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27 Managing for rational medicine use
28 Investigating medicine use
29 Promoting rational prescribing
30 Ensuring good dispensing practices
31 Community-based participation and initiatives
32 Drug seller initiatives
33 Encouraging appropriate medicine use by consumers
34 Medicine and therapeutics information
35 Pharmacovigilance
chap ter 33
Encouraging appropriate medicine use by consumers
Summary 33.2 illustrations
33.1 The need to encourage appropriate medicine Figure 33-1 Improving adherence to treatment 33.7
use 33.2 Figure 33-2 Consumer education poster used in accredited
Problems • Benefits drug-dispensing outlets in Tanzania 33.9
Figure 33-3 Steps in an effective public communication
33.2 Promoting treatment adherence and appropriate intervention 33.13
medicine use by patients 33.4 Figure 33-4 Hints for selecting communication methods for
Communication between providers and patients • public communication campaigns 33.22
Inadequate counseling • Lack of resources for medicines
and treatment • Complexity and duration of treatment • b oxes
Availability of information Box 33-1 Pharmaceutical issues to consider in treating
33.3 Monitoring adherence in health care children 33.5
facilities 33.9 Box 33-2 DOTS strategy for TB treatment 33.8
Box 33-3 Improving the efficacy of the DOTS strategy
33.4 Addressing determinants of adherence 33.9
through the use of enablers and incentives 33.11
33.5 Communicating with consumers about appropriate Box 33-4 Selected areas of intervention to improve
medicine use 33.10 medication adherence 33.12
Principles of public communication • Developing public Box 33-5 Questions to ask when you get a new prescription
communication strategies medicine 33.15
33.6 Facilitating and constraining factors in public Box 33-6 Key components of a communication plan 33.18
communication 33.18 c ountry studies
Facilitating factors • Constraining factors
CS 33-1 Medication counseling training for ART dispensers
33.7 Understanding the importance of communication in Kenya 33.6
about appropriate medicine use 33.21 CS 33-2 Using prepackaging to improve rational use of
References and further readings 33.21 medicines 33.10
CS 33-3 Using social marketing to promote the rational use
Assessment guide 33.23 of medicines and health commodities 33.14
CS 33-4 Neighbor-to-neighbor education on antimalarials in
Kenya 33.16
CS 33-5 The INN—A medicine’s true name: promoting
the use of International Nonproprietary
Names 33.17
CS 33-6 Innovative public education campaigns to improve
medicine use 33.19
annex
Annex 33-1 Pictograms for use on medicine labels 33.25
s u mm a r y
Although prescribers play an essential role in the choice • Communication between providers and patients
of medicines, the role of the consumer is equally impor- • Inadequate counseling
tant. Public knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions • Lack of resources for medicines and treatment
regarding the use of medicines influence the decision • Complexity and duration of treatment
whether to seek health care, from whom, and whether to • Availability of information
follow the proposed treatment. In some countries, most
Strategies to encourage appropriate medicine use by the
medicines can be bought directly over the counter, often
consumer can be public or patient centered, but they
from unauthorized sources, often in response to aggres-
should always be culturally specific. A public-centered
sive commercial marketing, and often through illegal
approach provides the community, or target populations
sales of prescription-only medicine.
within the community, with information on the role
For consumers to use medicines appropriately, they of medicines and on how to make appropriate health-
need to know how to take them, what to avoid, and what seeking decisions at times of illness.
negative effects to watch for. Communication is needed
Seven steps toward more effective communication strate-
at a general level to give people a better understand-
gies are—
ing of what medicines are, how they act in the body,
what their risks and benefits are, and what their role is 1. Describe medicine use and identify problems
in health care. At a more specific level, interventions 2. Prioritize problems
are needed to tackle particularly serious problems of 3. Analyze problems and identify solutions
misuse. Relevant strategies, based on known facilitating 4. Select and develop intervention
factors and possible constraints, must be developed and 5. Pretest intervention
implemented. 6. Implement intervention
7. Monitor and evaluate intervention
An increased focus on treating chronic diseases in devel-
oping countries, including HIV/AIDS, has resulted in Developing interventions in collaboration with the peo-
research designed to promote treatment adherence. A ple whose medicine-use patterns have been targeted for
major concern regarding poor adherence to treatment change helps ensure that the cultural and social context
for infectious disease is the development of antimicrobial in which beliefs and practices have developed is taken
resistance; poor adherence is also costly in terms of the into account. A variety of approaches and resources
patient’s quality of life, the subsequent increase in health improves the chance of the intervention’s success and
care expenditure, and reduced productivity. Components expands its capacity and reach.
to address in promoting adherence include—
33.1 The need to encourage appropriate First: People who are ill have to believe that their health
medicine use status has changed and that something is wrong with
them or that they need to take action to prevent illness.
Although the prescriber’s role in promoting rational medi- To some extent, a person’s culture defines this percep-
cine use is important, the patient, community, and cultural tion. In the case of children, the knowledge and expe-
context cannot be ignored. The knowledge, attitudes, and rience of the caregiver are critical determinants. This
education of the public in relation to disease etiology and decision can be complicated by the lack of observable
treatment are critical determinants in the decision to seek symptoms for some conditions.
health care, the choice of provider, the use of medicines, Second: People or caregivers have to decide whether
and the success of treatment—the patient or caregiver, this change of health status is significant enough for
therefore, is the final determinant of appropriate medicine them to seek help or whether the symptoms or poten-
use. Patients should be actively involved in the therapeutic tial health threat will go away without taking any
encounter and treatment. action.
Often, the patient or caregiver decides whether to go Third: After they decide to get help, people choose where
ahead with a treatment, a choice frequently influenced by to seek help: a hospital, a primary health care center,
the views of family, close friends, and the community. People a private physician, a pharmacist, a market vendor
make a series of decisions before choosing a treatment. or retail drug seller, a traditional healer, a relative, or
33 / Encouraging appropriate medicine use by consumers 33.3
• Improved confidence in health services and health care to medicine regimens among patients with chronic diseases
providers is mediocre, and the situation in developing countries is
• Increased success of measures to deal with public assumed to be worse because of the greater constraints to
health problems accessing affordable medicines and weaker health systems
• Development of expectations about receiving quality overall (WHO 2003). Poor adherence is a problem with any
medicines and pharmacy-related services treatment regimen, but achieving a high rate of adherence
• Protection of the effectiveness of essential antibiotics and sustaining it over the long run is extremely difficult (Gill
by decreasing development of antimicrobial resistance et al. 2005).
Reasons that patients do not follow prescribed short-term
Communication is needed at a general level to give or chronic disease treatment include—
people a better understanding of what medicines are, how
they act in the body, what their risks and benefits may be, • Lack of ready access to care (for example, distance to
and what role they play in health care. At a more specific clinic) or patient-unfriendly schedules (for example,
level, interventions are needed to tackle particularly serious limited hours of operation)
problems of misuse. Campaigns for the wiser use of specific • Lack of appointments
medicines (for example, in malaria control programs) have • Poor communication between providers and patients
proved effective in reducing morbidity and mortality and • Inadequate counseling
in reducing needless expenditures. Other campaigns have • Lack of resources for medicines and related treatment
tackled particular medicine-related problems. For example, visits (for example, cost of travel)
WHO launched Make Medicines Child Size to advocate for • Complexity and duration of treatment, particularly in
and address treatment issues specific to children. Box 33-1 cases of chronic disease
provides more information on medicines and children. • Lack of access to information
Box 33-1
Pharmaceutical issues to consider in treating children
training programs in developing countries; for example, as powerfully affect how the consumer receives, understands,
part of a countrywide antimicrobial resistance containment and retains it. Patients remember the first instructions pre-
initiative, the University of Zambia revised its medical cur- sented the best; they recall instructions that are emphasized;
riculum to include antimicrobial resistance and rational and the fewer instructions given, the greater the proportion
medicines use (Joshi 2010). they remember. Thus, a message must not only be clear; it
Adherence to treatment is linked to the clarity of the pre- must also be succinct and then organized and delivered in
scriber’s explanation: patients often feel that instructions are a way that allows the patient to understand and process the
unclear or nonexistent. The timing and clarity of a message information completely.
33.6 U SE
Although adherence to treatment depends on a patient’s period so that each individual can receive more time with
acceptance of information about the health threat itself, the prescriber and dispenser. Another possibility is to train
the practitioner must also be able to persuade the patient staff to make better use of the time available and to ensure
that the treatment is worthwhile. Adherence to treatment is that patients do not fall into an “information gap”: if the
linked to the patient’s perception of the practitioner’s friend- provider does not have the time to explain the treatment to
liness, empathy, interest, and concern. Finally, in most cir- the patient and ensure that the patient fully understands the
cumstances, it is essential not only to specify the patient’s instructions, the dispenser or nurse should receive train-
precise actions (for example, taking two pills twice a day) ing to do this. Second, health care providers must prioritize
but also to suggest how the patient can insert that action into and effectively communicate critical information to patients
the daily routine (for example, taking them at breakfast and under less-than-ideal circumstances. Staff must be encour-
dinner). To accomplish this, the health care provider must aged to understand that effective communication with
understand the patient’s circumstances; for example, some patients is not an unrealistic ideal but a core aspect of clini-
patients may not be able to afford more than one meal a day cal practice.
or may have an atypical schedule, such as working at night Another common problem is a lack of space for confiden-
and sleeping during the day. tial counseling. Pharmacy staff often must use a dispensing
A more fruitful patient-provider interaction can be window that is crowded with customers to give information
encouraged if providers increase their sensitivity, patient to one patient. The Rational Pharmaceutical Management
and consumer organizations actively promote such inter- Plus Program helped facilities in several countries, including
action, and relevant campaigns are carried out to empower Kenya and Ethiopia, to construct private dispensing booths
patients. where dispensers can counsel patients privately. Although
the booths were constructed primarily to provide confiden-
Inadequate counseling tiality to patients on ART, all patients, no matter what their
condition, benefit from the dispensing booths.
WHO estimates that the average amount of time that a dis- Country Study 33-1 shows how an emphasis on counsel-
penser spends with a patient is less than one minute and ing for ART in Kenya improved medication counseling for
that only about half of patients receive instructions on how all patients at the facility.
to take the medicines they receive (Holloway and van Dijk
2011). Providers sometimes attribute lack of interaction Lack of resources for medicines and treatment
with patients to the pressures of work and a lack of adequate
staff. To help correct this problem, two things need to hap- Patients in developing countries are more likely to pay out
pen. First, health care facilities need to examine their patient of pocket for the medicines they need—over 70 percent of
care routines to increase efficiency and add time for more medicine expenditures in low-income countries consist of
patient interaction. For example, many health centers and consumer payments (Holloway and van Dijk 2011). When
outpatient departments see all their patients during a few the patient bears part or all of the cost, he or she may not
morning hours. One possibility to consider is extending this buy the medicine at all if it is too expensive. When more
than one medicine is prescribed (in some countries, the Complexity and duration of treatment
average number of medicines per prescription is five to
six), the patient may be able to afford only one or two of The longer and more complex the treatment, the greater
the products listed and may choose the less important, rela- the likelihood that the patient will not follow it. Adherence
tively cheaper ones, such as vitamins, or buy only a partial to short-term treatments (less than two weeks) can be
treatment. improved by clear instructions, special “reminder” pill con-
Providers need to know the approximate prices of medi- tainers and calendars, and simplified medicine regimens
cines they prescribe, select the cheapest available generic (see Figure 33-1). Adherence to long-term treatments is
medicines that are compatible with quality and therapeu- more difficult to achieve; the DOTS program was designed
tic needs, and keep the number of products prescribed to a to increase adherence to onerous TB treatment (Box 33-2).
minimum. If the provider prescribes more than one medi- Fixed-dose combinations of multiple medicines in one tab-
cine, he or she should indicate the most important ones to let or capsule simplify a treatment regimen as does prepack-
the patient. aging treatments, such as blister packs of artemisinin-based
Other economic factors may influence a patient’s ability combination therapy. Although no single intervention is
to access medicines. The patient may have enough money useful on its own, combinations of clear instructions, fol-
to buy the medicine but not enough to pay for the clinic low-up of patients missing appointments, patient self-mon-
visit. If the health care facility is too far away, the patient may itoring, social support, cues for when to take the medicines,
not have enough money to pay for transportation. A lack rewards, and group discussions are useful.
of food can also affect treatment adherence; for example, in
Tanzania, patients reported taking their ARVs only once a Availability of information
day instead of twice, because that was the only time they had
food (Hardon et al. 2006). In some DOTS programs, food The availability of printed information in simple language
baskets provide incentives for clients to come in and take to supplement a medicine’s label may increase treatment
their medications. adherence. (Labeling is covered in Chapters 30 and 34.)
Such patient information leaflets need well-written text
in the local language, effective graphic design, large print
size, and clear layout to enhance legibility; a question-and-
Box 33-2 answer format may stimulate consumer involvement.
DOTS strategy for TB treatment In many parts of the world, producing leaflets for individ-
TB was the first disease for which an adherence strat- ual patients is not feasible. High rates of nonliteracy in some
egy was developed and implemented on a large scale— countries also limit the value of such information. Yet simple
DOTS, which originally stood for directly observed instructions for the most commonly used and misused med-
treatment, short-course. DOTS is considered one of icines could be printed on inexpensive paper. Simple book-
the most cost-effective of all health interventions. The lets or posters for display in retail outlets and health centers
aspects directly related to patient adherence include can provide consumer information on the most common
using the most effective standardized, short-course medicines. Even nonliterate patients can obtain information
regimens and FDCs to facilitate adherence; super from such publications with help from family or community
vising treatment in a context-specific and patient- members. Figure 33-2 shows a poster used in Tanzania, trans-
sensitive manner; and identifying and addressing lated from Swahili, to inform accredited drug-dispensing
physical, financial, social, cultural, and health system outlet customers about antimicrobial resistance.
barriers to accessing TB treatment services. Pictograms can provide reinforcing information about
medicines. A setting and rising sun or moon to represent
Effective DOTS programs can help minimize the different times of the day for taking medicine have been
emergence of antimicrobial resistance to medicines; used in a number of countries, although an evaluation
however, TB strains that are resistant to conventional in Bangladesh found that dispensers had to be trained
therapy have been documented in almost every coun- in their use. The U.S. Pharmacopeia developed a series of
try. Countries that have the highest proportion of pictograms for use on medicine labels (see Annex 33-1).
multidrug-resistant (MDR)-TB cases are in Eastern The International Pharmaceutical Federation also has a
Europe, including Azerbaijan and Belarus (WHO pictogram project (http://www.fip.org/www/index.php?
2011b). DOTS-Plus, designed to respond to MDR-TB, page=pp_sect_maepsm_pictogram).
is a supplementary treatment strategy that builds on A study in South Africa showed that images that had been
DOTS but focuses on the rational use of second-line developed locally were interpreted correctly more often
TB medicines to treat MDR-TB cases. than the U.S. Pharmacopeia images (Dowse and Ehlers
2004); therefore, each country needs to develop its own
33 / Encouraging appropriate medicine use by consumers 33.9
Figure 33-2 Consumer education poster used in accredited patients and health care providers, who tend to over
drug-dispensing outlets in Tanzania estimate adherence. Objective measures include count-
ing doses of medicine at clinic or home visits, but this
method tends to overestimate adherence and does not
reflect other adherence information, such as timing of
doses and missed doses. Special medicine-bottle caps that
record when a dose is removed are expensive and gener-
ally are used only for clinical trials. Relying on pharmacy
records to see when prescriptions are filled and refilled
is another method that is objective, but it does not indi-
cate medicine use once the prescription has been filled.
Directly observed treatment by a health care worker is the
cornerstone of adherence for TB, but this approach is not
practical for many long-term treatment regimens. Other
objective methods use clinical monitoring, such as testing
for blood sugar for diabetes or CD4 counts or viral load
for HIV/AIDS.
The International Network for the Rational Use of Drugs
Initiative on Adherence to Antiretrovirals has developed
and validated a set of indicators that can be used to monitor
adherence to ART either at the facility or HIV/AIDS pro-
gram level. The indicators measure treatment adherence and
defaulting by using routine pharmacy records and patient
interviews to look at appointment keeping and days covered
by dispensed medicine over a period of time. The indica-
tors correlate with increases in patients’ CD4 counts and
weight (Ross-Degnan et al. 2010). The initiative published
a manual and tools to measure adherence that offers a step-
by-step guide on how to design and carry out a national or
facility survey or a program adherence survey. The manual
symbols using culturally recognizable objects. Pretesting is and tools can be downloaded for adaptation and use (http://
important, because patients need to understand the symbols www.inrud.org/ARV-Adherence-Project/Adherence-
without explanation. Research has shown that culturally Survey-Tools-and-Manual.cfm).
appropriate icons can improve how well patients understand
medicine labels and adhere to treatment but that inappro-
priate icons can be more confusing than words (Shrank et 33.4 Addressing determinants of adherence
al. 2007).
Causes of poor adherence vary and are not well understood.
WHO has defined five “dimensions” of adherence illustrat-
33.3 Monitoring adherence in health care ing that adherence is not the responsibility of the patient
facilities alone (WHO 2003). They are (a) social and economic fac-
tors, (b) patient-related factors, (c) health care team and
One particular challenge is how to measure and quantify system factors, (d) therapy-related factors, and (e) condition-
adherence rates. No consensus exists for measuring adher- related factors. For example, patients may not have the
ence, and research reflects the variety of methods in practice money or transportation to access treatment, or they may
(WHO 2003). A study of twenty-four health care systems have to wait for hours to pick up their medicines. Some
serving more than 86,000 AIDS patients in East Africa patients, especially those with HIV/AIDS or mental illness,
showed that facilities used a wide range of methods to cal- may feel stigmatized. Prescribers may not explain treatment
culate treatment adherence. Fourteen different operational clearly, or the treatment regimen may be difficult to follow
definitions of treatment defaulting existed, ranging from or cause adverse reactions. A study in Ethiopia and Uganda
one day to six months following a missed appointment showed that a positive and confidential partnership between
(Chalker et al. 2010). patients and health care providers enhanced patients’ sat-
Methods to measure adherence rates are subjective isfaction and feelings of trust in the treatment and helped
or objective: subjective measures include reporting by overcome adherence barriers (Gusdal et al. 2009).
33.10 U SE
Strategies to increase patient adherence include the use of ing medication counseling and adherence monitoring.
FDCs and prepackaged patient packs to simplify treatment However, as discussed in Chapter 51, the lack of trained
(Country Study 33-2). WHO and the International Union health professionals in many countries makes adequately
against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease recommend FDCs monitoring rational medicine use difficult, especially for
to ensure proper treatment of TB (Blomberg et al. 2001). chronic disease medications. This gap in human resources
Another intervention often incorporated as part of DOTS makes using other personnel, such as drug sellers, that
is the use of incentives or enablers to positively influence the much more crucial (see Chapter 32). In addition, educat-
behavior of both providers and patients. An enabler might ing patients as well as the entire community about the
be a transportation voucher that helps the patient get to the importance of adherence and medicine use and exploring
treatment facility; an incentive could be a monetary bonus the effectiveness of community-based interventions (see
for a private provider who refers suspected TB patients to Chapter 31) become much more important.
an accredited testing facility (Box 33-3). ART programs
are instituting interventions to increase adherence, such as
reducing waiting time, tracking appointment keeping and 33.5 Communicating with consumers about
following up with patients, and using peer counselors as appropriate medicine use
support (Gusdal et al. 2011). A TB program in Cape Town
uses text messaging on cell phones to remind patients to Strategies to encourage appropriate medicine use by the
take their medicines (Green 2003). consumer can be public or patient centered, but they should
Interventions to promote adherence should address bar- always be culturally specific. A public-centered approach
riers at all levels of the health care system and not just focus provides the community, or target populations within the
on the patient alone. Like interventions to improve ratio- community, with information on the role of medicines and
nal medicine use, a single-factor intervention probably has on how to make appropriate health-seeking decisions at
limited effectiveness compared with an approach that takes times of illness.
multiple factors into account. Box 33-4 shows some proven
interventions related to the five dimensions of adherence. Principles of public communication
The HIV/AIDS pandemic has focused attention on
expanding the role of pharmacy staff in providing a full The following principles should guide public education in
range of pharmaceutical care services to the patient, includ- appropriate medicine use—
Box 33-3
Improving the efficacy of the DOTS strategy through the use of enablers and incentives
Treatment success in the 2009 worldwide DOTS cohort Some examples of successful motivators include the
of 5.8 million patients was 86 percent on average, edg- following—
ing closer to the 90 percent target for 2015. However,
• In rural Bangladesh, patients sign a contract and
treatment success was below average in the European
pay a deposit of about 3.50 U.S. dollars upon ini-
region (67 percent) (WHO 2011b). WHO estimates that
tiation of TB treatment. At completion of therapy,
between 1995 and 2010, 6.8 million lives were saved
patients receive back 37.5 percent of their original
because of the DOTS strategy.
deposit, and the community-based supervisor
To help improve the effectiveness of the DOTS strategy, receives the remainder. The “deposit” scheme was
many TB control projects and programs worldwide associated with significantly better TB treatment
have adopted measures called enablers and incentives to adherence and case detection compared to the
motivate health care providers and patients. An enabler national average.
is something given to the patient or treatment provider • Targeting homeless and other vulnerable popula-
that makes participation possible, practical, or easy. For tions, the Czech Republic offers vouchers worth 4
example, providing bus tokens makes it easier for people to 5 euros for purchasing goods after TB diagno-
to get to their appointments. An incentive is a stimulus sis. As a result, case detection is five times higher
designed to encourage stakeholders to behave in a certain among the homeless population receiving the
way, such as providing food baskets to patients who show incentive.
up to their appointments. • Patients received travel support to attend a TB
clinic in Romania for one year. During the pilot
Unfortunately, the weak evidence base about enablers
program, adherence to treatment increased to 95
and incentives makes assessment of their effectiveness
percent, then fell back to 80 percent when the pro-
difficult. However, their potential role has been described
gram ended.
in literature reviews, surveys of experiences, and map-
ping workshops. Source: RPM Plus Program 2005.
• Medicine use should be viewed within the context • To facilitate informed choices on medicine use, public
of the society, community, family, and individual. communication should be accompanied by supportive
Public communication on medicines should recog- legislation, such as regulating pharmaceutical advertis-
nize cultural diversity in concepts of health and illness ing and promotion and controls on medicine avail-
or notions about how medicines work. The different ability. In addition, governments should ensure that
expectations surrounding conventional and traditional over-the-counter medicines have adequate labels and
medicines need to be considered, as do preferences for include accurate and easily understood instructions.
injections or for tablets of a particular color because • Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), community
they are considered more potent. Social factors such groups, and consumer and professional organizations
as poverty, disadvantage, and power relations can also have important roles to play in public communication
influence medicine use. programs and should be involved, when possible, in
• School curricula should include education in the the planning and implementation of communication
appropriate use of medicines, with different messages activities.
and educational approaches used for students of dif- • Effective public information about medicines requires
ferent ages (see, for example, Cebotarenco and Bush a commitment to, and an understanding of the need
2008). for, improved communication between health care
• Public communication should encourage informed providers and patients. Educational and training cur-
decision making by individuals, families, and com- ricula for providers should reflect this commitment.
munities on the use of medicines and on nonmedicine
solutions. Developing public communication strategies
• Public communication should be based on the best
available scientific information about medicines, Effective communication involves a process that is modi-
including their efficacy and side effects. fied as new information on its effectiveness and need for
33.12 U SE
improvements become evident and new communication Providing information is much easier than changing
methods and technologies become available (see Figure behavior. Many studies show that knowledge does not nec-
33-3). essarily influence action. Changing people’s behavior gener-
Public communication can aim to influence people’s ally requires a long-term strategy undertaken after a careful
thinking in many ways, including— analysis of the situation and identification of priority prob-
lems, with knowledge of the societal context in which the
• Organizing campaigns to promote the values and strategy will be carried out. Identification of target groups
benefits of essential medicines and pretested, culturally specific materials are necessary.
• Empowering the consumer to understand what a cor- These materials should always be evaluated for their effect
rect prescription should look like and to know what not only on knowledge acquired but also on actual behav-
questions to ask a health care provider ioral change. Repeat messaging is useful.
• Providing young people with a general knowledge base The steps shown in Figure 33-3 are discussed in the fol-
about the actions and use of medicines on which they lowing sections.
can draw as adult consumers Step 1: Describe medicine use and identify problems.
• Targeting a particular problem related to medicine use, Investigating how medicines are prescribed, dispensed, and
such as home injections and the reuse of needles used is the foundation for the communication process. Such
• Working through pharmacies to offer information on an investigation should address the following issues—
specific medicines and treatment categories, as in the
comprehensive information programs developed by Information already available: Reports of studies or from
the national corporation of Swedish pharmacists and annual reports of organizations working in related fields
the pharmaceutical society of Australia can provide information about the problem.
Box 33-4
Selected areas of intervention to improve medication adherence
Condition
• Screening and treating patient depression or sub-
stance abuse
33 / Encouraging appropriate medicine use by consumers 33.13
Step 1
Describe medicine use
and identify problems
Step 2
Prioritize
problems
Step 3
Analyze problems and
Improve identify solutions
analysis
Step 6 Step 5
Implement Pretest
intervention intervention
New information needed: If it is not already available, infor- pening. Qualitative methods, such as focus group discus-
mation is needed on sources of medicines and on how sions and in-depth individual interviews, yield substantial
health services and medicines are used in the commu- information about specific behaviors, as well as the reasons
nity. The more data obtained on audience characteristics, and motivations underlying them: they explore how and
the better: demographics, socioeconomic and literacy why things are happening. These methods, described in
status, language patterns, community decision making Chapter 28, generate many ideas and provide language for
and leadership processes, characteristics of prescribers communication materials. A handbook is also available on
and users, and local beliefs and practices relating to dis- how to investigate consumers’ use of medicines (Hardon,
ease etiology and the use of medicines are all useful. Hodgkin, and Fresle 2004).
Communication networks: What sources of information Step 2: Prioritize problems. Policy makers or health
about medicines, including nonmedical sources, are professionals can prioritize medicine-use problems, but
most credible to the target audience? What channels of involving stakeholders through focus group discussions, for
information reach users most effectively? Do mass media example, can increase community support for the process
channels play a role? What role can new technologies (for (Hardon, Hodgkin, and Fresle 2004). Questions to ask when
example, mobile phones) play? prioritizing problems include the following: How many
Communication development: What resources exist in people are affected? Is the problem common or rare? How
research, education and training, production and distri- serious is the resulting adverse effect? Does the problem cost
bution of information, and social mobilization? a lot of money? Does the community recognize the problem
as serious? Will a community-based intervention solve the
Researchers can combine quantitative and qualitative problem or does it require a different type of intervention,
research methods to obtain the necessary data. Quantitative such as regulation? (Hardon, Hodgkin, and Fresle 2004).
methods, such as household surveys, provide useful infor- Once these questions are answered about the identified
mation on levels of knowledge and on the practices and problems, the problems can be rated based on preselected
beliefs prevalent in a population: they measure what is hap- criteria.
33.14 U SE
Step 3: Analyze problems and identify solutions. should achieve. The intervention plan defines objectives and
Initial research and prioritization of problems explore outlines how to reach them. The plan should include the ele-
the causes of the problems, define the behaviors to be ments discussed below.
adopted or changed or knowledge to be acquired, and
describe constraints and facilitating factors that will affect Realistic and well-defined communication objectives:
the planning process and the feasibility of possible objec- Clear objectives make it easier to formulate activities
tives. Objectives for the analysis include identifying how that are likely to achieve the objectives and measure
stakeholders view the problems and possible solutions achievements. These objectives should focus on specific
and identifying factors that can facilitate interventions problems and target the people exhibiting the problem
(Hardon, Hodgkin, and Fresle 2004). All stakeholders, behavior. General campaigns may raise awareness, but
including community members, should have the opportu- they are unlikely to result in significant behavioral
nity to consider potential solutions to the problems. The changes.
target audience for the solution may be the entire popula- Approaches to change: Approaches can include either a
tion in the case of a broad-based national program; more campaign approach of short, high-intensity programs
often, however it will be a subsection of the community, that focus on single issues (for example, injection misuse)
such as schoolchildren, mothers of young children, the or longer-term, sustained efforts integrated with other
elderly, community leaders, or women’s organizations. primary health care and educational activities (such as
Problem analysis should also provide insight into the cul- a literacy reader on medicine use, lesson outlines for
tural context of behavior and beliefs and indications of the primary or secondary school curriculum, or routine
useful language and expressions. health center education sessions).
Step 4: Select and develop intervention. A critical part The communication strategy may use a persuasive
of the planning process is to clarify what the intervention or social marketing approach to influence the target
Box 33-5
Questions to ask when you get a new prescription medicine
• What is the name of the medicine, and what is it sup- –– When breast-feeding
posed to do? –– While driving or operating machinery
• Is this the brand or generic name? (Is a generic ver- –– If taking other medicines
sion available?)
• What are the possible side effects, and what do I do if
• When do I take the medicine—and for how long?
they occur?
• Should I take this medicine on an empty stomach or
• When should I expect the medicine to begin to
with food?
work, and how will I know if it is working?
• What should I do if I forget a dose?
• Will this new prescription work safely with the other
• What foods, drinks, medicines, dietary supplements,
prescription and nonprescription medicines I am
or activities should I avoid while taking this medi-
taking?
cine?
• How should I store this medicine at home?
• What precautions should be taken?
Source: National Council on Patient Information and Education,
–– By children “Talk about Prescriptions” Planning Kit for October 2005. <http://
–– During pregnancy www.talkaboutrx.org/questions_new_prescrip2005.jsp>
audience. Social marketing, often criticized as a top- Country Study 33-4 discusses a neighbor-to-neighbor
down approach, can be an effective communication communication strategy to improve the use of anti
strategy, particularly in specifically targeted campaigns malarials in a district in Kenya.
that take into account community needs, perceptions, Collaborating institutions: Collaborating with a wide range
and values (see Country Study 33-3). Alternatively, of institutions—NGOs; consumer organizations; reli-
giving people the information and the problem- gious, women’s, youth, or social solidarity organizations;
solving skills necessary to make their own decisions schools; development agencies such as WHO and the
is ideal in the long run but much more difficult to United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF); and pro-
implement and evaluate. With disadvantaged groups, fessional associations—enhances visibility, potentially
it can also involve consciousness-raising and pro- increases impact, and can be used to promote rational
moting awareness that they are empowered to make use concepts and the national pharmaceutical policy.
decisions and control their own lives. For example, Religious groups provide a substantial proportion of
consumers can be encouraged to act with authority health care and are potential partners in many countries.
and ask questions of the health care provider (see Country Study 33-5 illustrates a public education cam-
Box 33-5). paign launched through a collaboration of several French
Communication channels to deliver messages: Ideally, a consumer and professional organizations.
communication program should combine different Monitoring and evaluation (see Step 7 below): Milestones
channels, including interpersonal channels, to maximize (for example, number of manuals produced or number
exchange. Each channel has its own strength: what mat- of workshops completed) can help chart progress toward
ters is that it be cost-effective and appropriate to the the objectives of the communication plan.
audience and the message. Possibilities include— Timetable, budget, and source of financing: For each activ-
ity, the plan should define when it is to occur, who is
–– Printed materials—posters, leaflets, textbooks, responsible for it, and the funding source. A common
comics method of displaying such information is a Gantt chart
–– Mass media and electronic media—radio, television, (see Chapter 38).
newspapers, CD-ROMs, DVDs, the Internet, mobile
technology, short-message service (SMS) Step 5: Pretest intervention. Although frequently over-
–– Folk media—community theater, puppets, singing looked, pretesting materials is essential and saves time and
groups, and other such media (important traditional money. Pretesting also often produces surprising results; for
channels in many countries) example, a patient may completely misunderstand a picture,
–– Interpersonal (or face-to-face) encounters—health particularly if it uses a stylized design in a society that is
workers, schoolteachers, community leaders, shop- relatively inexperienced in interpreting graphic images.
keepers, community organizations Pretesting can help answer the following questions—
33.16 U SE
• Does the target audience understand the materials? • Target audiences are receiving program materials and
• Do they feel that the materials apply to them? messages
• Do they find the materials attractive? • Target audiences are using the materials and under-
• Is anything offensive or culturally inappropriate? standing the messages (in the case of radio pro-
• Is the message convincing? If not, why not? grams, such an assessment might include a program
• Do changes need to be made in the message or its for- log with transmission times, and tapes and listener
mat? interviews to determine whether the messages were
understood)
The WHO guide to improving consumers’ medicine use • The program is on schedule (if not, why not?)
(Chetley et al. 2007) points out that pretesting is also a way
to open dialogue with the target audience on key issues, con- Monitoring produces feedback on how well the commu-
firm research about the medicine use problem, and gather nication is working. It allows assessment and definition of
opinions on the planned intervention. what changes can or should be made as the intervention
Step 6: Implement intervention. Unless other interven- progresses. In face-to-face communication, for example,
tions have already been implemented and evaluated, the good communicators automatically monitor whether they
intervention usually serves as a pilot study, which makes are having the desired effect and then vary their style and
evaluating the success of the intervention important, as well content accordingly if necessary (Chetley et al. 2007).
as gathering information on how it worked, so changes can Evaluating communication interventions is more chal-
be made later (Chetley et al. 2007). lenging. An evaluation to determine whether the activities
Before beginning, ensure that all materials and people are met program objectives should distinguish between attitude
ready, channels of distribution are organized, and everyone change, knowledge acquisition, and behavior change. One
involved is fully informed about program goals and strate- may occur without the other, but most educational interven-
gies. In addition, the monitoring and evaluation plan should tions target more than one.
be in place. Delays in program implementation will have All study designs must measure change using key out-
implications for future planned activities. come measures that relate to the communication objectives
Step 7: Monitor and evaluate intervention. Monitoring (Chetley et al. 2007). One should—
relates to how well the activities are being implemented as the
intervention progresses, and evaluation assesses how well the • Review the intervention’s communication objectives
objectives are being achieved (see Chapter 48). Monitoring • Identify in advance what behaviors are likely to be
and evaluation processes need to be planned at the beginning influenced because of the intervention and what
of a project, not addressed at the end of the intervention. changes in knowledge and attitudes are expected
Once the program starts, a clear system of monitoring • Limit the number of outcome measures: do not mea-
should be used to assess whether— sure all possible changes
• Measure more than one dimension: decide whether
• Training has been sufficient and effective the design will measure changes in attitudes, changes
33 / Encouraging appropriate medicine use by consumers 33.17
in knowledge, or changes in medicine-use behavior, or • Use or adaptation of the program by other groups as a
any combination of these dimensions model in developing their own projects
• Choose outcome measures that can be clearly defined
and reliably measured When possible, compare results with those from a control
group not exposed to the intervention.
Pre- and postintervention quantitative research are needed Reassessment of procedures requires feedback on the fol-
to measure effect on behavior. Defining some clear quantita- lowing questions—
tive indicators, such as the percentage of respondents who
self-treat a specific condition correctly or who never reuse • What problems occurred in developing and imple-
disposable syringes, is also useful. Measures that can deter- menting the program?
mine impact include— • Was the intervention acceptable to stakeholders?
• What factors outside the project (for example, change
• Exposure to project messages and materials of legislation, increase or decrease in available medi-
• Proportion of knowledge change cines, support from the ministry of health) may have
• Change in consumer satisfaction contributed to its success or lack of success?
• Change in medicine sales patterns • What factors within the project may have contributed
• Proportion of reported behavior change to its success or lack of success?
The INN on drug packaging: practical and safe! A holiday trip ends in hospital
Anthony hands his prescription to the pharmacist. Marcelle and René are on a package tour to Thailand. But they
have forgotten to bring their medicines with them, including
“My doctor uses the INN—the international nonproprietary their “blood pressure” drugs. It’s not a problem for Marcelle.
name—on prescriptions,” says Anthony. “Could you give me a She knows the international nonproprietary name (INN) of the
product where I can clearly see the INN on the box?” beta-blocker she has to take every day: metoprolol. The doctor
in Bangkok has no trouble prescribing the right treatment for
“There you are. On this product the INN is clearly visible on the her. René remembers only the trade name of his medication,
box, and it is also printed on each blister—the small plastic Avlocardyl®, and the Bangkok doctor has never heard of it.
wells holding the tablets, under the aluminum film . . .That way, The same drug is marketed in Thailand, but under a dozen
if you leave home with only part of the blister pack, you’ll still different trade names, none of which resembles Avlocardyl.
know what drug it contains.” The doctor prescribes another antihypertensive drug, but
René reacts badly to it and has to be hospitalized. If only he’d
Anthony is happy: with the INN clearly visible at all times, he is known the INN…
sure of taking the right medicine at the right time.
The INN: one drug, one name, everywhere in the world
Placing the INN on drug packaging reduces the risk of error.
Box 33-6
Key components of a communication plan
• Communication objectives (awareness; increased include visual aids: posters, flyers, pamphlets, bro-
knowledge; behaviors to be influenced, adopted, or chures, video; mass media: radio, television, news-
changed); keep in mind that these may be phased or papers; folk media; mobile technology and SMS;
cumulative and may each involve different channels interpersonal or face-to-face.
of communication. • Method for pretesting of materials or intervention.
• Intended audience(s) (include extent to which you • Collaborating institutions: collaborating with a wide
will involve audience in program planning). range of institutions in communication activities
• Likely constraints (for each audience). enhances visibility, potentially increases impact, and
• Likely facilitating factors (for each audience). acts as general advocacy for rational-use concepts
• Approaches to change: power/sanctions, logic/facts, and the national pharmaceutical policy.
appeal/emotion, incentive/reward, facilitate/remove • Monitoring and evaluation: this should include
obstacles, fear or danger/emotion or combinations reporting and publications.
of these. • Timeline (plan of activities).
• Communication channels: a communications pro- • Budget, with identification of secure source of fund-
gram should use a combination of channels, known ing or potential funders to be approached.
as media mix, to maximize exchange; possibilities Source: Chetley et al. 2007.
• What improvements could be made? still important: no human behavior takes place in a vacuum;
• What are the most important lessons for the future? it is always “rational” within a given personal framework.
Many beliefs about health care do not match a biomedical
Fully documented communication activities are easier model, and recognition of both strengths and weaknesses
to monitor and evaluate, and help future program plan- of local traditions is needed. The credible channels of com-
ners learn from the experience. Even when communication munication in a community should always be used to pro-
activities are carried out on a large scale, obtaining reports vide information. Materials must be pretested, because the
on them is often very difficult, particularly in developing perception of professionals will not be the same as those of
countries. This difficulty leads to unnecessary duplication, a layperson whose formal education may be limited or non
loss of experience gained, and waste of resources. For exam- existent. Above all—and particularly when resources are
ple, a WHO study of twenty-eight developing and thirteen limited—it is necessary to prioritize interventions in terms
developed countries showed that public education interven- of the risk the problems pose to public health and then focus
tions on rational medicine use were poorly documented on the major problem behavior and target the main risk
(Fresle and Wolfheim 1997). In addition, most of the plan- groups.
ning of the interventions was unstructured, with poorly Country Study 33-6 illustrates innovative public educa-
defined objectives and broadly defined target groups, such tion campaigns that focus on rational medicine use in three
as “general public.” Also, the interventions generally suffered countries.
from a lack of consistent funding and little government or
donor commitment, making it difficult for them to gain
momentum and show success. 33.6 Facilitating and constraining factors in
In summary, the preceding steps can be used for small public communication
educational interventions or large national programs. No
single approach is the solution to all health communication Many factors, which vary according to a country’s level of
problems; selecting from a tool kit of possibilities, based on development and health care infrastructure, affect public
an analysis of the situational context and the most appro- communication activities both positively and negatively.
priate approach to apply, is increasingly recognized as the Factors that can facilitate public communication include the
best way to develop effective communication interventions political will to increase medicine education and informa-
(Chetley et al. 2007). Box 33-6 lists the key components of a tion, an understanding of people’s health-seeking behavior,
communication plan. and expanded coverage by mass media. On the other hand,
Even if resources are sufficient only for a small-scale edu- public education can be constrained by a lack of coherent
cational intervention, knowing why people act as they do is policies on both medicine use and public education; com-
33 / Encouraging appropriate medicine use by consumers 33.19
mercial interests; professional interests; weak infrastruc- nized consumer and public interest groups, especially in
ture; lack of resources; and economic, social, and cultural developing countries, access to information through the
influences. Internet, and the movement for individuals to take more
responsibility for their own health care stimulate public
Facilitating factors interest in and demand for medicine and health informa-
tion. Awareness of the level of patient nonadherence to
Facilitating factors stimulate, provide, or promote a fertile treatment regimens has also grown along with the increas-
environment for public education. Identifying these factors ing emphasis on chronic conditions, including AIDS, in
can improve public communication campaigns. developing countries.
Increased awareness of the need for public education Increased networking allows government health services,
on medicines. The democratic process, the growth of orga- NGOs, and community-based groups to share their public
education experiences, so groups can learn from the experi- public education on medicines is a sensitive issue, because it
ence of others. may lead to community challenges of commercial and other
As a response to both regulatory requirements and con- vested interests. To improve the situation, a multisectoral
sumer pressures, some pharmaceutical companies are mov- approach involving key stakeholders both inside and out-
ing toward providing improved and user-friendly written side the health sector is crucial.
patient information. In addition, some professional bodies Commercial interests. Commercial interests do not
(notably pharmacists) in Europe, the United States, and always match public interest. Particularly in developing
Australia have developed training programs for their mem- countries, where control of pharmaceutical promotion may
bers to promote communication skills and interaction with be nonexistent, weak, or unenforceable, industry may con-
consumers. Many universities have also added such courses tribute to inappropriate medicine use by conducting pro-
to their medical and pharmacy curricula. motional activities based on inaccurate information.
Knowledge of social and behavioral theory. Research In retail drug outlets, where many people seek health
in the last decade has greatly expanded the knowledge base care and buy pharmaceuticals for self-medication, the shop
underlying health- and medicine-seeking behavior, particu- owner may or may not have any health care training or expe-
larly its cultural dimensions. Anthropologists have studied rience, and the counter attendants are typically untrained.
how medicine consumption is culturally mediated (van der Because the objective of these businesses is to make a
Geest, Hardon, and Whyte 1990). profit, the drug sellers generally sell the medications that
Expanded coverage by mass media and information the customer requests, without providing any information.
technology. Communication technology has created pow- However, increased recognition that informal drug sellers
erful mechanisms to convey educational messages. Many play an important role in the public’s rational use of medi-
people have access to radio and television, which open up cines has led to the decision that they should also be a target
new opportunities to reach large audiences, including non- of education campaigns. Chapter 32 covers drug seller ini-
literate populations, with health-related messages. SMS tiatives to improve dispensing services.
and mobile technology have further expanded coverage. Professional interests. Resistance to change within
With new information technology such as the Internet, professional groups can constrain public education.
some health professionals and patients have greater access Prescribers tend to hold influential and powerful positions,
to information from online databases, websites, and e-mail and they may not perceive the need for, or the importance
(see Chapter 50). These resources have many potential ben- of, public education. In turn, they often do not fulfill their
efits, including rapid access to objective information and professional role of providing advice on the appropriate
low-cost sharing, pooling, and comparative evaluation of use of medicines on either a personal or an organizational
different communication methodologies. basis.
Public education can appear to conflict with existing
Constraining factors values and power relationships, for example, by leading
the public to challenge the traditional prescriber-patient
Implementers of public communication strategies need to relationship. Professional groups may oppose public edu-
recognize and evaluate inhibiting factors, because solutions cation if they perceive it as a threat rather than a challeng-
vary according to the particular situation of each country. ing opportunity arising from a new relationship with the
The successes and failures of others can help in developing a community.
framework for effective action (see References and Further Weak infrastructure. Lack of infrastructure within the
Readings). health system for implementation of pharmaceutical poli-
Lack of coherent policies for both medicine use and cies, including access to medicines and public education,
public education. Many countries need to strengthen their can be a major constraint. Any effort to educate the public
national policies on medicine use and to incorporate public on appropriate medicine use can be undermined if neces-
education in them. Without a clear policy, public communi- sary medicines are inconsistently available in the public or
cation cannot take place in a cohesive manner and receive private sectors. Consumers then face the dilemma of recon-
adequate support. A fragmented approach can confuse the ciling public educational messages that motivate appropri-
public with conflicting and competing messages. ate behavior with the reality of product availability in the
The weak state of public education on medicines in many public sector and the private-sector marketplace.
countries is partly the result of a lack of political commit- Lack of resources. Effective public education requires
ment to public education in general. Within health services, sufficient funding and the allocation of trained staff to
public education is often a low priority and is consequently enable targeting of population groups through appropriate
poorly financed and staffed. Sometimes NGOs fill this void; strategies. Public education on medicines requires an exten-
however, they usually depend on donor agencies for fund- sive program to train health workers and other field staff in
ing that can be withdrawn or reallocated. In some instances, communication skills and appropriate medicine use.
33 / Encouraging appropriate medicine use by consumers 33.21
Social, economic, and cultural factors. Lack of involve- policy (Chapter 4), or when starting a health insurance plan
ment and participation of the target groups often leads to (Chapter 12), standard communication elements should be
problems. Support for public education programs may be considered. These may involve a good logo, radio spots, a
withdrawn prematurely because of a failure to recognize flyer or visual aid, a poster, and possibly folk media (Figure
that bringing about behavioral change is a slow and long- 33-4). Although every campaign does not need all of these
term process. elements, using several of these components helps vary the
message’s delivery. The communications elements described
in Figure 33-4 can be used in such campaigns. n
33.7 Understanding the importance of
communication about appropriate
medicine use References and further readings
Figure 33-4 Hints for selecting communication methods for public communication campaigns
A Good Logo
• is simple, not cluttered
• is immediately understandable and explicit, not abstract
• is related to the key program benefits and is a symbol of key data
• is easily reproducible
• works in different sizes and settings
• dramatizes the overall tone of the change approach
• is positive and uplifting
Folk Media
• use local drama groups and musicians, who are often powerful vehicles for sharing
health-related messages
• include traveling health fairs with puppet shows, musical acts, distribution of printed
materials, and appearances by local celebrities
• stimulate interest in national and local programs, for example, through fairs that travel from
village to village
a s s e s s ment g u ide
• What are the problems related to current medicine • What materials exist for public communication
prescribing, dispensing, and use, and what are the activities? How were these materials pretested?
critical factors underlying these problems? What evaluations of public education campaigns
• What medicine prescribing, dispensing, and use have occurred?
practices are priorities for an intervention? • Who is the audience for the campaign or the materi-
• What solutions are feasible to address the medicine als? What does this group know about the targeted
prescribing, dispensing, and use problems that medicine-use problem?
stakeholders support? • What percentage of the public health or pharmaceu-
• Do public communication campaigns on medicine tical budget is allocated to public communication on
use already exist? rational medicine use?
• What is the purpose of the campaign? What is it try- • What amount is spent on public communication
ing to achieve? campaigns on medicine use, and what percentage
• Is medicine education included in the primary and does this represent of the total amount spent on
secondary school curricula? public health education campaigns?
• What media are being used (for example, print, face-
to-face, radio, theater)?
Health Organization. <http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/ System and Laboratory Services Conducted in November 2003.
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33.24 U SE
National Council on Patient Information and Education Annex 33-1 Pictograms for use on medicine labels
<http://www.talkaboutrx.org> Multiple campaigns on medicine,
including “Educate before You Medicate,” “Be MedWise,” and “Your
Medicine Information: Read It and Heed It.” Posters, leaflets, radio
spots, information folders, activity sheets.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
<http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/ResourcesForYou/Consumers/
default.htm> The FDA has a website that provides information and
resources on medicines specifically for consumers.
WHO’s website on Rational Use of Medicines
<http://www.who.int/medicines/areas/rational_use/en> WHO’s
work on the rational use of medicines advocates twelve key inter-
ventions to aid in avoiding the health hazards and waste of resources
resulting from the misuse of medicines. Its website explains these
interventions and provides information resources, training courses, Do not store medicine Take with meals
and publications. where children can get it