Cooling system design

Water cooling
Water cooling has become the standard in the both
passenger cars and heavy duty vehicles.

Pure water is no longer employed as coolant, today’s

coolants are a mixture of water, antifreeze, and
various corrosion inhibitors.
An antifreeze concentration of 30-50% raises the coolant
mixture’s boiling point to allow operating temperatures of
up to 120 C at pressure of 0.14 MPa.
Considering that the water expel heat which represent a
fraction of heat released in cylinder.
1
Qr = q r ⋅ Pe ⋅ g e ⋅ Qi
3.6
 qr The heat fraction expel by coolant, SI engine q r = 0.25....0.3

CI engine q r = 0.18....0.25

Pe - engine effective power [kW]

Qi - fuel heating value, [kJ/kg]
ge - specific fuel consumption. [g/kWh]
Radiator design and materials
The cores of the coolant radiators in modern passenger cars are
almost always made of aluminum, which is also being used in an
increasing number of heavy-vehicle radiators. There are two basic
assembly variations: Brazing and mechanical joining.

For cooling high-output engines, or when space is limited, the best

solution is a brazed, high-performance flat-tube and corrugated fin
layout with minimal aerodynamic resistance on the intake
side.

The less expensive, mechanically assembled finned-tube system is

generally employed for applications with less powerful engines or
when more space is available.
When the radiator is assembled mechanically, the cooling grid is
formed by mounting stamped fins around oval or round tubes. The
fins are corrugated and/or slotted at right angles to the direction of
air flow.
In both types of radiator, tabulators are applied to enhance the thermal
transfer on the coolant side (in the pipes) provided the attendant
pressure losses remain within acceptable limits. On the cooling-air
side, corrugations and gills provide improved thermal transfer in the
fins.
The radiator tank ensures that the coolant is distributed throughout the
block. These tanks are made of fiberglass reinforced polyamides,
and are injection molded with all connections and mountings in a
single unit; they are flange mounted on the radiator core.
Passenger-car coollng system
1 Racliator tank, 2 Transmission fluid cooler, 3 Gasket, 4 Engine-coolant
radiator, 5 Side bruce, 6 Base, 7 Oil-cooler tank, 8 Engine-oil cooler, VISCO-
coupling, 10 Fan.
Radiator design

Regardless of operating and environmental conditions the radiator must

continue to provide reliable thermal transfer by discharging engine heat
into the surrounding air. Different methods can be applied to determine
radiator capacity.

The cooling capacity required for a specific radiator can be determined

empirically, using comparisons with reference units of the same design,
or calculations based on correlation equations for thermal transfer and
flow-pressure loss can be employed

Aside from reliable cooling, other priorities in radiator design include

minimizing the power required to operate the fan and maintaining low
aerodynamic drag.
The mass of the cooling air stream is a decisive factor, as there is an

inverse rerationship between tan and radiator capacities:

A more powerful fan with higher energy consumption allows a smaller

radiator, and vice versa.

In addition, the temperature differential between the surrounding air and

the coolants hould be as large as possible, an objective that can only be

achieved by maximizing coolant temperature which in turn entails a

corresponding increase in system pressure.

Radiator calculus
The radiator calculus consists in calculus of the cooling area of radiator
The assumption is that the amount of heat expel in the water is equal with
the heat transferred to the air

water air
Qr = α 1 ⋅ F1 (t l .med − t c1 )
λ
Qr = ⋅ F1 (t c 2 − t c1 )
δ
Qr = α 2 ⋅ F2 (t c 2 − t a.med )
Where:
α1 - heat transmission coefficient water to metal tube 2500…5000
[W / m 2 K ]
α2 - heat transmission coefficient metal tube to air 70…116
[W / m 2 K ]

λ - Thermo conductivity of metal tube [W/mK]

δ -Tube wall thickness [mm]

 F1 Surface area in contact with the water [m 2 ]
F2 Surface area in contact with the air [m 2 ]
t c1 and t c 2 -mean temperature of tube walls [ o C ]

t l .med and t a.med o

-mean temperature of water and air [ C ]

Recommended values:

t l .med = (85....95)°C t a.med = (50...55)°C

Cooling surface area can be calculated with the next relationship:

Qr
F2 = [m 2 ]
1
(t l .med − t a.med )
1 1
ψ +
α1 α2
 F2
ψ = Surface area ratio air-water ψ = 7.5...10
η F1
Radiator usage coefficient η = 0.8....0.9

The air flow through radiator

Qr
Va =
3600 ⋅ ρ a ⋅ c a ⋅ Δt a

Where:
ρa - air density in ambient conditions;
ca - air specific heat, at 50…55 [ o C ] the value 1.05 ⋅ 10 3[J/kgK]
Δt a -air temperature difference in radiator Δt a = (20...30)°C
Qr -expelled heat [W]
The value of the air velocity in radiator w a = 6....9 m/s or w a = 9....13
taking in account the add of vehicle speed can be calculated the frontal
surface area of the radiator

Va
F fr = [m 2 ]
wa
FAN

Be cause motor vehicles also require substantial cooling capacity at low

speeds, force-air ventilation is required for the radiator. Single-piece
injection-molded plastic tans are generally employed in passenger cars,
while trucks and buses usually have either fans with riveted metal
blades or solid plastic units, with drive power requirements extending up
to 15 kW. Fans with more modest power requirements are generally
powered by electric motors. Although blade design and arrangement can
be selected to provide relatively quiet operation, the noise levels of such
fans remain substantial due to the inconsistently high rotation speeds.
Using electric motors tor cooling in mid size cars and larger vehicles
would entail excessive costs on these vehicles, the fan is powered directly
by the engine, via a drive belt, or, in heavy trucks, the fan is attached
directly to the crankshaft, dispensing with an intermediate drive.

The fan-control arrangement requires particular attention. Depending

upon vehicle and operating conditions the unassisted air stream can
provide sutficient cooling up to 95% of the time. lt is thus possible to
economize on the fuel which would otherwise have to provide the energy
to drive the fan.

Electric fans use a two-slage control system lo achieve this end: An

electric temperature switch activates the fan once a specitic coolant
temperature has been exceeded.
The fluid-friction or viscous-drive fan (VISCO@-Coupling) is a
mechanical-drive arrangement of proven effectiveness for application
in both passenger cars and heavy vehicles. lt basically consists of three
sections:
The engine-powered primary (or input) disk, the internally-activated
secondary (or output) section, and the control mechanism. An
intermediate disk divides the secondary section into a supply chamber and
a working chamber through which the fluid circulates. There is no
mechanical connection between the working chamber and the primary
disk, which rotates freely within it.
Torque is transmitted through the internal triction of the highly-viscous
fluid and its adhesion to the inner surlaces. There is a degree of slippage
between input and output. A wiper rotates with the secondary section,
Maintaining the flow of fluid medium to the supply chamber
Centrifugal force then forces the fluid through a valve and back to the
working chamber. The control's bimetallic spring responds to drops in the
temperature around it by closing the valve, causing the fluid medium to
collect in the supply chamber while the working chamber empties.
Aside from an insignificant residual torque, the coupling is disengaged.
The system thus provides infinitely- variable speed regulation according
to the temperature of the air stream surrounding the bimetallic element.
 VISCO@-coupilng
a) Coupling engaged b) Coupling disengaged
1 Bimetallic spring, 2 Actuating rod, 3 Valve lever, 4 lntemediate disk,
5 Supply chamber, 6 Water pump body, 7 Couplingcase, 8 Flange
shaft, 9 Working chamber nA Drive speed, nL Fan speed.
Fan drive power
Δp a ⋅ Va
Pfan = [kW]
ηf

Where:
Δp a Air pressure difference in system
η f fan efficiency, η f = 0.55...0.65 for casting fan palette,
η f = 0.32...0.40 for blade fan palette

Peripheral velocity of fan:

U = 2.8ψ 1 ( Δp a ) 0.5

ψ 1 -coefficient which take in account the palette form, ψ 1 = 2.8....3.5

For plane palette, ψ 1 = 2.2....2.9 for curved palette.
Axial fan diameter: D fan = 1.3(Va / v) 0.5 [m]

Where: v-air velocity in the fan, recommended value 13…30 [m/s]

60 ⋅ U
Speed of axial fan: n fan = [rpm]
π ⋅ D fan
WATER PUMP
The water pump circulates the coolant throughout the cooling system.
It is sensitive to inlet restriction, coolant temperature and aerated coolant.
Failure to control these parameters can result in cavitations, caused when
partially vaporized coolant cavities collapse near regions of high pressure
within the closed loop cooling system.
Water pump wear can be reduced by minimizing inlet pump restriction. All
restrictions within the coolant circuit , such as radiators and associated
plumbing as well as customer add-on features (i.e. cab heaters, auxiliary oil
cooler, filters) must be considered. Coolant pressure can be well below
atmospheric, especially on water pumps that utilize rapid warm-up systems,
which can lead to cavitations at coolant temperatures below 100 C.
This condition is even more prevalent at high altitude conditions.
Water pump inlet line diameters should be at least the same as that of the
pump inlet
Bends within the coolant loop should be avoided.
When necessary they should have a large radius of curvature.
Coolant flow:
60 ⋅ Qr
Vl =
cl ⋅ ρ l ⋅ (t lis − t li )

Where:
cl - coolant specific heat cl = 4.19 [kJ/kgK]
t li o
- coolant temperature at engine entrance [ C ]
t lis - coolant temperature at engine exit [o C]
Qr - heat expelled by coolant [W]
ρl - coolant density [kg/l]

Temperature difference (t lis − t li ) = (7....8)[°C ]

Theoretic pump flow: Vl
Vlt =
ηh
ηh -pump efficiency η h = 0.8....0.9
Pump power: Vlt ⋅ H l ⋅ ρ l ⋅ g
Pp = [kW]
60 ⋅ η p

ηp - Pump mechanical efficiency

Regulation of coolant temperature a motor vehicle's engine operates in
a very wide range of climatic conditions and with major fluctuations in
engine load factors.

The temperature of the coolant - and with il that of the engine - must be
regulated it they are to remain constant within a narrow range. An
efticient way to compensate for varying conditions is to install a
temperature-sensitive thermostat incorporating an expansion element to
regulate temperature independent of pressure variations in the cooling
system.

The thermostat responds to drops in coolant temperature by activating

a valve to increase the amount of coolant bypassing the radiator.This
method provides consistent operating temperatures, good vehicle-
heater performance and helps lower emissions while also reducing
engine wear.
Coolant expansion tank

The coolant expansion tank provides a reliable escape channel for

pressurized gases, preventing cavitation of the kind that tends to occur
on the suction side of the waterp ump.

The expansion tank's air volume must be large enough to absorb the
coolant's thermal expansion during rapid pressure buildup and prevent
the coolant from boiling over.

Expansion tanks are injected-molded in plastic (generally polypropylene)

although simple designs can also be inflated to shape. The expansion
tank can form a single unit with the radiator tank, or the two can be joined
in a flange or plug connection. lt is also possible to install the expansion
tank at a remote location.
The position and shape of the filler opening can be used to limit capacity,
thus preventing overfilling. A sight glass or an electronic level sensor can
be employed to monitor the level of the coolant, or the expansion tank can
be manufactured in undyed, transparent plastic.H owever, colorless
polypropylene is sensitive to ultraviolet rays; it is thus important that
the expansion tank not be exposed to direct sunlight
 Intercooling

Cooling the boost air reduces both the thermal loads placed on the engine
and the exhaust-gas temperatures, with the attendant benefits in NOx,
emissions and fuel consumption. lt also inhibits preignition in spark-ignition
engines. Both the engine coolant and the ambient air can be employed to
cool the boost air. An air to- coolant intercooler can be installed in virtually
any location, a benefit associated with this water-cooled unit's modest
dimensions.
However, this type of system cannot cool the charge air to the temperature
range of the engine coolant unless an auxiliary cooling circuit is used.
-
For these reasons air-to-air intercoolers have become the configuration of
choice in both passenger cars and heavy vehicles. These intercoolers can
be mounted in front of, beside or above the engine radiator, or at a
completely separate localion. A separately-mounted intercooler can utilize
either the unassisted vehicle air stream or its own fan. Extra effort is
required to ensure adequate air supply when the intercoolers is to be
located to the front of the engine radiator. The advantage of this location
lies in the fact that the fan ensures sufficient air flow across the intercooler
at low vehicle speeds. A disadvantage is that the cooling air is itself
heated in the process: The capacity of the engine radiator must therefore
be increased accordingly.
The system of corrugated aluminum fins and tubes employed for the core
is similar to that used in the radiator for the engine coolant.
Wide tubes with internal fins provide superior performance and structural
integrity in actual practice. Owing to the high level of thermal-transfer
resistance on the charge-air side it is possible to hold the fin density on
the cooling-air side to a minimum. The diffussion rate is a particularly
imporlant intercooler property. lt defines the relationship between boost-
air cooling etficiency and the boost-air/cooling-air temperature differential:
Φ = (t1E − t1 A )(t1E − t 2 E )
Where: Φ Diffusion rate
t1E Boost-air intake temperature
Φ
t1A Boost-air exit temperature
t2E Cooling-air intake temperature
For passenger cars: Φ= 0.4...0.7
For trucks: Φ = 0.65...0.8
Whenever possible the plenum chamber is iniection-molded in

fiberglass-reinforced polyamide as a single casting incorporating all

connections and mounts. lt is flange-mounted on the core. Plenum

chambers which feature undercut shapes or are intended for high-

temperature applications are die-cast in aluminum, and welded to the

core.
 Oil cooler
A portion of the engine's thermal loss is absorbed by its lubricating oil, the
cooling needs of which are frequently satisfied by the surface area of the
oil pan. High-performance vehicles, however, require a cooling device if
the lubricanits to remain within the specified temperature range under full-
load operation.
Oil coolers are generally in the form of aluminum oil to-air radiators, and
are installed either adiacent to the engine coolant radiator or separately.
Separately mounted units depend upon the unassisted air stream or an
extra fan for cooling.
The oil cooler consists of a high-density system of flat-tubes and
corrugated fins, or of round tubes in conjunction with flat fins. The high
internal pressures make it necessary to equip flat tubes with turbulence
inserts.
Stainless-steel disk radiators and aluminum forked-pipe radiators are
used to cool lubricating oil and engine coolant in passenger cars.
Disk radiators have their own housing and are mounted between the oil
filter and the block while forked-pipe radiators have no casing, facilitating
installation in oil filter housings and in the oil pan.
When the cooling requirements are more modest (e.g., for automatic
transmissionf fluid), copper/brass double-pipe exchangers or aluminum
flat-tube radiators are used. Both types of unit are installed on the main
radiator's discharge side coolant tank
An oil to-air radiator is used to cool transmission fluid in more powerful
heavy vehicles. The unit is mounted in front of the engine radiator in
order to ensure good ventilation.
Engine oil in heavy vehicles is generally cooled with stainless-steel disk
stacks installed in an extension of the cooling circuit; if conditions are
favorable, neither a casing nor additional lines are required.