 71, no. 2 (2013): 208-222.

No published abstract

Our Notes:
This is in fact a creative nonfiction essay, cataloguing Edd Jenning’s fight against a succession of
eminent domain​ acquisitions of his land that has generationally belonged to his family. It
personalizes the experience of ​eminent domain​ abuse in a manner that humanizes the legal
battle. For our purposes it rounds out a lot of the statistical data on ​eminent domain​ and offers a
counter perspective to other articles that fix the use of ​eminent domain​ as a necessary evil for
conservation and infrastructure.

Our Keywords:
Eminent Domain, Displacement,

Sirna, Angela R. Recreating Appalachia: Cumberland Gap National Historical Park,

1922-1972. Middle Tennessee State University, 2015.
 18

Published Abstract:
Cumberland Gap National Historical Park (NHP) is situated at the intersection of three
states—Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia—at the narrow pass in the mountains used by
eighteenth-century pioneers travelling along the Wilderness Road. This dissertation examines the
development of the park from 1922 to 1972 and reveals how the National Park Service sought to
remake the Appalachian region by reshaping the landscape. Outsiders defined Appalachia as
being socio-economically and culturally different from the rest of the country, which prompted
reformers to focus their efforts on the area throughout the twentieth century. They sought to
correct the socio-economic problems of Appalachia by restoring degraded physical environments
and romanticizing the local culture, which made the NPS an important federal agent for land and
social reform. Park planners conceived of Cumberland Gap NHP late in the New Deal
(1933-1942) and developed a vision to recreate an eighteenth-century wilderness. The park came
of age in the Great Society (1964- 1969) when a new discourse emerged at the park that reflected
post-World War II concerns of fighting a ​War on Poverty​, creating wilderness areas, and
preserving historic sites. Chronicling changing attitudes towards nature, history, and social
policy at Cumberland Gap NHP will help us understand how the NPS sought to remake and
modernize the Appalachian region. This study utilizes ideas from cultural landscape studies to
examine the park's changing physical landscape as part of the historical record. I juxtapose field
observations with evidence found in government records, historic photographs, maps, PREVIEW
iv drawings, newspaper and magazine articles, oral histories, and archaeological data. I draw
upon secondary literature in twentieth-century U.S. social history, environmental history,
Appalachian studies, historic preservation, and public history to provide the necessary context
for evaluating the primary source material. This dissertation offers a critical framework for
interpreting national park landscapes by examining the relationships between and among
Cumberland Gap NHP's natural, historical, and recreational qualities and how they have changed
over time. It is critical to understand these relationships, because they shape how a park looks,
feels, and functions and often reveal larger cultural values embedded in a park's landscape.

Our Notes:
This dissertation focuses on the National Park Service and how it “has played a role in
modernizing the region by purchasing submarginal lands, restoring natural areas, creating work
programs, and romanticizing Appalachian culture.” (6) The author looks at the parks intentions
of bringing Appalachia economic gains and positive cultural associations. The tone of this
dissertation is very positive in its position on the Park Service which contrasts other materials we
have looked at like Newfont’s “Blue Ridge Commons” and Porter and Turant’s “​A Case Study
of Environmental Justice and Federal Tourism Sites in Southern Appalachia” that are more
critical of the Park System and tourism in the region.

Our Keywords:
 19

Commons, Environmental Justice, Tourism

Tonn, Bruce, Mary English, Robert Turner, and Angela Hemrick. "The Future of
Bioregional Planning in the Southern Appalachian Man and the Biosphere Region."
Futures 38, no. 4 (2006): 490-504.

Published Abstract:
This paper assesses the current status and future prospects for bioregional planning in the
Southern Appalachian Man and the Biosphere (SAMAB) region in the United States. The
SAMAB region is one of the most biodiverse temperate regions in the world. The region’s
environment is threatened by development, air and water pollution, and ​invasive species​.
Numerous institutions in the region have some responsibility for protecting the region’s
environment, including the National Park Service, the US Forest Service, the US Environmental
Protection Agency, the US Fish and Wildlife Service, several states, hundreds of municipalities,
and numerous active non-profit organizations. Twenty seven people associated with bioregional
planning were interviewed to gauge their opinions on the state of bioregional planning in the
SAMAB region. Overall, the respondents do not believe that the totality of all those efforts
comprises bioregional planning because the efforts are limited in scale and scope and somewhat
uncoordinated. With respect to the future of the region, the respondents found it difficult to
imagine the state of the region 50 and especially 200 years into the future. Additionally, almost
all of their definitions of bioregional planning included a spatial dimension but none included a
time dimension. Thus, one of our conclusions is that the future of bioregional planning in the
region will be hampered by difficulties people responsible for environmental protection have in
dealing with

Our Notes:
This article focuses on preserving the Southern Appalachian Man and the Biosphere Region,
a designation given by the United Nation’s “​Man and the Biosphere Programme” which is an
“Intergovernmental Scientific Programme that aims to establish a scientific basis for the
improvement of relationships between people and their environments.” The article looks at the
region as an important center for ​biodiversity​ and ​rare species​. It addresses some of the threats
towards the region as 77% of the region is privately owned and makes recommendations for
preservation. This article and looking more indepthly into the Southern Appalachian Man and the
Biosphere region with be an important direction for this project.

Our Keywords:
Environmental Justice, Philanthropic Organizations, Biodiversity
 20

Smith, Barbara Ellen. "Another Place is Possible? Labor Geography, Spatial

Dispossession, and Gendered Resistance in Central Appalachia." Annals of the Association
of American Geographers 105, no. 3 (2015): 567-582.

Published Abstract:
The demise of Fordism and inauguration of neoliberal policy regimes may be conceptualized as
historical processes of spatial dispossession that diminish and sometimes destroy the collective
spaces of working-class life. In central Appalachia, where miners’ militant, unionized
brotherhood once influenced the geography of the bituminous coal industry and enabled the
growth of active, working-class communities, spatial dispossession is especially stark. Here,
neoliberalization of space involves not only the familiar dismantling of public institutions but
also corporate enclosures of lands once treated as ​commons​, withdrawal of residents from
polluted local ecologies, intentional destruction of union solidarity, and erosion of miners’ heroic
masculinity. Historical analysis reveals this dismantling of ​labor's​ gendered geography and
degradation of working-class environments as mutually interrelated processes. Spatial
dispossession is also evoking opposition, however, from reactionary, industry-orchestrated
mobilizations to valorize coal in the name of masculinist nationalism, to fragmentary efforts,
often led by women, seeking alternative economic and political possibilities. These
conflict-ridden dynamics of spatial influence, dispossession, and (re)creation lay bare interrelated
coproductions of gender and class, political economy and cultural practice, “nature” and society
and thereby point toward a ​labor​ geography capable of engaging the contradictory forces that
animate working-class life.

Our Notes:
This article is an intersection of a number of issues Appalachia is facing stemming from the
dispossession of capital from local populations leading to a concentration of​ wealth​ external to
the region. Like Austin and Clark, Smith uses the theory of spatial analysis or spatial
dispossession to articulate this broader concept of dispossession that is “not only economic but
also spatial, cultural, and social.” (Smith 568) This neoliberal concept of spatial dispossession is
credited to Harvey and applied to the Appalachian region, especially but not exclusively
Southern West Virginia. For the purpose of our research it narrates how land use, and the large
concentrations of land is so intricately tied to the region’s long standing poverty and inequitable
power relations. Smith uses a broad range of resources such as research regarding the decline of
school and post offices, to literature in order to express how the regional lived experience is
affected by the land use. Smith uses gender as a distinct lens depicting how the work of coal
mining and its relationship to the region’s masculinity has shaped both ​labor​ and ​resistance
roles that shape the social conditions of the region.

Our Keywords:
 21

Resistance, Environmental Justice, Stewardship, Call To Action, Distribution of Benefits

Rice, Jennifer L., Brian J. Burke, and Nik Heynen. "Knowing climate change, embodying
climate praxis: experiential knowledge in Southern Appalachia." Annals of the Association
of American Geographers 105, no. 2 (2015): 253-262.

Published Abstract:
Whether used to support or impede action, scientific knowledge is now, more than ever, the
primary framework for political discourse on ​climate change​. As a consequence, science has
become a hegemonic way of knowing ​climate change​ by mainstream ​climate ​politics, which not
only limits the actors and actions deemed legitimate in ​climate​ politics but also silences
vulnerable communities and reinforces historical patterns of cultural and political
marginalization. To combat this “post-political” condition, we seek to democratize ​climate
knowledge and imagine the possibilities of ​climate​ praxis through an engagement with
Gramscian political ecology and feminist science studies. This framework emphasizes how
anti-hierarchical and experiential forms of knowledge can work to destabilize technocratic
modes of governing. We illustrate the potential of our approach through ethnographic research
with people in southern Appalachia whose knowledge of ​climate change​ is based in the
perceptible effects of weather, landscape change due to ex-urbanization, and the potential
impacts of new migrants they call “​climate refugees​.” Valuing this knowledge builds more
diverse communities of action, resists the extraction of ​climate change​ from its complex
society–nature entanglements, and reveals the intimate connections between ​climate​ justice and
distinct cultural lifeways. We argue that only by opening up these new forms of ​climate​ praxis,
which allow people to take action using the knowledge they already have, can more just
socio-ecological transformations be brought into being.

Our Notes:
This article attempts to shift the conversation regarding ​climate change​ away from the
hegemonic framework of scientific discussion in order to be more inclusive to the experience of
climate change​ and offer a more democratic approach to ​climate change​. The authors
conducted ethnographic research with people in southern Appalachia regarding their experiences
with notable weather changes and anxieties towards an influx of population that could be
considered “​climate refugees​.” This article directly discusses Western North Carolina, and the
anxiety towards ​climate refugees​ hint at a more focused anxiety in Western Carolina that the
coastal communities will move inwards towards the mountains should the sea levels change. The
argument in the article urges for more ​climate​ literacy and to consider additional angles to
climate change​ other than science such as “moral and ethical considerations” (Smith 260) when
developing ​climate change​ policy.
 22

Our Keywords:
Stewardship, Environmental Justice, Call To Action, Amenity Migration

Reid, Herbert G., and Betsy Taylor. "John Dewey's Aesthetic Ecology of Public
Intelligence and the Grounding of Civic Environmentalism." Ethics & the Environment 8,
no. 1 (2003): 74-92.

Published Abstract:
This paper argues for the importance of John Dewey's aesthetic philosophy to recent efforts to
cultivate civic environmentalism while critiquing narrowly conservationist environmentalisms.
We call for a strong version of civic environmentalism oriented towards holistic integration of
ecological concerns into all aspects of social, political, economic, and cultural life. Such a civic
environmentalism argues that it is not enough to strive to preserve enclaved 'wilderness' or
'biodiversity'​ (as important as that is). It argues also for fundamental changes in the political and
economic status quo, because ecological havoc is understood to be integrally linked with the
structural forces that are increasing inequality and weakening democratic publics. Strengthening
of the civic ​commons​ is integral to protection of the environmental ​commons​. If the
environmental ​commons​ are the substantive goods in common which are the sustaining grounds
of life, the civic ​commons​ are the institutions, collective memories, social networks, and skills
that enable and inspire individuals to engage with each other in ​stewarding​ the common good.
Such collective labor for the larger good requires some form of collective imagination which
enables awareness of self and other (human or non-human) as inherently valuable. But beyond
this, it requires perceptual and social infrastructures that nurture the ability to see self and other
as emergent from and dependent on the supraindividual matrix that supports both life and
individual.

Our Notes:
This article offers a really helpful, grounding synthesis of many of our discussions surrounding
the body of research for this project thus far. It promotes Dewey’s “aesthetic ecology” which is
more holistic in its approach to conservation including economic, social, cultural, and political
concerns. “ Strengthening of the civic ​commons​ is integral to protection of the environmental
commons​.” (Reid and Taylor 75) This article offers examples of Appalachian dissent to illustrate
the larger themes the article is promoting, which can be summarized as “closing the gap between
scientific and aesthetic ​stewardship​.” (Reid and Taylor 89)

Our Keywords:
Commons, Biodiversity, Stewardship,
 23

Woods, Brad R., and Jason S. Gordon. "Mountaintop Removal and Job Creation:
Exploring the Relationship Using Spatial Regression." Annals of the Association of
American Geographers 101, no. 4 (2011): 806-815.

Published Abstract:
This project focused on a new and increasingly contested method of coal extraction, mountaintop
removal (MTR), and its effects on central Appalachian residents’ quality of life vis-à-vis
increased employment. Attention is given to central Appalachia because its fossil fuel landscapes
have undergone major changes as a result of two interrelated forces: (1) a national push for
energy independence that led to the region's all-time high production of coal (supplying over half
of the nation's coal); and (2) changes in mining technology that allowed for increased production.
Such transitions have led to widespread use of MTR mining, a method that entails removal of
extensive land area to expose coal seams. Although policymakers are aware of the negative
environmental effects of MTR, its continued use is primarily rationalized using the argument that
it contributes to local economies, especially job retention and development. MTR proponents
argue that, without MTR, other regions and countries more competitively extract coal.
Opponents counter that MTR fails to substantially contribute to employment due to efficiencies
in mechanization. This study used socio-spatial analysis to understand MTR's impact on
employment in southern West Virginia populated places. We integrated coal mining permit
boundaries with employment indicators obtained from the U.S. Census. Contrary to pro-MTR
arguments, we found no supporting evidence suggesting MTR contributed positively to nearby
communities’ employment. Implications for economic development are discussed.

Our Notes:
This article addresses the assertion that Mountaintop Removal coal offers substantial economic
development through job creation in Southern West Virginia, the article concludes their research
does not support that assertion. This article returns to Gaventa’s ​Power and Powerlessness​ to
offer an explanation for the general consensus of understanding that in West Virginia “coal
means jobs.” That statement remains a powerful narrative despite there being no statistical
evidence to support mountaintop removal as a increasing job growth. The article concludes that
mountaintop removal does not sustain communities long term and also has severe environmental
consequences.

Our Keywords:
Mineral Rights, Distribution of Benefits, Wealth,
 24

Chamberlain, James L., Stephen Prisley, and Michael McGuffin. "Understanding the
relationships between American ginseng harvest and hardwood forests inventory and
timber harvest to improve co-management of the forests of eastern United States." Journal
of sustainable forestry 32, no. 6 (2013): 605-624.

Published Abstract:
The roots of American ginseng have been harvested from the hardwood forests of the eastern
United States, alongside ​timber​, since the mid-1700s. Very little is known about this non-timber
commodity relative to ​timber,​ although significant volumes of ginseng root have been harvested
from the same forests along with ​timber​. The harvest of ​ginseng​ correlated positively and
significantly with hardwood forest area, hardwood growing stock volume, and ​timber​ removals.
Also, it correlated with hardwood growing stock on public forestlands in the region. The annual
wholesale value of American ginseng was estimated at approximately $26.9 million compared to
annual stumpage value of harvested hardwood ​timber​ of just over $1.27 billion. The volume of
ginseng root harvested from natural forests represents substantial extraction of biomass, and the
associated value represents substantial income for people living in an economically marginalized
region. Co-management of eastern hardwood forests for ​timber​ and non-​timber ​forest products
could improve local economies and better conserve the ​biodiversity ​of these forests.

Our Notes:
Non-timber products such as ​ginseng​ are rarely taken into consideration in managing hardwood
forests for extraction, though both industries are economically substantial. This article calls for a
co-managing of the products in order to maximize both industries which in turn would build
local economies and ​biodiversity​. 70% of ​ginseng​ extracted in the United States during the
research period 2000-2007 came from Appalachian States, and the research concludes that
ginseng ​in most often found in denser, mature forests which should be taken into consideration
when managing forest extraction.

Our Keywords:
Biodiversity, Timber, Distribution of Benefits, Wealth