CERVICAL CANCER

ENGLISH FOR NURSING

LECTURER :

LOLLO ROSA,M.Pd

By Group 2:

Asiah Rosadi ( 16080041 )

Irawati Siregar ( 16080046 )

Nurhot Jamilah Dongoran ( 16080052 )

Siti Aisyah Lubis

Sri Sunarti Gulo

Sukriani Harahap ( 16080061 )

PENDIDIKAN BAHASA INGGRIS FAKULTAS BAHASADAN SENI

INSTITUTPENDIDIKANTAPANULI SELATAN

( IPTS )

TAHUN 2018

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 PREFACE

Praise be to God Almighty for the blessings of his grace, and that we were given the
opportunity to be able to compile a research topics about " Cervical Cancer" is properly and
correctly, and on time.
This paper is the one of English For Nursing’s task that explain all about Cervical
Cancer, such as ; symptoms, causes, stages, prevention and treatment.
We realize that this paper is not perfect, but we hope it can be useful for us. Critics
and suggestion is needed here to make this paper be better. Thank you.

Padangsidimpuan, 10 February 2018

Author

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 TABLE OF CONTENT

PREFACE..................................................................................................................................ii
TABLE OF CONTENT............................................................................................................iii
CHAPTER I...............................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................1
1.1 Background of the paper................................................................................................1
1.2 Purpose of the paper.......................................................................................................1
1.3 What this paper will be talking about? ..........................................................................1
CHAPTER II..............................................................................................................................2
THEORY AND DISCUSSION.................................................................................................2
2.1 What is Cervical Cancer..................................................................................................2
2.2 What causes cervical cancer............................................................................................2
2.3 What are the symptoms and signs of cervical cancer......................................................3
2.4 What are the risk factors for cervical cancer...................................................................4
2.5
Stages..............................................................................................................................5
2.6 Treatment........................................................................................................................6
2.7 Prevention.......................................................................................................................7
CHAPTER III............................................................................................................................9
CONCLUSION.........................................................................................................................9
3.1 Conclusion......................................................................................................................9
3.2 Suggest...........................................................................................................................9
BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................................................................................................10

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 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the paper

Cancer has grown to become one the leading causes of death in the world
today. Cervical cancer affects the cervix, which is the lower narrow end of the uterus. It is
caused by the Human Papillomavirus Virus (HPV virus), which causes the rise in the
malignant neoplasm thus causing cancer in the cervix uteri (Stewart, 2008). This virus is
transmitted sexually from one person to the other. Although it is not as common as other
types of cancer, it is still a significant challenge to the healthcare system. The most common
symptoms of cervical cancer are abnormal bleeding and discharge through the vagina and
pain during sexual intercourse. To diagnose cervical cancer, healthcare professionals use a
Pap test as it tests for the malignant neoplasm, which show positive when in plenty (Parker,
2011). Like the other forms of cancer, cervical cancer can be treated through chemotherapy
and radiation therapy.
1.2 Purpose of the paper
Explain all about Cervical Cancer, such as ; symptoms, causes, stages, prevention and
treatment.
1.3 What this paper will be talking about?
 What is Cervical Cancer?
 What causes it?
 What are the symptoms?
 The stages of cervical cancer.
 Prevention and Treatment.

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 CHAPTER II
THEORY AND DISCUSSION

2.1 What is Cervical Cancer?

Cancer is the growth of abnormal cells, the cells can invade and damage normal
tissue. Cervical cancer is a cancer arising from the cervix. It is due to the abnormal growth of
cells that have the ability to invade or spread to other parts of the body. Cervical cancer is
cancer that begins in the uterine cervix, the lower end of the uterus that contacts the upper
vagina. The majority of cervical cancer cases are caused by HPV (human papillomavirus).
Cervical cancer is different from cancer that begins in other regions of the uterus
(uterine or endometrial cancer). If detected early, cervical cancer has a very high cure rate.
Vaccination against HPVs, which are known to cause cervical cancer, is an effective
preventive measure.

2.2 How do women get cervical cancer? What causes cervical cancer?

Cancer is the result of the uncontrolled division and growth of abnormal cells. Most of the
cells in our body have a set lifespan and when they die, new cells are produced to replace
them. Abnormal cells can have two problems:
a. they do not die
b. They continue dividing
Almost all cervical cancers are caused by longstanding infection with one of the
HPVs. HPV infection is very common, and most people with HPV infection do not develop
cancer. There are over 100 types of HPVs, and only certain types have been linked to cancers.
Other HPV types cause benign warts on the skin or genitals. The so-called "high risk" HPV
types have been shown to cause cancers of the cervix as well as cancers of the penis in men.
HPVs can also cause cancers of the mouth, throat, and anus in people of both sexes.

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 HPV infection is spread through sexual contact or skin-to-skin contact. Many studies
have shown that HPV infection is common and that a majority of people will be infected with
HPV at some point in life. The infection typically resolves on its own. In some women, the
HPV infection persists and causes precancerous changes in the cells of the cervix. These
changes can be detected by regular cervical cancer screening (known as Pap testing). With
Pap testing, a superficial sample of cells from the cervix is taken with a brush or swab during
a routine pelvic examination and sent to a laboratory for analysis of the cells' appearance.
Dysplasia is abnormal-appearing cells that are not cancers but may be precancerous.
Dysplasia of the cervix identified at the time of Pap testing is referred to as a squamous
intraepithelial lesion (SIL). Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) is another term used to
classify precancerous changes in the cervix that are seen on tissue samples such as biopsies.
Precancerous changes in the cervix such as CIN and SIL can typically be treated, which can
prevent the development of cancer.
The cervix itself contains two types of cells- the lining cells of the outer cervix,
known as squamous cells, and the cells that line the interior channel of the cervix. These
interior cells have features of glandular cells. The point at which the squamous and glandular
cells meet is known as the transition zone, and it is in this area that most cervical precancers
and cancers begin to grow. Up to 90% of cervical cancers arise from the squamous cells and
are called squamous cell carcinomas, with most of the remainder coming from the glandular
cells (adenocarcinomas).

2.3 What are the symptoms and signs of cervical cancer?

Cervical cancer may not produce any symptoms or signs. In particular, early stage
cervical cancers, like precancerous changes, typically do not produce symptoms. Symptoms
may develop when the cervical cancer cells start to invade surrounding tissues.
In the early stages of cervical cancer, a person may experience no symptoms at all. As
a result, women should have regular cervical smear, or Pap, tests. A Pap test is preventive. It
aims not to detect cancer but to reveal any cell changes that indicate that cancer could

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 develop, so that early action can be taken.The most common symptoms of cervical cancer
are:

a. bleeding between periods

b. Bleeding or pain during or after sex

c. bleeding in post-menopausal women

d. discomfort during sexual intercourse

e. smelly vaginal discharge

f. vaginal discharge tinged with blood

g. pelvic pain

It is important to note that these symptoms are not specific for cervical cancer and can be
caused by a variety of conditions. Anyone who experiences any of these symptoms should
see a doctor.

2.4 What are the risk factors for cervical cancer?

Risk factors are anything that can increase or decrease a person’s chace of getting a
disease, such as cancer.
As described previously, cervical cancers are caused by infection with one of the
high-risk HPV types. However, since not all people who are infected with HPV will develop
cancer, it is likely that other factors also play a role in the development of cervical cancer.
Certain risk factors have been identified that increase a woman's risk for developing cervical
cancer:

a. HPV (human papillomavirus)

A sexually transmitted virus. There are more than 100 different types of HPV, at least
13 of which can cause cervical cancer.

b. Having many sexual partners or becoming sexually active early

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 Cervical cancer-causing HPV types are nearly always transmitted as a result of sexual
contact with an infected individual. Women who have had many sexual partners
generally have a higher risk of becoming infected with HPV. This raises their risk of
developing cervical cancer.

c. Smoking

This increases the risk of cervical and other cancers.

d. A weakened immune system

 The risk is higher in those with HIV or AIDS, and people who have undergone a
transplant, necessitating the use of immunosuppressive medications.
e. Other sexually transmitted diseases (STD)
Chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis increase the risk of developing cervical cancer.
f. Birth control pills
Long-term use of some common contraceptive pills slightly raises a woman's risk.
g. Having three or more full-term pregnancies
Women who have had at least three children in separate pregnancies are more likely
to develop cervical cancer, compared with women who have never had children.
h. Giving birth at a very young age
Women who give birth before the age of 17 years are significantly more likely to
develop cervical cancer, compared with women who have their first baby after the age
of 25 years.

2.5 Stages

Working out the stage of a cancer is important as it helps decide what kind of
treatment can be effective.Staging aims to assess how far the cancer has developed and
whether it has reached nearby structures or more distant organs. There are different ways of
describing the stages, but a 4-stage system is commonly used.
Stage 0: Precancerous cells are present.
Stage 1: Cancer cells have grown from the surface into deeper tissues of the cervix, and
possibly into the uterus and to nearby lymph nodes
Stage 2: The cancer has is now beyond the cervix and uterus, but not as far as the walls of the
pelvis or the lower part of the vagina. It may or may not affect nearby lymph nodes.
Stage 3: Cancer cells are present in the lower part of the vagina or the walls of the pelvis, and
it may be blocking the ureters, the tubes that carry urine from the bladder. It may or
may not affect nearby lymph nodes.
Stage 4: The cancer affects the bladder or rectum and is growing out of the pelvis. It may or
may not affect the lymph nodes. Later in stage 4, it will spread to distant organs,
including the liver, bones, lungs, and lymph nodes.
It is important to undergo screening and to see a doctor if any symptoms occur, as early
treatment increases the chance of survival.

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2.6 Treatment
Cervical cancer treatment options include surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, or
combinations of these.
Deciding on the kind of treatment depends on several factors, such as the stage of the
cancer, as well as the patient's age and state of health.
Treatment for early-stage cervical cancer, when it is confined to the cervix, has a good
success rate. The further the cancer has spread out of the area it originated from, the lower the
success rate tends to be.
a. Early stage cervical cancer treatment options
Surgery is commonly used when the cancer is confined to the cervix. Radiotherapy
may be used after surgery if a doctor believes there may still be cancer cells inside the
body.
Radiotherapy may also be used to reduce the risk of recurrence (cancer coming back).
If the surgeon wants to shrink the tumor to make it easier to operate, the person may
receive chemotherapy although this is not a very common approach.
b. Treatment for advanced cervical cancer
When the cancer has spread beyond the cervix, surgery is not usually an option.
Advanced cancer is also referred to as invasive cancer because it has invaded other
areas of the body. This type of cancer requires more extensive treatment, which will
typically involve either radiotherapy or a combination of radiotherapy and
chemotherapy.
In the later stages of cancer, palliative therapy is administered to relieve symptoms
and improve quality of life.
1. What are methods of treatment for cervical cancer?
a. Radiation therapy
is another common treatment for cervical cancer. Both external beam radiation
therapy (radiation therapy administered from an outside source of radiation)
and brachytherapy(radiation therapy that involves the insertion of radioactive sources
near the tumor for a fixed period of time) have been used for cervical cancer. These
two types of therapy have also been used together. If radiation therapy is given as the
main treatment for the cancer, it is often combined with chemotherapy.

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 b. Chemotherapy may be recommended together with radiation therapy
(chemoradiation) for some stages of cervical cancer. It may also be given before or
after radiation treatment. Chemotherapy drugscommonly used for cervical cancer
include cisplatin and 5-fluorouracil. Chemotherapy may also be the treatment of
choice for cervical cancer that has come back after treatment.
c. Targeted therapy refers to drugs that have been specifically developed, or targeted, to
interrupt cellular processes that promote growth of cancer cells. Bevacizumab
(Avastin) is an example of targeted therapy. It is a drug that inhibits the ability of
tumors to make new blood vessels, which is required for tumor growth. This kind of
targeted therapy is sometimes used for advanced cervical cancers.

2.7 Prevention

There are a number of measures that can be taken to reduce the chances of developing
cervical cancer :

a. Human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine

The link between the development of cervical cancer and some types of HPV is clear.
If every female adheres to current HPV vaccination programs, cervical cancer could
potentially be reduced.

b. Safe sex and cervical cancer

The HPV vaccine only protects against two HPV strains. There are other strains which
can cause cervical cancer. Using a condom during sex helps protect from HPV
infection.

c. Cervical screening

Regular cervical screening will make it much more likely that signs of cancer are
picked up early and dealt with before the condition can develop, or spread too far.
Screening does not detect cancer but detects changes to the cells of the cervix.

d. Having fewer sexual partners

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 The more sexual partners a woman has, the higher the risk of transmitting the HPV
virus, which can lead to a higher likelihood of developing cervical cancer.

e. Delaying first sexual intercourse

The younger a female is when she has her first sexual intercourse, the higher the risk
of HPV infection. The longer she delays it, the lower her risk.

f. Stopping smoking
Women who smoke and are infected with HPV have a higher risk of developing
cervical cancer than people who do not.

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 CHAPTER III
CONCLUSION

3.1 Conclusion
Worldwide, cervical cancer is both the fourth-most common cause of cancer and the
fourth-most common cause of death from cancer in women. In 2012, an estimated 528,000
cases of cervical cancer occurred, with 266,000 deaths. This is about 8% of the total cases
and total deaths from cancer. About 70% of cervical cancers occur in developing
countries. In low-income countries, it is the most common cause of cancer death.
In developed countries, the widespread use of cervical screening programs has dramatically
reduced rates of cervical cancer.
After knowing the facts, we certainly should be more careful about this cervical cancer.
identify the symptoms, the causes, the prevention and treatment. So, all of us can be protected
from this dangerous disease.
3.2 Suggest
We are as the writer want to apology for the shortage of this paper. We know that this
paper is still far from perfect. So that we need the suggest from the reader for the perfection
of this paper. Thank you very much for the reader.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

 https://www.medicinenet.com/cervical_cancer/article.htm
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervical_cancer
 https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/159821.php
 Cervical Cancer by American Cancer Society
 Symptoms of Cervical Cancer by © 2016 CHANGE

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