Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: The use of solid wood biofuels for energy production in heating plants has increased drastically during
Received 29 May 2015 the last decades. Great interest has been shown in replacing unsustainable road transport of wood fuel
Received in revised form with more sustainable intermodal transport. This paper maps the common business models for biofuel
27 October 2015
transport in Sweden and suggests how these models may be developed to accommodate intermodal
Accepted 25 November 2015
transport. A view of the biofuel supply chain as five overlapping networks (industry, material, operations,
Available online xxx
transport, and infrastructure) connected by four transaction markets (sourcing, operations, transport,
and traffic) have been used. Four typical business models have been found: Regional/National Biofuel
Keywords:
Business model
Company, Local Biofuel Company, Heating Plant Own Account, and Wood Processing Industry. Cooper-
Intermodal transport ation and vertical integration among the actors are important to reach the large transport volumes
Biofuel required for intermodal transport. Key issues to increase the intermodal potential are: increased vertical
Heating plant integration and cooperation, sharing of transport resources and infrastructure, joint purchases,
District heating outsourcing to expert actors, building trust and open communication, and not underestimating the
Transport complexity of intermodal transport. The results have implications for any actor interested in developing
intermodal transport or policy measures. The contribution includes the new approach of developing
business models by using the five-layer network-market model.
© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.11.076
0959-6526/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
n, J., Williamsson, J., Business models for sustainable biofuel transport: the potential for intermodal
Please cite this article in press as: Flode
transport, Journal of Cleaner Production (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.11.076
2 J. Floden, J. Williamsson / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2015) 1e12
large HP requires up to 17 000 tonnes of fuel per week (400e500 It can be argued that intermodal transport constitutes a type of
truckloads). Logistics are therefore considered a key challenge service innovation (cf. B€ arthel and Woxenius, 2004). Business
when striving to further increase the use of biofuel (Rentizelas research asserts that when introducing innovations it is paramount
et al., 2009; Gold and Seuring, 2011; Svanberg and Halldo rsson, that the innovation fits with the existing business model (BM) or
2013). Savings in greenhouse gases amount to approximately 90% that the existing BM is adapted to the innovation (cf. Chesbrough
when fossil fuel is replaced with biofuel. Biofuel also brings a very and Rosenbloom, 2002; Chesbrough, 2010). We therefore argue
positive energy balance, as the energy consumed to produce biofuel that a contributing reason for the low market share of intermodal
represents only 2e5% of the energy in the biofuel, compared to 15% transport is the lack of attractive BMs and that the expansion of
for fossil fuel (Lindholm, 2010). Transport is significant as it ac- intermodal biofuel transports among existing or new actors must
counts for 37% of the energy consumed in the biofuel chain be accompanied by contextually adapted BMs. BM innovation is
(Lindholm et al., 2010) or 25% of the total cost (Brunberg, 2014). difficult in general but even more so for incumbent players
Cost competitive logistical systems are thus of key importance in (Chesbrough, 2010). However, BM innovation requires no heavy
reducing both dependence on fossil fuels and the greenhouse resource investments and thus represents “low hanging fruit”,
effect. especially in markets with good logistical and infrastructure
Currently, 84% of the energy from wood biofuels to Swedish conditions.
CHPs is transported by road only and this is the traffic mode the By critically examining prevalent BMs it is thus possible to
industry perceives as best meeting their requirements (Awais and highlight areas with potential for improvement and in that way
Floden, 2014). However, increasingly larger power plants with strengthen not only intermodal transport for biofuels but also
challenges in sourcing enough fuel locally and environmental improve the efficiency and sustainability of the DH industry as a
concerns have sparked an interest in other traffic modes, such as whole, given current conditions and regulations on the Swedish
rail and sea; see e.g., Mahmudi and Flynn (2006) for a Canadian market.
setting, Tahvanainen and Anttila (2011) for a Finnish setting, To support the growth of intermodal biofuel transport in Swe-
Eriksson (2008) for a life cycle energy perspective, Hamelinck et al. den and markets with similar characteristics we use this paper to:
(2005) for international long haul transport, or Svanberg et al.
(2013) for the special case of the new types of torrified biofuels. map the common BMs for biofuel transports in Sweden
Routa et al. (2013), in particular, highlight the need for more studies and suggest how these BMs may be developed to accommodate
into intermodal transport. and support intermodal transport, through the use of a network
In general, rail and sea transport have a lower variable cost per based perspective on the biofuel supply chain consisting of five
km and lower environmental impact than road freight, but rail and overlapping networks connected by four transaction markets.
sea transport suffers from high fixed costs and require both speci-
alised terminals and dedicated infrastructure. Intermodal roaderail The paper starts with an introduction to BMs in this section,
transport in particular has been the focus for the biofuel industry. followed by a method (Section 2) and an overview of the biofuel
The concepts of intermodal and co-modality offer opportunities to supply chain and current business models (Section 3). This is fol-
utilise the most appropriate traffic mode, or combination of traffic lowed by a discussion of intermodal BMs based on the five layer
modes, and so increase the efficiency and decrease the environ- model (Section 4) before Section 5 analyses the findings, and the
mental impact of a supply chain. Intermodality concerns the com- paper is concluded in Section 6 with the key issues identified.
bination of different traffic modes in one transport chain and co- Due to a gradual move away from traditional production and
modality is the most appropriate use of each traffic mode (UN/ marketing strategies, the importance of the BM for the success of
ECE, 2001; European Commission, 2006). Both approaches have companies has become more apparent during the last decades
received much political interest in recent years (European (Chesbrough, 2010). Theoretically, it is thought that every company
Commission, 2006). Intermodal roaderail transport has been active in a competitive market needs a BM to survive (Teece, 2010)
found to have less environmental impact than competing modes and it would thus be fair to assume that each individual company
(Kreutzberger et al., 2003; Lindholm and Berg, 2005) and is the that participates in an industrial value chain is dependent on a
most sustainable transport option when considering all three pil- viable BM. The BM defines what value is for the main stakeholders
lars of sustainability (economic, societal, and environmental) and by doing so it can be viewed as an attempt at explaining what
(Floden, 2015). The main driver for intermodal transport is motivates them to interact with the company (cf. Morris et al.,
increasing HP size, as this makes it difficult to source enough fuel 2005). A BM is therefore more than a description of organisa-
locally. An example is the region around Stockholm where there is a tional flows or accounting data. It is a representation of the business
shortage of biofuel (Roos et al., 2000; Bjo €rheden et al., 2010). The logic that a company builds upon (Margretta, 2002). Analytically
size of the plant has, in previous research, been considered limited the BM is a concept separate from both business strategy and tac-
by available fuel in the region and transport cost (Mitchell et al., tics, but the line between these concepts is blurred (cf. Teece, 2010).
1995; Kumar et al., 2003; Cameron et al., 2007). However, since It has been suggested that strategy is the act of choosing BM while
all DH grids are local for each city, there are positive scale effects the BM is the result of historical business decisions (Casadesus-
from having one large plant instead of several small ones in a city, Masanell and Ricart, 2010).
although the larger size also increases the impact of logistical costs Until recently the BM was largely an overlooked concept (Zott
on the total costs (Dornburg and Faaij, 2001). As HPs are forced to et al., 2011), but it has proven its usefulness both to researchers
source further away, road transport becomes a less attractive op- and practitioners in the effort to support sustainable development.
tion, both from a cost and sustainability perspective. Also, efficient The relation between sustainability and BMs was established and
long distance transport brings a possibility to utilise price differ- developed by authors such as Stubbs and Cocklin (2008) and Porter
ences in raw material between different geographical areas, and Kramer (2011). Later work by Boons and Lüdeke-Freund (2013)
although currently the domestic price differences are fairly low advanced the understanding of the connection between the con-
(Swedish Energy Agency, 2015). However, despite the potential cepts and innovation while stressing the importance of an inte-
benefits and increasing attractiveness, intermodal roaderail grative research approach. Short et al. (2014) show how BM design
transport solutions for biofuels only amass a market share of a few may drive company sustainability principles beyond efficiency
percentage points (Flode n, 2015). gains and opportunity exploration. The authors also assert that BM
n, J., Williamsson, J., Business models for sustainable biofuel transport: the potential for intermodal
Please cite this article in press as: Flode
transport, Journal of Cleaner Production (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.11.076
J. Floden, J. Williamsson / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2015) 1e12 3
innovation is a continuous evolutionary process in companies, a The semi-structured interviews were made between the sum-
result that can be viewed as supporting Demil and Lecocq's (2010) mer of 2012 and the winter of 2013, lasted about 60e90 min each,
argument for a path dependency in BM development. Boons et al. and were recorded and transcribed. The interviews were supple-
(2013) suggest three aspects that are vital for sustainable BM mented with a literature study using the main scientific article
innovation: i) a value proposition based on the exchange of value, databases. During the site visits representatives from several steps
ii) value creation that point towards the larger system, and iii) a fair within the biofuel value chain, such as drivers, fuel quality con-
distribution of costs and benefits. Bocken et al. (2014) explore the trollers, fuel purchasers and site managers, were approached and
role of sustainable BMs further and suggest that sustainable BMs interviewed. Due to the noisy environment recordings had to be
may be categorised in three general archetypes: technological, replaced by note-taking. The notes were reviewed directly after the
social, and organisational. Intermodal transport solutions often visit and the impressions summarised in writing. When allowed,
improve resource and energy efficiency, striving to switch road cameras were used to document the operations.
transport to rail. In general, intermodal transport solutions may Based on the data collected, the main BM in the Swedish biofuel
therefore be argued to be an example of the first, i.e. technological, industry is mapped in the Osterwalder framework. The BMs are
group of sustainable BM. then analysed through a five-layer network-market model of the
Despite the rising interest in BMs, no studies have been found biofuel supply chain (see Fig. 1), linking the supply chain networks
that explicitly study the BMs in the biofuel industry. Some research to the transaction markets in the supply chain. The BMs have been
has been done on BMs for district heating, presenting models for validated through two workshops with industry representatives.
wood heat production in Finland (Okkonen and Suhonen, 2010), The suggested models were sent out beforehand to the eight par-
surveying the Swedish industry (Sandoff and Williamsson, 2015), ticipants and were then presented at the meeting. The models were
and intermodal transport, e.g. Levia €kango € as et al. (2007), Flode
n discussed in a roundtable discussion. Based on the feedback, the
(2009), Flode n and Sorkina (2014). models were adjusted before the second workshop, which followed
A review by Baden-Fuller and Morgan (2010) shows that the BM the same setup.
concept is largely used in three ways: i) categorising within a tax- The biofuel supply chain can be viewed as five overlapping
onomy for companies, ii) scientific inquiry in much the same way as networks, which are connected by four transaction markets. The
models are used in the fields of biology, mathematics, and eco- different layers are connected and build upon each other. The
nomics (i.e., exploring how changes to the model produce different concept is a development from the generic models by Wandel and
results), and iii) as a recipe for how a company ideally should be Ruijgrok (1995) and its extension by Waidringer (1999). The top
configured in a particular context. This study relies on the BM in level is the Biofuel industry, where the demand and sources for
order to pursue the two latter types of endeavours and for those biofuel are located; for example, forest areas and heating plants.
purposes it is common to utilise an analytical framework. One of This is connected by the Sourcing market to the Material flows. The
the most prevalent frameworks for BM analysis is the ‘Business sourcing market is where the material flows are determined by
model canvas’, developed by Osterwalder and Pigneur (2009), matching the possible material flows with the sources and de-
which builds on nine modular blocks. See Table 1. mands of the industry, showing what type of raw material is
While ubiquitous, the framework suggested by Osterwalder and flowing from where and to what consumer. The material flows are
Pigneur (2009) also has demerits. A glaring issue in relation to connected to the Operators through the Operations market. This is
sustainability is the lack of third party stakeholder representation. where the operators meet the material flows and the flows are
A recognition of a wide range of stakeholders is important for allocated to the operators managing the flows, showing which ac-
sustainable BMs (Stubbs and Cocklin, 2008) and is, as indicated tors are managing and controlling the flow. The operators are
above, one of three paramount aspects presented by Boons et al. connected to the Transport and Treatment through the Transport
(2013). Unless value and costs allocated to such actors are market, where the operators manage the physical transport and
acknowledged by customers, suppliers or producers, they will not treatment activities through the available resources on the market
be recognised in the framework. Consequently, the notion of ex- (e.g., by designing the physical transport flows, subcontracting the
ternalities (cf. Cohen and Winn, 2007) has to be acknowledged. physical transport, determining chipping location, etc.). On the
bottom layer we find the Infrastructure on which the activities are
2. Method performed, connected by the Traffic Market to the transport and
treatment. On the traffic market, the flows are allocated to the
The BMs for the supply chain in the industry were studied possible infrastructure. The layers build upon each other and a
through six telephone interviews, six face-to-face interviews, one supply chain must function on all levels. For example, the material
e-mail interview, and eight site visits. See Table 2. flows rely on a suitable infrastructure. Through the layers, each
Table 1
The nine business model building blocks (Osterwalder (2004) and updated in Osterwalder and Pigneur (2009)).
Product Value proposition A Value Proposition is an overall view of a company's bundle of products and services that are of value to the customer.
Customer interface Customer segments An organisation serves one or several Customer Segments.
Channels Value propositions are delivered to customers through communication, distribution, and sales channels.
Customer relationship Customer Relationships are established and maintained with each Customer Segment.
Infrastructure Key activities Key Activities are the arrangement of activities and resources that are necessary to create value for the customer.
management Key resources Key Resources are the physical, financial, intellectual, or human resources required to offer and deliver value for the
customer.
Key partnerships Key Partnerships are the voluntarily initiated cooperative agreement between two or more companies in order to create
value for the customer.
Financial aspects Cost structure The Cost Structure is the representation in money of all the means employed in the BM.
Revenue streams Revenue streams result from value propositions successfully offered to customers and describe the way a company makes
money through a variety of revenue flows.
n, J., Williamsson, J., Business models for sustainable biofuel transport: the potential for intermodal
Please cite this article in press as: Flode
transport, Journal of Cleaner Production (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.11.076
4 J. Floden, J. Williamsson / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2015) 1e12
Table 2
Interviews and site visits conducted.
Sector Number of interviews Site visits Approximate number of actors in the sector in Sweden
Road 1 e 10e15 larger actors and a large number of smaller independent haulers, often with only one truck.
Rail 1 e 2e3 involved in biofuel transport.
Sea 1 (e-mail) e 1e2 Swedish actors, in addition some international actors.
Terminal 1 2 Very few independent terminal companies. Most terminals operated by forest/biofuel or energy
companies (included in those interviews).
Biofuel provider 1 e 20e25 (Svenska tra€dbr€
anslefo€ reningen, 2015)
Energy company/HP 8 6 115 companies using biofuel for DH, of which 62 smaller than 100 GWh/annually and 90 smaller than
200 GWh/annually (Svensk Fja €rrva
€rme, 2015). Interviews include both large and small companies.
n, J., Williamsson, J., Business models for sustainable biofuel transport: the potential for intermodal
Please cite this article in press as: Flode
transport, Journal of Cleaner Production (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.11.076
J. Floden, J. Williamsson / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2015) 1e12 5
Table 3
Network options available in the channel.
n, J., Williamsson, J., Business models for sustainable biofuel transport: the potential for intermodal
Please cite this article in press as: Flode
transport, Journal of Cleaner Production (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.11.076
6 J. Floden, J. Williamsson / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2015) 1e12
channel, makes the agreement with the client, collects the freight other suppliers. The most extreme example of this model found in
from the clients, negotiates rates with the railroads, credits the the study was a plant located next to a sawmill where the plant was
subcontractors their shares, and carries the biggest economic risk supplied by a conveyor belt directly from the sawmill. Although this
in the corridor. In a biofuel supply chain, this normally falls on the model is heavily influenced by the wood-processing industry, it
biofuel company responsible for arranging the transport and does not take on the role of channel leader as there is no wish to get
holding the contract with the HP. involved in the biofuel industry. For example, one manager at a
Following the results from the interviews, literature, and paper mill stated, in relation to investing to improve the quality of
network description above, four generalised BMs can be created their bark by-product, that they are in the business of making paper
with the business model canvas. The models represent the most and are not interested in doing other things (Johansson, 2005). The
common models in the Swedish industry and focuses on the overall transports and balancing the continuous fuel supply with the de-
model of the channel. The scope of the models starts after har- mand of the HP is managed by the biofuel companies that take on
vesting and ends at the HP. Most HPs' supply will be a combination the role as channel leaders. A special case of this model is if an HP
of several of the models, as the HPs commonly use several different sources directly from the forest industry using the heating plant
channels in parallel for their fuel. The models are Regional/National own account model. In that case, the HP would take over the re-
Biofuel Company, Local Biofuel Company, HP Own Account, and sponsibilities of the biofuels company as channel leader.
Wood Processing Industry. See Table 5.
The Regional/National Biofuel Company model is the most 4. Business models and the five layer network
common. A biofuel company sells the biofuel to the HPs and is also
responsible for managing the transport. The biofuel company often As previously discussed, intermodal transport requires large
has its own forests (or represents an association of forest owners), freight volumes and longer transport distances to be profitable. Of
but could also purchase biofuel from smaller forest owners. the generalised BMs, the Local Biofuel Company model cannot be
Transport is outsourced. Terminals are used for transhipment and used for intermodal transport due to the local focus. Remaining
storage to even out demand fluctuations. The biofuel company can models have the potential to include sustainable intermodal
operate its own terminals or use external terminals. The HP is the transport. A large plant could have an intermodal flow dedicated
customer that orders fuel in a business-like manner and puts the for their plant. However, this would significantly limit the number
responsibility on the biofuel company to manage all practical de- of possible intermodal flows. To be fully efficient, a full train of
tails. Each biofuel company has several customers and operates approximately 2e2.3 GWh is preferably operated at least 3e5 days
over a large geographical area. Due to their size, the companies are per week. This represents an annual flow of
flexible to balance demand from different customers and have the 150 000e300 000 MWh, which is a very large plant. Only about
possibility to engage in advanced logistical setups. This model has 10e15 HPs in Sweden produce more than 300 000 MWh annually
the biofuel company as the channel leader. (Energimarknadsinspektionen, 2014). Several of these already use
The Local Biofuel Company model is common among smaller intermodal transport solutions while others are not located close to
HPs. The fuel is bought by the HP from a local provider who delivers n, 2015). From a risk perspective, it is also unwise to
a rail line (Flode
by truck from the local region. This is similar to the Regional/Na- rely on only a single train service for all fuel. An increased use of
tional Biofuel model with the biofuel company as the channel intermodal transport requires cooperation among the actors where
leader, but on a smaller scale where the local provider is often also a several actors share the intermodal solution to gain mutual benefit.
forest owner or local association of forest owners. Due to the local Increased cooperation is a key aspect in the intermodal BM, as
focus, transport is limited to road and smaller local hauliers are intermodal transport requires large volumes and a more compli-
frequently used. Terminals are not always used. The local biofuel cated logistics setup with more actors involved (Zomer and Krupe,
company can also operate its own trucks. The local monopoly be- 2009). As a consequence, long-term relations are required. Tradi-
comes clear in this model where the local supplier regularly has tional intermodal container transport (e.g., container shipping)
only one potential customer, which also brings a closer have solved these issues by using the standard ISO-container and
relationship. by operating between destinations with large transport demand,
In the Heating Plant Own Account model, the HPs take a more thus targeting a large number of smaller customers by allowing
active role in the supply chain by arranging the inbound transport individual customers to just ship a few containers in the system.
themselves as their own account transport. This is more common However, biofuels are constrained by a limited number of inter-
among large plants, in particular in supply chains involving large modal forest terminals (Kons et al., 2014) and a limited number of
volume transport modes such as sea or rail. Although the transport HPs in each area, and are thus not able to easily reach a large
is commonly outsourced, the plant becomes responsible for ar- customer base for each intermodal service. Instead, the intermodal
ranging and planning the transport and also, to some extent, services must be tailor-made to attract large enough volumes.
managing the demand fluctuations. The plant takes the role as the The BM view elevates the importance of the co-creation of value
channel leader. that firms do together with suppliers, partners, and customers
In the Wood Processing Industry model, the wood processing (Nenonen and Storbacka, 2010). Co-creation can be exemplified in
industry heavily influences the conditions. The industry sells waste the case of suppliers with time-related aspects of value creation
products, such as sawdust or bark from a sawmill, for biofuel. (having the right amount of raw materials or products available at
Production pace is set by the demand for the industry's wood the right time), in the case of partners with aspects connected with
products and not by the needs of the HPs. Supply Chain Manage- accessibility (being able to provide access to the product), and in
ment distinguishes between push and pull chains (cf. Simchi-Levi the case of customers with the attachment of values and attributes
et al., 2008; Collier, 2010; Stevenson, 2012). This is a push chain to the product (i.e., environmental, cultural, and price aspects).
from the wood-processing industry where the contracts often state To achieve co-creation, companies involved in a supply chain
that a biofuel industry must accept all waste products produced, as may either collaborate or integrate. Within BM research voices have
compared to the other models where the HP demand “pulls” the been raised that collaboration or openness should be thought of as
needed biofuel. This model can use storage at the industry or ter- a key component of BM configuration (e.g., Chesbrough, 2006,
minals to even out the demand, but is most often used for the base 2007). With ‘open’, Chesbrough (2006) means a BM configuration
demand of a HP where demand fluctuations are managed through that relies on external sources for important functions such as
n, J., Williamsson, J., Business models for sustainable biofuel transport: the potential for intermodal
Please cite this article in press as: Flode
transport, Journal of Cleaner Production (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.11.076
J. Floden, J. Williamsson / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2015) 1e12 7
Table 5
Generalised business models in the biofuel industry.
Pillar Building The regional/national biofuel The local biofuel company model The heating plant The wood processing industry model
block of company model own account model
business
model
Product Value Timely delivery of required forest Timely delivery of required forest Timely delivery of Delivery of wood-processing industry
proposition biofuel. biofuel. required forest biofuel. by-products as biofuels.
Customer Customer All types of HPs. Sells to several A limited number of HPs in the Own HP. One or a few HPs.
interface segments HPs. local region. Sells to one or a few
HPs.
Channels Direct contact with the HP. Direct contact with the HP. Internal at the HP. Direct Contact with the HP through a biofuel
contact with the suppliers. company that acts as channel leader.
Customer A contractual relationship, often A contractual relationship, often A close internal A contractual relationship via the
relationship per season, where the supplier is per season, where the supplier is relationship, combined biofuel company, often per season,
often one of many suppliers to the often one of a few suppliers to the with a contractual where the supplier is often one of
HP. HP. Often repeated contracts with relationship with one or many suppliers to the HP.
the same local HP. several suppliers.
Infrastructure Key Sourcing and/or harvesting of Sourcing and/or harvesting of Sourcing of wood biofuel, Producing wood industry by-products.
management activities wood biofuel, managing wood biofuel, managing managing fluctuations in Coordinating the continuous fuel
fluctuations in demand, and fluctuations in demand, and timely demand, and timely supply from the industry with the
delivering chipped biofuel timely delivery to the HP. delivery to the HP. Supply fluctuations in demand of the HP and
to the HP. Supply Chain Chain Management. delivering to the HP. Supply Chain
Management. Management.
Key Access to wood material. Access to Access to wood material. Access to Access to terminals, Wood industry plant. Access to
resources terminals, storage, machinery, and storage, machinery, transport storage machinery, and terminals, storage, and transport
transport equipment. equipment, and sometimes transport equipment. equipment.
terminals.
Key Several road transport companies, A few road transport companies. A few road transport Biofuel company and its transport,
partnerships with rail and/or sea transport companies with rail and storage, and terminals partners.
companies sometimes occurring. sea transport companies
Terminal and storage companies. sometimes occurring.
Forrest owners.
Financial Cost Large share of outsourcing. Outsourcing common. Transport Large share of outsourcing. Large share of outsourcing. Transport
aspects structure Transport and raw materials are costs are the largest costs. Transport and raw costs are the largest costs.
the largest costs. materials are the largest
costs.
Revenue Price for delivered biofuel paid by Price for delivered biofuel paid by HP's internal allocation of Price for by-products and delivered
streams the HP according to contract. the HP according to contract. funds. biofuel according to contract.
innovation, delivery, or commercialisation. An open BM is therefore within utilities due to regulatory changes (e.g., Birch and Burnett-
a collaborative BM. The concept is commonly linked to innovation, Kant, 2011). The options of bundling and unbundling expose the
but is applicable in any situation where a company needs to fundamental question of whether there are parts of the BM that can
establish relations that allow for the development of shared be performed more efficiently by combining or eliminating them
expertise or resources. Examples can be found in the car industry, from the scope of the company.
where platforms are developed in alliances between manufac- Research on re-organisation and divestment shows that eco-
turers, as well as in the software sector, where common software nomic value can be realised by managers to actively work with the
platforms are used to cut costs. Standardisation is a key aspect in bundling and unbundling decisions as a strategic alternative (Hagel
such collaboration, but trust is also an important factor in making and Singer, 1999). In so doing, managers may focus activities and
collaboration work. Since an open BM creates dependency between lead the company in a more favourable direction. Tangible benefits
the involved parties, trust and communication are paramount for a of an organisational specialisation through unbundling may
beneficial co-development of the BM. Collaboration is either formal include clearer responsibilities, improved cost management, and
or informal (e.g., Powell, 1998) with the success of the latter type higher efficiency. A disinvestment may also free up resources the
often building on trust (cf. Gassmann et al., 2010). Formalisation of company can use in its core business.
collaboration is, however, essential for contractual arrangements In relation to supply chains in biofuels, collaboration can take
between actors and an increased formalisation of collaboration can different forms as the key to an increased use of intermodal
be used to increase efficiency, in particular arrangements but also transport. The five-layer model (Fig. 1) shows potential areas for
as a way to standardise relations with actors that are similar. The cooperation and bundling/unbundling.
standardisation of collaboration can be achieved through different
means, but is often conducted within frameworks such as ISO 4.1. Sourcing market
standards.
BM research offers two motives for integration and cooperation Cooperation can exist in the sourcing market where plants make
in a supply chain, namely the bundling (incorporating attractive coordinated purchases. One example of such cooperation on this
features) and unbundling (disassembling and separating unwanted level is the organisation EFO, which is a company jointly owned by
features) of BM components, such as production, distribution, or eight HPs with the purpose of reaching scale effect in the purchase
different parts of the value proposition (cf. Hagel and Singer, 1999). and import of biofuels, oil, coal, etc. and the chartering of ships
The terms bundling and unbundling can be exemplified with the (EFO, 2014). Joint purchases help reach the volumes necessary for
bundling of consumer-related goods (e.g., Bakos and Brynjolfsson, intermodal transport. However, a challenge is that there are seldom
1999) as well as the unbundling of services and production more than one or a few large HPs in a region, thereby limiting the
n, J., Williamsson, J., Business models for sustainable biofuel transport: the potential for intermodal
Please cite this article in press as: Flode
transport, Journal of Cleaner Production (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.11.076
8 J. Floden, J. Williamsson / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2015) 1e12
n, J., Williamsson, J., Business models for sustainable biofuel transport: the potential for intermodal
Please cite this article in press as: Flode
transport, Journal of Cleaner Production (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.11.076
J. Floden, J. Williamsson / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2015) 1e12 9
has 14 suppliers (Awais and Flode n, 2014) that might be unwilling bring additional volumes into the supply chain. These can be found
or unable to cooperate, an HP can vertically integrate the transport on the sourcing market or traffic market. On the sourcing market,
operations and take the role as coordinator. The transport would joint purchases can be made by close-by HPs in geographical lo-
most likely still be outsourced, but now by the HP and not the cations where this is possible. On the traffic market, key resources
biofuel supplier. However, by unbundling the BM the HP now buys can be shared between different operators, either by sharing a train
a different product, as they only buy fuel now and not fuel delivered to the same terminal or by using the train on different days. The
at the plant. It is important to not underestimate the complexity in advantage of using the train on different days is that the
managing the transport system. Expertise and experience is geographical constraint of being located in close proximity can
required for a successful implementation (Flode n, 2007; Sorkina, partly be overcome, as the train can go to different regions. Simi-
2012) and increased cooperation, and various consolidations in- larly, terminals can be shared.
crease the complexity of the intermodal BM (Zomer and Krupe, The vertical integration/cooperation decides who should be
2009). responsible for the coordination between the actors. All actors
could take this role, but the most suitable are the HP or biofuel
4.3. Transport market company. An open BM based on collaboration can be adopted in
which the channel leader subcontracts key activities to actors with
Extensive subcontracting occurs on the transport market as the appropriate expertise. This is of particular importance in
many of the operators do not own or manage their own transport intermodal transport that is more complex and requires more
resources. Cooperation options around the transport relate to the logistical experience and expertise than traditional transport. It is
physical transport, such as sharing a train or a ship. HPs that do not advisable for the HP not to take on a greater leader role in the chain
have enough volume to fill a train could share this with other HPs, than what they have expertise for. Many HPs also express a desire
either as using the train e.g., every other day, or running the train to for simplicity, as is evident by the current practice to purchase the
a location close to both plants. By sharing resources, the operators fuel delivered at the plant, and are reluctant to take on a greater
can improve the potential for intermodal transport. Of particular responsibility in the supply chain. By bundling and unbundling the
interest is cooperation outside the biofuel industry around return BM, a combination of expert actors can be utilised, e.g., by
flows. Biofuel flows are unbalanced and vehicles often have an outsourcing the intermodal operations to a rail company. The in-
empty backhaul. Cooperation with other industry could result in dustry is already very well familiar with subcontracting and
return flows that could lower the total transport costs, although outsourcing. However, this increased collaboration requires more
studies have found the possibility of finding suitable return flows trust among the actors. Currently, collaboration is formal and
very limited (Flode n, 2015). Currently, all existing train services contract based, but for an open BM to become successful trust and
have empty backhaul. A similar strategy is cooperating with other open communication are key elements that must be further
actors in trying to extend the biofuel transport season, e.g., by strengthened, aiming at a more long-term relationships and sup-
transporting other types of fuels to the HPs. ported by a fair distribution of costs and benefits. The cost structure
of the BM also sees a shift towards more fixed costs when intro-
4.4. Traffic market ducing intermodal transport, which reduces flexibility and further
emphasises the need for cooperation. However, value sharing be-
Cooperation options exist around the use of infrastructure and tween the actors will still be based on the contractual relationships.
in particular terminals. Intermodal transport requires, by definition, The key areas supporting an intermodal BM are linked to
access to a terminal and proprietary terminals limit the possibility Osterwalder's framework in Table 6. Aspects that separate an
for other actors to use intermodal terminals. At the same time, intermodal BM from the conventional BMs are marked in bold.
terminals are viewed as a competitive advantage, giving small in- In the Regional/National Biofuel Company model, the biofuel
centives to allow competitors on the terminal. However, terminals company takes the role as channel leader and can horizontally
require large volumes to be economically possible, which opens the integrate the flows from several actors. The possibility for vertical
potential for cooperation among smaller actors that independently integration/cooperation towards the HP is limited as each HP has
do not have large enough volumes in a region for a terminal. several suppliers. As the horizontal integration for intermodal
Independent terminals also exist that are open to all actors and transport is limited by geographical proximity, the challenge under
operated on a commercial basis. Several respondents call for more this model is for the biofuel company to have enough customers in
open terminals to simplify the use of intermodal transport. a region to reach large enough volumes. To some extent, this can be
counteracted by sharing traffic and infrastructure resources with
5. Analysis other operators. As the biofuel company traditionally arranges the
transport, they already have logistics knowledge and experience,
The key issue in developing suitable BMs for intermodal trans- which facilitates the setup of a more complex intermodal
port of biofuel is reaching large enough transport volumes with an operation.
even frequency to make intermodal transport economically sus- In the Heating Plant Own Account model, the HP takes the role
tainable. Looking apart from the few HPs that, by themselves, have as channel leader by coordinating all volumes to the plant. The
large enough volumes, and to operate intermodal transport, the vertical integration is clearly present here, with transport sub-
main strategies are integration or cooperation with other actors contracted. This consolidates more volume than in the previous
aiming at supporting the larger system. biofuel industry model. As a comparison, the biofuel company
Vertical integration or cooperation shows greater potential than would need to be the main supplier to 2e3 plants in a region to
horizontal integration or cooperation. Although joining forces with reach larger volumes than in an Own Account model. This is un-
actors at the same stage of the supply chain can bring benefits, the likely due to the low number of plants found in a region. This model
unwillingness to cooperate and the geographically dispersed loca- could be combined with sourcing cooperation to further increase
tion of the actors makes vertical integration/cooperation the first volumes and shared traffic and infrastructure resources. A major
choice. By vertically taking control and aligning the supply chain, drawback is that the HPs will be forced into managing complex
the volumes to each HP can be consolidated and adapted to an logistics setup, which is not their natural area of expertise. A
intermodal solution. However, this is not enough as it does not possible mix between the two models that could overcome the
n, J., Williamsson, J., Business models for sustainable biofuel transport: the potential for intermodal
Please cite this article in press as: Flode
transport, Journal of Cleaner Production (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.11.076
10 J. Floden, J. Williamsson / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2015) 1e12
challenge for the HP as a channel leader is if the HP source from certificates, etc. Reduced competitiveness for the industry brings
only one biofuel supplier, thus increasing the volumes for the down the fuel volumes needed, making it harder for intermodal
supplier while not taking the role of channel leader. transport. Policies in favour of biofuels are therefore also beneficial
In the Wood Processing Industry model, the possibility of hor- for intermodal transport. On a national level, political decisions also
izontal and vertical integration towards the HP is limited, as the impact the general competitiveness of transport modes; e.g., the
wood processing industry uses a push-chain based on their needs. level of road taxes, fuel taxes, infrastructure fees, etc. Any political
However, a large benefit for intermodal transport is that the wood incentive in favour of intermodal transport in general will also
process flows are at one location that often also has storage pos- naturally positively impact the potential for intermodal biofuel
sibilities, thus enabling large volumes to be picked up at once, but transport. We see that in order to support these BMs it is possible to
with less frequency. This makes these flows excellent to combine form policies targeting these aspects, but further studies in how
with other intermodal flows, e.g., by sharing trains. This model can such policies should be shaped and implemented are required.
be combined with the Regional/National Biofuel Company model
and the Heating Plant own account model to further increase the 6. Conclusions
volumes.
The Local Biofuel Company model is not suitable for intermodal An open BM can be applied to increase the potential use of
transport. A possibility exists to combine a large number of local intermodal transport. The most important factor is to find large
HPs to reach larger volumes, but this is not deemed possible due to enough volumes to support an intermodal setup. For the majority
the large number of HPs needed, their geographically dispersed of HPs too small to be able to utilise a full train, cooperation with
locations, their extensive need for coordination and management, other actors is of high importance. Key issues to increase the po-
and low interest from the small HPs in advanced logistical setups. tential for intermodal transport are: (1) increased vertical inte-
Viable BMs for intermodal transport in the biofuel sector not gration and cooperation in the HPs channel where the supply chain
only fulfil the criteria of being what Bocken et al. (2014) calls a can be aligned and goods volumes consolidated to larger coherent
sustainable BM by increasing material and energy efficiency, but volumes. (2) Sharing transport resources and infrastructure where
also enables DH firms to improve their fossil/non-fossil fuel ratio by large and expensive resources such as trains and terminals can be
replacing non-renewable energy sources. In addition, the high de- shared among partners. (3) Joint purchases when possible to in-
gree of renewable energy (generated mostly through water and crease the goods volumes coming from one location. (4)
wind power) in the Swedish electricity grid, together with the high Outsourcing to expert actors to manage the more complex logistical
utilisation of electricity for rail transport, means a dual-layered setups needed for intermodal transport, as current biofuel actors
environmental impact if such BMs conquer greater market shares. largely lack this knowledge. (5) Building trust and open commu-
From an environmental perspective it therefore appears as if policy nication is essential for the cooperation to work. (6) Not under-
support for such BMs would be preferable. The suggestions made estimating the complexity of intermodal transport, as this is
above both highlight how managers may use the business model to significantly different, with different challenges and opportunities
tackle the challenges presented in Table 4 and encourages the se- compared to the road transport the actors are traditionally accus-
lection of intermodal transports when managers consider their tomed to.
options in the network-market model. The Regional/National Biofuel Company and Heating Plant Own
Policies impact the intermodal biofuel system on three levels: Account models are both deemed possible for intermodal trans-
local, industry, and national. On a local level, the HPs are often port, with an advantage for the Own Account model due to its easily
municipality owned and subject to political regulations. Intermodal consolidated volumes. The Wood Processing Industry model can be
transport would be favoured by political instructions for the plants used to complement the other models.
to place a higher importance on CO2-emissions and to pay more for The results have practical implications for any actor interested in
transport with lower emissions. Currently, most plants have no developing intermodal transport or for public actors in the devel-
specific requirements on transport emissions. Since intermodal opment of policy measures. The results show key issues to consider
transport is naturally less flexible, flexible local regulation improves in order to support and develop the use of intermodal transport.
the system flexibility and thus its competitiveness. On an industry Findings are applicable in the biofuel industry, but could also be
level, political policies impact the competitiveness of the industry extended to other industries with similar properties. The scientific
as whole; e.g., by taxing non-renewable energy, electricity value includes a better understanding of the challenges with
Table 6
Key aspects for an intermodal business model.
n, J., Williamsson, J., Business models for sustainable biofuel transport: the potential for intermodal
Please cite this article in press as: Flode
transport, Journal of Cleaner Production (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.11.076
J. Floden, J. Williamsson / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2015) 1e12 11
introducing intermodal transport. Further, it includes a new Demil, B., Lecocq, X., 2010. Business model evolution: in search of dynamic con-
sistency. Long Range Plan. 43 (2e3), 227e246. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lrp.
approach of developing BM in the context of sustainable inter-
2010.02.004.
modal transport by using a five-layer network-market model. The Dornburg, V., Faaij, A.P.C., 2001. Efficiency and economy of wood-fired biomass
five-layer network-market model of the biofuel supply chain helps energy systems in relation to scale regarding heat and power generation using
in highlighting potential areas of cooperation in the supply chain combustion and gasification technologies. Biomass Bioenergy 21 (2), 91e108.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0961-9534(01. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0961-
and serves as a good tool in developing supply chain BMs. The five- 9534(01)00030-7.
layer model can also be used for developing BMs in other supply Ecoheatcool, 2006. Ecoheatcool Project Recommendations WP6. Euroheat & Power,
chain areas. Brussels. http://www.euroheat.org/ecoheatcool.
EFO, 2014. Homepage. http://www.efo.se (accessed 2014, March.).
El-Ansary, A.I., Stern, L.W., 1972. Power measurement in the distribution channel.
Acknowledgements J. Mark. Res. 9 (1), 47e52.
Eliasson, L., Picchi, G., 2010. Huggbilar med lastva €xlare och containrar (Chipper
Trucks with Switch Bodies and Containers). Arbetsrapport 715-2010, Skogforsk,
This research is funded by the Swedish Transport Administra- The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden, Uppsala.
tion (Trafikverket) through the Swedish Intermodal Research Energimarknadsinspektionen, 2014. Database on Swedish District Heating Plants.
Energimarknadsinspektionen, Swedish Energy Market Inspectorate, Eskilstuna.
Centre Sir-C and the project Sustainable Intermodal Supply Systems http://www.energimarknadsinspektionen.se/sv/Fjarrvarme/.
for Biofuel and Bulk Freight. Enstro €
€m, J., Athanassiadis, D., Ohman, € 2013. Framgångsfaktorer fo
€ nlund, O.,
M., Gro €r
sto€rre skogsbra €nsleterminaler (Success Factors for Larger Energy Wood Ter-
minals). Arbetsrapport 813-2013, Skogforsk, The Forestry Research Institute of
References Sweden, Uppsala.
Ericsson, K., Huttunen, S., Nilsson, L.J., Svenningson, P., 2004. Bioenergy policy and
Andersson, K., 2012. Bioenergy the Swedish Experience. The Swedish Bioenergy market development in Finland and Sweden. Energy Policy 32 (15), 1707e1721.
Association (Svebio), Jo € nko
€ping, Sweden. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0301-4215(03. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0301-
Awais, F., Floden, J., 2014. Logistic Requirements and Characteristics of the Swedish 4215(03)00161-7.
Wood Biofuel Industry. WP2 Report Sustainable Intermodal Supply Systems for Eriksson, L.N., 2008. Comparative analyses of forest fuels in a life cycle perspective
Biofuel and Bulk Freight, University of Gothenburg. with a focus on transport systems. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 52 (10), 1190e1197.
Baden-Fuller, C., Morgan, M.S., 2010. Business models as models. Long Range Plan. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2008.06.009.
43 (2e3), 156e171. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lrp.2010.02.005. Euroheat & Power, 2014. District Heating and Cooling Barometer 2014. http://www.
Bakos, Y., Brynjolfsson, E., 1999. Bundling information goods: pricing, profits, and euroheat.org/Comparison-164.aspx (accessed 2015, August.).
efficiency. Manag. Sci. 45 (12), 1613e1630. http://dx.doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.45. European Commission, 2006. Keep Europe Moving e Sustainable Mobility for Our
12.1613. Continent, Mid-term Review of the European Commission's 2001 Transport
€rthel, F., Woxenius, J., 2004. Developing intermodal transport for small flows over
Ba White Paper. European Commission, Brussels, 22.06.2006.
short distances. Transp. Plan. Technol. 27 (5), 403e424. http://dx.doi.org/10. European Commission, 2013. Article 14: Promotion of Efficiency in Heating and
1080/0308106042000287586. Cooling', SWD(2013) 449 Final, Guidance Note on Directive 2012/27/EU on
Birch, D.J., Burnett-Kant, E., 2011. Unbundling the unbundled. McKinsey Q. 4, Energy Efficiency. European Commission, Brussels.
102e111. Floden, J., 2007. Modelling Intermodal Freight Transport: the Potential of Combined
€ rheden, R., 2006. Drivers behind the development of forest energy in Sweden.
Bjo Transport in Sweden (Doctoral thesis), School of Business, Economics and Law
Biomass Bioenergy 30 (4), 289e295. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2005. at University of Gothenburg, BAS Publishing, Go €teborg. http://hdl.handle.net/
07.005. 2077/17141.
€ rheden, R., Eliasson, L., Iwarsson, M., Von Hofsten, H., Enstro
Bjo € m, J., Johanneson, T., Floden, J., 2009. Business Models for Intermodal Transport e Intermodal RoadeRail
2010. Efficient Forest Fuel Supply System. Skogforsk, The Forestry Research Transport in Europe. Paper presented at The Ninth Annual International Busi-
Institute of Sweden, Uppsala. http://www.skogforsk.se/contentassets/ ness Research Conference, February 13e14 2009, University of North Florida,
13f65170eaa5477b842f4d2f3de7b282/ess-2007-2010-eng-low.pdf. Jacksonville, Florida.
Bocken, N.M.P., Short, S.W., Rana, P., Evans, S., 2014. A literature and practice review Floden, J., 2015. Sustainable Intermodal Biofuel Transport, Intermodal RoadeRail
to develop sustainable business model archetypes. J. Clean. Prod. 65, 42e56. Transport of Wood Biofuel for Heating Plants. BAS Publisher, Gothenburg.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.11.039. Floden, J., Sorkina, E., 2014. Business models for shipper-operated intermodal
Boons, F., Lüdeke-Freund, F., 2013. Business models for sustainable innovation: transport solutions. In: Macharis, C., Melo, S., Woxenius, J., Van Lier, T. (Eds.),
state-of-the-art and steps towards a research agenda. J. Clean. Prod. 45, 9e19. Sustainable Logistics. Emerald Group Publishing Limited, pp. 193e215. http://
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.07.007. dx.doi.org/10.1108/S2044-994120140000006008.
Boons, F., Montalvo, C., Quist, J., Wagner, M., 2013. Sustainable innovation, business Gassmann, O., Enkel, E., Chesbrough, H., 2010. The future of open innovation. R&D
models and economic performance: an overview. J. Clean. Prod. 45, 1e8. http:// Manag. 40 (3), 213e221. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9310.2010.00605.x.
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.08.013. Gold, S., Seuring, S., 2011. Supply chain and logistics issues of bio-energy production.
Bowersox, D.J., Closs, D.J., 1996. Logistical Management e the Integrated Supply J. Clean. Prod. 19 (1), 32e42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2010.08.009.
Chain Process. McGraw-Hill, New York. Hagel, J., Singer, M., 1999. Unbundling the corporation. Harv. Bus. Rev. 77 (2), 133e141.
Brunberg, T., 2014. Skogsbr€ anslets metoder, sortiment och kostnader 2013 Hamelinck, C.N., Suurs, R.A.A., Faaij, A.P.C., 2005. International bioenergy transport
(Methods, Assortment and Costs for Forest Fuels 2013). Nr 74-2014, Skogforsk, costs and energy balance. Biomass & Bioenergy 29 (2), 114e134. http://dx.doi.
The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden, Uppsala. http://www.skogforsk.se/ org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2005.04.002.
kunskap/kunskapsbanken/2014/Skogsbranslets-metoder-sortiment-och- Harrigan, K.R., 1983. Strategies for Vertical Integration. Lexington Books, Lexington,
kostnader-2013/. Mass.
Cameron, J.B., Kumar, A., Flynn, P.C., 2007. The impact of feedstock cost on tech- Jensen, A., 1990. Combined Transport: Systems, Economics and Strategies. Swedish
nology selection and optimum size. Biomass Bioenergy 31 (2e3), 137e144. Transport Research Board (Transportforskningsberedningen), Stockholm.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2006.07.005. Johansson, M., 2005. Utredning av barkhanteringen vid Billerud Karlsborg AB
Casadesus-Masanell, R., Ricart, J.E., 2010. From strategy to business models and onto (Investigation of bark handling at Billerud Karlsborg AB). Examensarbete 2005:
tactics. Long Range Plan. 43 (2e3), 195e215. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lrp. 050 CIV. Luleå University of Technology, Luleå, Sweden.
2010.01.004. €nsson, P., Eliasson, L., Bjo
Jo €rheden, R., 2014. La €gesbyten effektiviserar flis-
Chesbrough, H.W., 2006. Open Business Models: How to Thrive in the New Inno- transporterna (Swapping Fuels Render the Wood Chip Transport More Effec-
vation Landscape. Harvard Business School Press, Boston, MA. tive). http://www.skogforsk.se/kunskap/kunskapsbanken/2014/Lagesbyten-
Chesbrough, H.W., 2007. Why companies should have open business models. MIT effektiviserar-flistransporterna/.
Sloan Manag. Rev. 48 (2), 22e28. JRC, 2012. Background Report on EU-27 District Heating and Cooling Potentials,
Chesbrough, H., 2010. Business model innovation: opportunities and barriers. Long Barriers, Best Practices and Measures of Promotion. Report EUR 25289 EN, JRC
Range Plan. 43 (2e3), 354e363. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lrp.2009.07.010. Scientific and policy reports, European Commission, Joint Research Centre,
Chesbrough, H., Rosenbloom, R.S., 2002. The role of the business model in capturing Institute for Energy and Transport. http://dx.doi.org/10.2790/47209.
value from innovation: evidence from Xerox Corporation's technology spin-off Kons, K., Bergstro €m, D., Eriksson, U., Athanassiadis, D., Nordfjell, T., 2014. Charac-
companies. Ind. Corp. Change 11 (3), 529e555. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/icc/11. teristics of Swedish forest biomass terminals for energy. Int. J. For. Eng. 25 (3),
3.529. 238e246. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14942119.2014.980494.
Cohen, B., Winn, M.I., 2007. Market imperfections, opportunity and sustainable Kreutzberger, E., Macharis, C., Vereecken, L., Woxenius, J., 2003. Is Intermodal
entrepreneurship. J. Bus. Ventur. 22 (1), 29e49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. Freight Transport More Environmentally Friendly than All-Road Freight Trans-
jbusvent.2004.12.001. port? A Review'. Paper presented at The NECTAR conference no. 7 and pub-
Collier, D.A., 2010. OM 2. Cengage Learning, Mason, OH. lished in proceedings, June 13e15 2003, Umeå, Sweden.
Connolly, D., Vad Mathiesen, B., Alberg Østergaard, P., Møller, B., Nielsen, S., Kumar, A., Cameron, J.B., Flynn, P.C., 2003. Biomass power cost and optimum plant
Lund, H., Trier, D., 2013. Heat Roadmap for Europe 2050-Second Pre-study for size in western Canada. Biomass Bioenergy 24 (6), 445e464. http://dx.doi.org/
EU27. Aalborg University, Denmark, for Euroheat & Power, Brussels. 10.1016/S0961-9534(02)00149-6.
n, J., Williamsson, J., Business models for sustainable biofuel transport: the potential for intermodal
Please cite this article in press as: Flode
transport, Journal of Cleaner Production (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.11.076
12 J. Floden, J. Williamsson / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2015) 1e12
Lambert, D.M., Cooper, M.C., Pagh, J.D., 1998. Supply chain management: imple- Simchi-Levi, D., Kaminsky, P., Simchi-Levi, E., 2008. Designing and Managing the
mentation issues and research opportunities. Int. J. Logist. Manag. 9 (2), 1e19. Supply Chain: Concepts, Strategies, and Case Studies. McGraw-Hill/Irwin,
Lehtikangas, P., 1999. Lagringshandbok fo €r tra
€dbr€anslen (Storage Handbook for Boston.
Wood Fuels). SLU e Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala. Sorkina, E., 2012. Development process of intermodal transport solutions: the case
https://www.svebio.se/sites/default/files/LAGRINGSHANDBOK%20f%C3%B6r% of dedicated solutions based on large shippers' volumes. J. Transp. Technol. 2
20tr%C3%A4dbr%C3%A4nslen.pdf. (4), 324e333. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jtts.2012.24035.
€kango
Levia €as, P., Lehtinen, J., Thomchick, E., Spychalski, J., 2007. Business Models for Spinelli, R., Cavallo, E., Facello, A., Magagnotti, N., Nati, C., Paletto, G., 2011. Perfor-
Rail Freight, Topology Formulation based on Rail Freight Evolution in the US mance and energy efficiency of alternative comminution principles: chipping
and Europe. Paper presented at NOFOMA 2007 and published in proceedings, versus grinding. Scand. J. For. Res. 27 (4), 393e400. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/
June 7e8 2007, Reykjavik, Iceland. 02827581.2011.644577.
Lindholm, E.-L., 2010. Energy Use and Environmental Impact of Roundwood and Stern, L.W., El-Ansary, A.I., 1992. Marketing Channels. Prentice Hall, Englewood
Forest Fuel Production in Sweden (Doctoral thesis), Swedish University of Cliffs, N.J.
Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala. http://pub.epsilon.slu.se/2292/1/lindholm_e_ Stevenson, W.J., 2012. Operations Management. McGraw-Hill/Irwin, New York.
100517.pdf. Stubbs, W., Cocklin, C., 2008. Conceptualizing a “sustainability business model”.
Lindholm, E.L., Berg, S., 2005. Energy requirement and environmental impact in Organ. Environ. 21 (2), 103e127. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1086026608318042.
timber transport. Scand. J. For. Res. 20 (2), 184e191. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ Svanberg, M., Halldo 2013. Supply chain configuration for biomass-to-
rsson, A.,
02827580510008329. energy: the case of torrefaction. Int. J. Energy Sect. Manag. 7 (1), 65e83.
Lindholm, E.L., Berg, S., Hansson, P.A., 2010. Energy efficiency and the environ- http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/17506221311316489.
mental impact of harvesting stumps and logging residues. Eur. J. For. Res. 129 Svanberg, M., Olofsson, I., Flode n, J., Nordin, A., 2013. Analysing biomass torrefaction
(6), 1223e1235. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10342-010-0412-1. supply chain costs. Bioresour. Technol. 142 (August), 287e296. http://dx.doi.
Magnusson, D., 2012. Swedish district heatingda system in stagnation: current and org/10.1016/j.biortech.2013.05.048.
future trends in the district heating sector. Energy Policy 48, 449e459. http:// Svensk Fj€ arrva €rme, 2014. Svensk fja €rrva
€rme (District Heating in Sweden). http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2012.05.047. www.svenskfjarrvarme.se (accessed 2014, February.).
Mahmudi, H., Flynn, P.C., 2006. Rail vs truck transport for biomass. Appl. Biochem. Svensk Fj€ arrv€arme, 2015. The Swedish District Heating Association Homepage.
Biotechnol. 129e132 (12), 88e103. Statistics. http://www.svenskfjarrvarme.se/statistikepris/fjarrvarme/
Margretta, J., 2002. Why business models matter. Harv. Bus. Rev. 80 (5), 86e92. energitillforsel/April.
Mitchell, C.P., Bridgwater, A.V., Stevens, D.J., Toft, A.J., Watters, M.P., 1995. Tech- Svenska tr€ adbra €nslefo
€reningen, 2015. Swedish wood fuel association homepage.
noeconomic assessment of biomass to energy. Biomass Bioenergy 9 (1e5), http://www.tradbransle.se/ (accessed 2015, August.).
205e226. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0961-9534(95)00092-5. Sveriges Åkerifo € retag, 2013. Fakta om åkerina €ringen (Facts about the Haulage In-
Mo€rner, H., 2010. Kundkrav på biobra €nsle (Customer Demands for Biofuel). Nr 53. dustry). Sveriges åkerifo €retag, The Swedish Association of Road Transport
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SLU Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet, Companies, Stockholm. http://www.akeri.se/sites/default/files/uploaded_files/
Uppsala. Examensarbete. fakta12.pdf.
Morris, M., Schindehutte, M., Allen, J., 2005. The entrepreneur's business model: Swedish Energy Agency, 2014. Energila €get i siffror 2014 (The Energy Situation in
toward a unified perspective. J. Bus. Res. 58 (6), 726e735. http://dx.doi.org/10. Numbers 2014). Swedish Energy Agency (Energimyndigheten), Eskilstuna.
1016/j.jbusres.2003.11.001. Swedish Energy Agency, 2015. Tra €dbra€nsle- och torvpriser, tidsserie (Wood Fuel
Municipality law, 1991. Kommunallagen 1991:900 (Swedish municipality law) and Peat Prices, Time Series). Swedish Energy Agency (Energimyndigheten),
(Chapter 2), x1. Department of Finance, Stockholm, Sweden. Eskilstuna.
Nenonen, S., Storbacka, K., 2010. Business model design: conceptualizing net- Swedish Forest Agency, 2014. Swedish Statistical Yearbook of Forestry 2014.
worked value co-creation. Int. J. Qual. Serv. Sci. 2 (1), 43e59. Swedish Forest Agency (Skogsstyrelsen), Jo € nko
€ping.
Okkonen, L., Suhonen, N., 2010. Business models of heat entrepreneurship in Tahvanainen, T., Anttila, P., 2011. Supply chain cost analysis of long-distance
Finland. Energy Policy 38 (7), 3443e3452. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol. transportation of energy wood in Finland. Biomass Bioenergy 35 (8),
2010.02.018. 3360e3375. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2010.11.014.
Olsen, P.I., Prenkert, F., Hoholm, T., Harrison, D., 2014. The dynamics of networked Teece, D.J., 2010. Business models, business strategy and innovation. Long Range
power in a concentrated business network. J. Bus. Res. 67 (12), 2579e2589. Plan. 43 (2e3), 172e194. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lrp.2009.07.003.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2014.03.017. Trafikanalys, 2013. Transportbranschen e hur står det till? Statistik om trans-
Olsson, O., Hillring, B., 2013. Price relationships and market integration in the portbranschen och sex delbranscher åren 19972011 (The Transport Industry e
Swedish wood fuel market. Biomass Bioenergy 57, 78e85. http://dx.doi.org/10. How Are You? Statistics about the Transport Industry and Six Sub-Industries
1016/j.biombioe.2013.01.026. 1997e2011). Statistik 2013:2. Trafikanalys, Transport Analysis Sweden,
Osterwalder, A., 2004. The Business Model Ontology e a Proposition in a Design Stockholm.
Science Approach (Doctoral thesis). Universite de Lausanne, Lausanne. http:// UN/ECE, 2001. Terminology on Combined Transport. United Nations (UN) & Eco-
www.hec.unil.ch/aosterwa/PhD/Osterwalder_PhD_BM_Ontology.pdf. nomic Commission for Europe (ECE), New York and Geneva. http://www.unece.
Osterwalder, A., Pigneur, Y., 2009. Business Model Generation: a Handbook for org/fileadmin/DAM/trans/wp24/documents/term.pdf.
Visionaries, Game Changers, and Challengers. Self Published, Modderman Waidringer, J., 1999. Port Logistics from a Network Perspective, a Generic Model for
Drukwerk, Amsterdam. Port Terminal Optimisation (Report 41, Licentiate thesis), Chalmers University
Porter, M.E., Kramer, M.R., 2011. Creating shared value. Harv. Bus. Rev. 89 (1/2), of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden.
62e77. Wandel, S., Ruijgrok, C., 1995. Information technologies for the development of
Powell, W.W., 1998. Learning from collaboration. Calif. Manag. Rev. 40 (3). transport and logistics, a systems model and examples. Adv. Technol. Assess.
Rentizelas, A.A., Tolis, A.J., Tatsiopoulos, I.P., 2009. Logistics issues of biomass: the Syst. (ATAS) Bull. Autumn (10), 86e108.
storage problem and the multi-biomass supply chain. Renew. Sustain. Energy Westin, P., Lagergren, F., 2002. Re-regulating district heating in Sweden. Energy
Rev. 13 (4), 887e894. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/J.Rser.2008.01.003. Policy 30 (7), 583e596. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0301-4215(01)00126-4.
Roos, A., Bohlin, F., Hektor, B., Hillring, B., Parikka, M., 2000. A geographical analysis Wilkinson, I.F., 1973. Power and influence structures in distribution channels. Eur. J.
of the Swedish woodfuel market. Scand. J. For. Res. 15 (1), 112e118. Mark. 7 (2), 119e129.
Routa, J., Asikainen, A., Bjo€rheden, R., Laitila, J., Ro€ser, D., 2013. Forest energy pro- Wolfsmayr, U.J., Rauch, P., 2014. The primary forest fuel supply chain: a literature
curement: state of the art in Finland and Sweden. WIRES Energy Environ. 2 (6), review. Biomass Bioenergy 60 (January), 203e221. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
602e613. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/wene.24. biombioe.2013.10.025.
Sandoff, A., Williamsson, J., 2015. Business models for district heating. In: Zomer, G., Krupe, S., 2009. How to Materialise Synergies in Transport Logistics.
Wiltshire, R. (Ed.), Advanced District Heating and Cooling (DHC) Systems. Paper presented at European Transport Conference 2009, May 10 2009,
Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy. Noordwijkerhout, The Netherlands.
Short, S.W., Bocken, N.M.P., Barlow, C.Y., Chertow, M.R., 2014. From refining sugar to Zott, C., Amit, R., Massa, L., 2011. The business model: recent developments and
growing tomatoes industrial ecology and business model evolution. J. Ind. Ecol. future research. J. Manag. 37 (4), 1019e1042. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/
18 (5), 603e618. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jiec.12171. 0149206311406265.
n, J., Williamsson, J., Business models for sustainable biofuel transport: the potential for intermodal
Please cite this article in press as: Flode
transport, Journal of Cleaner Production (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.11.076