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input #1 at www.csemag.com/information

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 Refreshingly different.

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input #2 at www.csemag.com/information
The easiest and
fastest way to select
and specify the right
control circuit fuse

Find the control circuit fuse you need in just

three simple steps.
The Fuses Made SimpleTM - Control
Circuits program from Eaton’s Bussmann
business helps enhance the control
circuit fuse selection process as well as
safety. We’ve eliminated the guesswork
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by using a color-coding system.
Now, each control circuit fuse has a
unique, identifying color band that
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replacement simple, and enhances the
safety of the entire system.
In just three simple steps, you can easily
select the control circuit fuse you need:
1. Select the fuse type
2. Select the voltage rating needed
3. Verify interrupting rating
Our selection chart walks you through
these steps quickly and easily. To view
the chart, or learn more, visit
www.cooperbussmann.com/FMSCC.

input #3 at www.csemag.com/information
 JULY 2014

FEATURES
32 | Lowering energy use,
elevating building performance
Net-zero energy buildings can be achieved
with smart building design. Here are tips on
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BY RUAIRÍ M. BARNWELL, BEAP, HBDP, QCXP,
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AIA, BEMP, CEM, LEED AP BD+C
ON THE COVER: Several aspects must be considered by
owners of commercial, industrial, and institutional buildings
regarding the need to engineer more effective water systems.
Courtesy: Kyla Vana, Affiliated Engineers Inc.
40 | Power for fire pumps
COVER STORY Power is a key element in ensuring a fire
pump works in an emergency situation.
24 | Efficient building water use BY ERNEST E. LEAF, PE
The escalating cost of providing potable water in the
United States is creating new urgency for owners of com-
mercial, industrial, and institutional buildings to respond
with greater engineered water efficiency.
BY WILLA KUH AND FRED BETZ, PHD, LEED AP BD+C
46 | The history and mystery of
the Neher-McGrath formula
In its abbreviated form, the Neher-McGrath
DEPARTMENTS
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06 | Apps for Engineers 53 | Digital Edition electrical engineers, it must be carefully
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09 | Viewpoint
 Energy codes and light- BY TIMOTHY L. LINENBRINK, PE
Welcome to the ing in smart buildings
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 Balancing passive, active
10 | MEP Roundtable fire protection
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NFPA 72-2016 proposed FIRE, SECURITY & LIFE SAFETY

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 Upcoming webcasts
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6 Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014 www.csemag.com

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 1111 W. 22nd St. Suite 250, Oak Brook, IL 60523
Editor’s Viewpoint
630-571-4070 Fax 630-214-4504

CONTENT SPECIALISTS/EDITORIAL
AMARA ROZGUS, Editor in Chief/Content Manager
630-571-4070 x2211, ARozgus@CFEMedia.com
AMANDA McLEMAN, Director of Research
630-571-4070 x2209, AMcLeman@CFEMedia.com
MICHAEL SMITH, Creative Director
630-779-8910, MSmith@CFEmedia.com
Amara Rozgus,
KATE STEEL, Production Coordinator
KSteel@CFEMedia.com Editor in Chief

EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD

ANIL AHUJA, PE, LEED AP, RCDD,
President, CCJM Engineers, Chicago
Welcome to the
PETER ALSPACH, PE, LEED AP BD+C,
Associate Principal, Mechanical Engineer, Arup, Seattle Wild West of the Web
O
J. PATRICK BANSE, PE, LEED AP,
Senior Mechanical Engineer,
Smith Seckman Reid Inc., Houston
ne of the greatest—and some The concept of a hashtag may be
JERRY BAUERS, PE, would say worst—inventions foreign to you, but you cannot ignore
National Director of Commissioning,
Sebesta, Kansas City, Mo.
of the 1960s was the precursor it. According to a recent blog posted
MICHAEL CHOW, PE, LEED AP BD+C, to the World Wide Web. ARPANET, the on the Marketing to Engineers website
Principal, Metro CD Engineering LLC, Powell, Ohio
Advanced Research Projects Agency (http://marketingtoengineersblog.com),
DOUGLAS EVANS, PE, FSFPE,
Fire Protection Engineer, Clark County Building Division, Las Vegas at the Dept. of Defense, was a way for four criteria must be met when creating
JASON GERKE, PE, LEED AP BD+C, C X A, universities and research institutions to a hashtag. This same blog details why
Mechanical Engineer, GRAEF, Milwaukee
JOSHUA D. GREENE, PE
electronically share information across you should care about Google+, how
Vice President, RJA Group Inc., Chicago a network. TCP/IP (transmission con- to enhance your website’s SEO (search
RAYMOND GRILL, PE, FSFPE,
Principal, Arup, Washington, D.C.
trol protocol/Internet protocol) is still engine optimization), and marketing
DANNA JENSEN, PE, LEED AP BD+C, the basis for the Web today. automation.
Associate Principal, ccrd partners, Dallas The Web is ubiquitous. We can’t get So what’s in it for you? More
WILLIAM KOFFEL, PE, FSFPE
President, Koffel Associates Inc., Columbia, Md. away from it. How much we use it is dic- recognition, for one. If clients can-
WILLIAM KOSIK, PE, CEM, LEED AP BD+C, BEMP, tated by our jobs and our personal needs. not find you, they cannot hire you.
Principal Data Center Energy Technologist,
HP Technology Services, Chicago But it really is the Wild West—just think Second, you can connect with other
KENNETH KUTSMEDA, PE, LEED AP, about the information, both good and bad, engineers, manufacturers, or related
Engineering Design Principal, Jacobs Engineering Group,
Philadelphia that you can find by conducting a search individuals and companies. Third,
KEITH LANE, PE, RCDD, LC, LEED AP, via one of the many search engines. by ensuring you’re seen in multiple
President, Lane Coburn & Assocs., Seattle
For example, the Consulting-Specifying online formats, you’ve increased the
JULIANNE LAUE, PE, LEED AP BD+C, BEMP
Senior MEP Engineer, Center for Sustainable Energy, Mortenson Engineer audience is online quite frequent- number of ways to be found. This is
Construction, Minneapolis
ly—you spend an average of 30 minutes relevant both for individuals and for
KENNETH L. LOVORN, PE,
President, Lovorn Engineering Assocs., Pittsburgh each time you visit www.csemag.com. In a entire firms.
DAVID LOWREY recent study, you’ve indicated that you also The caveat is that because it is the
Chief Fire Marshal, Boulder (Colo.) Fire Rescue
MICHAEL MAR, PE, LEED AP,
use online catalogs and directories (84.5%), Wild West out there, no one has all the
Senior Associate, Environmental Systems Design Inc., Chicago supplier and vendor websites (81.6%), and answers on how to make their profile
BRIAN MARTIN, PE,
Electrical Engineer, CH2M Hill, Portland, Ore.
educational webcasts/webinars (65.9%). or hashtag or website hugely success-
DWAYNE G. MILLER, PE, RCDD, AEE CPQ In addition to the above, what else are ful. The best we can do is ensure that
Chief Executive Officer, JBA Consulting Engineers, Hong Kong
you using the Web for? Most of you are not our Web presence meets our own per-
SYED PEERAN, PE, Ph.D.,
Senior Engineer, CDM Smith Inc., Cambridge, Mass. yet part of the Twitterverse; I’ve had con- sonal needs, whatever they may be.
BRIAN A. RENER, PE, LEED AP, versations with several engineers who don’t Share your thoughts on your Web
Associate,
SmithGroupJJR, Chicago even know what Twitter is. On the flipside, use via our social media outlets, using
RANDY SCHRECENGOST, PE, CEM, many engineering firms’ communications the hashtag #CSEfeedback:
Austin Operations Group Manager and
Senior Mechanical Engineer, teams are using Twitter (and Facebook,  www.facebook.com/CSEmag
Stanley Consultants, Austin, Texas
LinkedIn, and Google+) to showcase their  http://google.com/+csemag
GERALD VERSLUYS, PE, LEED AP,
Principal, Senior Electrical Engineer, engineers’ projects, highlight the company’s  http://tinyurl.com/CSElinkedin
TLC Engineering for Architecture, Jacksonville, Fla.
success stories, and post job openings.  www.twitter.com/AmaraRozgus
MIKE WALTERS, PE, LEED AP,
Principal, Confluenc, Madison, Wis.

www.csemag.com Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014 9

 MEP Roundtable
PARTICIPANTS The challenge:
Tall and super-tall buildings
High-rise buildings aren’t just big—for engineers, they present big
challenges. Multi-story structures can contain a broad range of uses,
different-sized units, and a host of complex systems to tackle.
Jason Heffelmire, PE
Gulf Coast
operations director CSE: Please describe a recent tall/
TLC Engineering for Architecture super-high-rise project you’ve worked
Tampa, Fla. on—share details about the project,
including building location, size, etc.
Jason Heffelmire: Signature Place is a mixed-
use, 36-story, high-rise tower located in central
Florida. It is the tallest residential tower along
Florida’s west coast and boasts the tallest water
feature at 60 ft. The project consisted of 217
apartments with five levels of covered park-
ing. All residential units had water views. An
amenities deck was provided above the parking
Mehdi Jalayerian
Executive vice president structure. The tower building functions from an
Environmental engineering perspective and is architecturally
Systems Design inspirational. There are three floors of office
Chicago space located above ground-level retail spaces
in two linear buildings. There is also an on-site
management office in the tower. The project
is operated under the condominium form of
ownership. There were 13 different residential
unit types that included simplex, duplex, and
triplex layouts. Many of the various unit types
did not stack up with the identical unit types
below. The project was completed with two
club rooms and a state-of-the-art fitness cen-
Jim Quiter ter. There were 165 mechanical and electrical
PE, FSFPE, LEED AP drawings required for the project.
Principal Mehdi Jalayerian: In Saudi Arabia, Jed-
Arup dah’s Kingdom Tower will stand more than
San Francisco
1,000 m tall and contain more than 400 km
of piping when completed. It will be the
centerpiece of Kingdom City, a new urban
development of more than 23 million sq m,
and will feature a luxury hotel, office space,
serviced apartments, condominiums, and an
observation deck.
10 Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014
Jim Quiter: I have worked on several very tall
buildings, including some quite unusual ones.
Several years ago, I worked on the Stratosphere
Tower, Las Vegas, one of the first buildings to
use elevators as part of the egress plan. More
recently I worked on the just-opened Las Vegas
High Roller, the world’s tallest Ferris wheel.
And I have worked on many of the world’s
largest and tallest casino/hotel properties.
CSE: How have the characteristics of
such projects changed in recent years,
and what should engineers expect to see
in the next 2 to 3 years?
Quiter: In fire protection, we are still adapt-
ing to changes that were instigated by the World
Trade Center. New criteria are still being added
to the codes, particularly for very tall buildings.
Jalayerian: Mechanical, electrical, plumbing
(MEP), and fire protection systems designers
can only work within the limits of the infra-
structure components available in the market.
As buildings continue to reach for heights pre-
viously unimagined by designers, the need for
innovative solutions to the increasing system
pressures increases. The current MEP systems
design approach for super-tall buildings must
consider smaller vertical zones to manage the
imposed system pressures and efficiently adapt
to occupancy requirements. Smaller zones dis-
tribute and isolate the pressure. At some future
date, new technologies or innovations will need
to be developed to support the construction of
the next super-tall building.
Heffelmire: Engineers may expect to see
more mixed-use projects in the years ahead
www.csemag.com
 Figure 1: Jeddah’s Kingdom Tower—standing more than 1,000 m
tall with more than 23 million sq m of floor space when finished—
holds more than 400 km of piping. Courtesy: Environmental Sys-
tems Design and ASGG
where you can live, work, and dine within
walking distance of your home and save
the expenses of commuting. With envi-
ronmental awareness growing across the
globe, more developers are also choosing
to build green and demanding more sus-
tainable construction. Although rapacious
consumers of energy, high-rise buildings
offer compact, high-density alternatives
to urban sprawl and limit our carbon foot-
print by limiting the use of automobiles.
CSE: What are some challenges
you have faced in coordinating
structural systems with mechanical,
electrical, plumbing (MEP), or fire
protection (FP) systems?
Jalayerian: The best super-tall building
designs result from the early integration
of MEP/FP design with the structural and
architectural plans as the development,
configuration, and organization of the
building can influence the building loads
and the overall efficiency of the building.
Heffelmire: High-rise buildings require
that special attention be paid to the work-
ing pressure limitations of all equipment,
coils, piping systems, and supports. Pipe
expansion control techniques are also more
critical. Decoupling working pressures
more than once in a 70-story tower is not
uncommon. Designing for proper air bal-
ancing of the tower toilet and clothes dryer
exhaust risers to minimize short-circuiting
air at the upper floors is also necessary.
This attention is not as critical in low-rise
buildings. Smoke evacuation systems are
code required for buildings more than 75 ft
high. With a high-rise tower, this is a more
critical task that requires commissioning.
Architects will say that managing wind
loads is also just as important as aesthetic
considerations. Safety and life safety con-
cerns also remain a paramount concern as
do security and communication systems.
CSE: What trends are you see-
ing for this building type? Is there
www.csemag.com
a specific area of
the world in which
tall/super-high-rise
buildings are more
popular?
Quiter: One issue
being addressed more
than ever before is the
actual need for fire-
resistance, balancing
the feasible fire size
with the amount and
location of structural
protection. This may
lead to increased pro-
tection in some areas
and decreased in oth-
ers. This type of analy-
sis takes knowledge in
both fire protection and
structural engineering,
as well as computer
modeling capability
that was not available
10 years ago.
Heffelmire: Once
uniquely American in cities like Chicago can be taken to the next level and made
and New York, high-rise buildings have applicable to new projects. New super-tall
been exported around the world. High- buildings incorporate best internationally
rise towers have now become a symbol recognized building codes and design/
of rising power and influence around the construction practices while anticipating
world of the emerging economies and subsequent local code changes.
make the statement. We will see more of Quiter: Regardless of where you work
them, and they will be greener. in the world, there are minimum codes
and standards to be met. Many owners
CSE: What codes, standards, or and designers from the Western world
guidelines do you use as a guide as will also choose to use American or Brit-
you work on these facilities? ish standards in addition to or in lieu of
local code. This takes reaching agreement
Jalayerian: Stretching buildings to with the local authorities. If American
greater heights generally means there codes are used, either the International
are no codes that describe exact applica- Building Code (IBC) or NFPA 5000:
tions for these buildings. For this reason, Building Construction and Safety Code
one responsibility of the design team is are used as the building code, with other
to work with local authorities to create a NFPA standards used for fire protection
better understanding of how building sys- systems.
tems for these towers need to work and Heffelmire: For this project we used the
how the latest international code models Florida Mechanical and Plumbing Code
Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014 11
MEP Roundtable
in affect at the time and NFPA where
applicable.
CSE: Which code/standard proves
to be most challenging in such
facilities?
Quiter: The biggest challenge with
codes and standards is trying to meet
both local and foreign standards. Many
codes take different and, at times, con-
flicting approaches, so strict adherence
may not be possible. The design team
needs to make informed decisions,
document them, and reach agreement
with the authorities before proceeding
with design.
Jalayerian: Most building codes are
written for good design and construc-
tion practices applicable to typical build-
ings. The most challenging issues among
super-tall or high-rise buildings are con-
sequences of a lack of coordination of
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to performance of another requirement
of the code or standard. For example,
integrating a locality’s preference for
operable windows while mitigating the
stack effect performance of super-high-
rise buildings is a significant challenge
and imposes considerable installation and
operational cost on the building.
Heffelmire: The USGBC requirements
for LEED Certification are the most chal-
lenging for our projects and the most
gratifying.
CSE: Do you find codes affecting
tall/super-high-rise structures to
be more or less taxing than those
impacting work on other building
types?
Heffelmire: Codes that affect super-
high-rise structures are more taxing than
other building types, especially when it
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neers are able to make elevators travel
even higher, we will see taller buildings.
The sky’s the limit.
Quiter: The challenge with tall build-
ings is that the codes were not written
around such unusual buildings. While
some code provisions are being written
around very tall buildings, they cannot
address (nor should they) all the decisions
that must be made. That is why the Inter-
national Code Council (ICC) and Soci-
ety of Fire Protection Engineers (SFPE)
developed the Guidelines for Designing
Fire Life Safety in Very Tall Buildings.
(I chaired the committee.) The guide
is written to provide information from
which the designer and owner can make
informed decisions. It is intentionally
written to not be adopted as an enforce-
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input #7 at www.csemag.com/information
 DECS-250N Digital Excitation Control System
Negative Forcing Produces
Positive System Response
n
Powerful Negative Field Forcing power stage
Optimizes system performance by rapidly de-exciting the field for
enhanced system response during transient conditions

n
Optional integrated Power System Stabilizer
Provides advanced power system performance and eases
concerns regarding grid code compliance

n
Reactive load sharing over communications
Eliminates the need for costly wiring and provides improved
system response

n
Innovative Auto-tuning function
Establishes optimum PID gain parameters, maximizes system
DECS-250N
performance, and reduces commissioning time
Digital Excitation
Control System

3 1.25

2 without neg forcing

1.2
with neg forcing
1
Automatic voltage Negative forcing
generator voltage (p.u.)

1.15
regulator output (p.u.)

0
regulator output providing improved
1.1
during load -1
generator voltage
rejection -2
1.05 response
-3
without neg forcing
1
-4 with neg forcing

-5 0.95
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5
time in sec time in sec

Tests conducted with 30MW brushless excited machine

For more information visit our web site www.basler.com/BE/7CSE250N

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Highland, Illinois, USA Wasselonne, France Suzhou, PR, China Singapore
Tel: +618 654 2314 Tel: +33 3 88 87 1010 Tel: +86 512 8227 2888 Tel: +65 6844 6445
info@basler.com franceinfo@basler.com chinainfo@basler.com singaporeinfo@basler.com

input #8 at www.csemag.com/information
MEP Roundtable
Figure 2: Signature Place—a 36-story
tower in central Florida—is the tallest
residential tower along Florida’s west
coast, consisting of 217 apartments and
a range of different units of varying sizes
and shapes. Courtesy: TLC Engineering
for Architecture
able code. Unique buildings require
unique solutions, not code solutions.
Therefore, designing very tall buildings
is more taxing, not due to the codes, but
due to the thinking, decision-making, and
teamwork that must occur.
CSE: How do you balance the
need for reliable power with the
desire for efficiency and sustain-
ability?
Jalayerian: Extending the medium-
voltage primary distribution to as close
as possible to the load center reduces
the material required to distribute power
while also reducing distribution power
losses. The zoning within these super-
tall or high-rise buildings lends itself to
configuration through multiple electri-
cal feeds, which inherently increases the
system reliability and redundancy. In this
way, it is a similar concept to the horizon-
tal distribution of cities, and as design-
ers we can look at super-tall buildings as
vertical cities.
Heffelmire: Reliable power is para-
mount and goes hand-in-hand with sys-
tem efficiencies and sustainability. Bal-
ancing the need for reliable power with
the desire for efficiency and sustainability
can take several forms. For example, a
photovoltaic system can be a redundant
power source combined with on-site
generators but must be balanced against
overall project costs.
CSE: What types of renewable
energy systems have you recently
specified in one of these projects?
Jalayerian: The headquarters for the
Federation of Korean Industries, Seoul,
South Korea, which opened to the public
earlier this year, features integrated pho-
tovoltaic panels on its façade, which use

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alternating upward-angled spandrel pan-
els to maximize sun exposure for energy
collection and downward-angled view-
ing panels to minimize sun glare and heat
gain, thereby reducing the cooling load.
We performed an optimization analysis
during design for the positioning and
placement of these panels to support the
maximum amount of energy that would
be collected to generate power for the
tower’s electrical systems. Certain por-
tions of exterior wall spandrel panels
were fitted with active photovoltaic
panels to maximize performance and to
increase economic benefit.
Heffelmire: Tall and super-high-rise
buildings would be a great place for
installing a photovoltaic system, but
overcoming the high first cost is just
one problem. As buildings get taller, the
higher floors become more expensive to
build and their floor plan becomes small-
er because of light and air setbacks. Avail-
input #10 at www.csemag.com/information
Keltech ad_CSE_half pg_rev052114_outlines.indd 1
able roof space also diminishes. We have
had some luck with geothermal systems,
but only for small buildings. We looked
at wind power for a high-rise, but con-
trolling the noise of the blades was a big
issue for surrounding areas.
CSE: What unique fire suppres-
sion systems have you specified or
designed in a manufacturing/indus-
trial facility?
Quiter: The biggest challenge for fire/
life safety is not unique fire suppres-
sion systems, but the coordination of all
the systems in the building to combat a
single-hazard fire. Therefore, the struc-
ture, the mechanical smoke control, the
egress system, the power system, and
the alarm and notification system must
all work together with the recognition
that contents may vary and people’s
decisions will vary. It is an overall sys-
tems approach to fire that is needed, not
a system-by-system approach. The first
is scenario-based; the second is at risk of
becoming a checklist.
Heffelmire: Some of the more unique
fire suppression systems we have
designed included high- and low-expan-
sion foam systems for aviation facilities
like airplane and helicopter storage areas.
We have also designed special mist fire
protection systems for historical build-
ings and nitrogen-charged systems for
drinking and fire protection water for a
remote island.
CSE: How have the costs and
complexity of fire protection sys-
tems changed in recent years?
Heffelmire: The costs and complexity
of fire protection systems have mostly
risen in our area of Florida due to the
usual labor and material increases, but
5/21/2014 8:42:56 AM
MEP Roundtable
I think we are still lower than most other
states.
Quiter: One of the risks in a very tall
building is to add complexity that isn’t
needed. With more complexity comes
decreased reliability (and more costs).
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The overall cost of fire protection has
not increased disproportionately over
the years. Where complex systems
have been installed, the cost of main-
tenance often has increased dispropor-
tionately.
? breaks in the stairs in order to not under-
CSE: What type of unique smoke
control solutions have you designed
in these buildings? What were the
challenges/solutions?
Quiter: In a very tall building, the big-
gest challenge is stack effect, or the natu-
ral tendency for the smoke to rise up in
the building. With stairs, elevators, and
vertical shafts, this must be overcome.
Elevators are often staged by floor sec-
tions, but stairs sometimes rise the entire
height of the building. It is necessary to
put in separate pressurization systems,
and may be necessary to provide physical
or over-pressurize portions of the stair.
Very tall atriums also present particular
issues. It is best to do smoke modeling
in those cases.
Heffelmire: Some unique smoke control
solutions consisted of a microprocessor-
based air sampling system that included
piping in the walls and ceilings. The con-
trol system determines the type of fire and
makes the decision to fight the type of fire
by activating the life safety system equip-
ment and fire control equipment.

CSE: Provide examples of build-

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ings in which you’ve designed an
area of refuge. What unique systems
or products are included? What else
must be considered?
Heffelmire: In Florida, like many other
states prone to natural disasters, tornado
and hurricane shelters are a necessity.
These buildings serve as an area of safe
refuge and must provide an adequate
water supply for either drinking or fire-
fighting, and other necessary supplies and
equipment. These buildings are unique
for their design and particular limited use.
Quiter: In the Stratosphere Tower, we
used an area of refuge at the base of the pod.
When doing so, the designer must make
sure the space truly provides “refuge.”
How do people leave the space? Are they
protected from smoke while in the space?
Is the space adequately separated from a
potential fire? Is there enough room to hold

input #11 at www.csemag.com/information

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the people comfortably? Are we properly
communicating with the people about the
presence of the area of refuge, the location,
what to do when they get there, whether
they are safe when there, and what is going
on around them? In Asia, refuge floors are
commonly used, both as a holding area for
people and as a fire brigade staging area. All
of the above questions apply.
CSE: Describe a recent project in
which a mass notification system
(MNS) or emergency communication
system (ECS) was specified. Describe
the challenges and solutions.
Quiter: A lot of thought must be given
to communication with the occupants. Do
we want all of them to move, or some of
them? Where to you want them to go?
How can they and the fire service know
what is going on around them? In this
case, it is not the technology that is dif-
ficult, it is specifying the right technology
and using the technology intelligently.
Heffelmire: MNS are a part of tornado
and hurricane shelter designs, and the
systems communicate with all disaster
relief crews, health care professionals,
and residents.
CSE: Many aspects of sustainabil-
ity (power, HVAC, maintenance, etc.)
require building personnel to fol-
low certain practices in order to be
effective. What, if anything, can you
as an engineer do to help increase
chances of success in this area?
Jalayerian: Standardization of systems
and their equipment components—or
in other words, uniformity—not only
facilitates a lean construction process
through a repetitive design and instal-
lation but also reduces the risk of creat-
ing future troubleshooting complexity
for the building engineers. This strategy
is a critical part of the development of
Kingdom Tower. In order to manage
the expense of the design and facilitate
a similar approach, standardization is
being applied to components such as air
www.csemag.com
handling units, head exchangers, pumps,
storage tanks, electrical switchboards,
transformers, systems risers, etc.
Heffelmire: We invite building person-
nel and system operators to our training
sessions specifically designed for each
project. We believe without proper main-
tenance, sustainability suffers. We also
include the practices to follow on the
plans and again in the specifications.
Quiter: Green buildings and fire safety
create an interesting dilemma. What can
be more sustainable than a building that
doesn’t burn down? But sustainability can
create issues that were not considered.
Will increased insulation on a roof (or a
green roof) impact the fire resistance by
holding the heat in? Will a double façade
create a chimney? Will insulation on the
exterior wall create an avenue for external
fire spread? How will natural ventilation
impact smoke movement, particularly
on a windy day? There are unintended
impacts from building green that can be
dealt with if they are thought about.
CSE: Please describe your experi-
ence with high-performance build-
ing projects.
Jalayerian: The Federation of Korean
Industries tower is the first office tower in
South Korea to use a pressurized under-
floor air distribution system, as well as
the first commercial building to receive
the highest score for sustainable design—
Grade 1 in Environmental Friendly
Building Rating—in an independent
review conducted by the Korea Institute
of Construction Technology (KICT). The
underfloor air distribution system allows
for greater individual temperature control
and full flexibility for the office space, and
the building’s central cooling and heating
plant uses highly efficient systems com-
ponents and reduces the electrical demand
through its ice storage system.
CSE: What unique HVAC require-
ments do tall/super-high-rise
structures have that you wouldn’t
encounter on other structures?
Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014
Jalayerian: Super-tall developments
offer energy reduction opportunities for
HVAC systems associated with air condi-
tioning zones located in higher elevations
because higher altitudes offer cooler and
less humid outdoor environments. Take
Kingdom Tower, for example: The fresh
air cooling energy requirement is 40%
lower for the topmost air conditioning
zone than the zone at grade level. Simi-
larly, the head gain from outdoor tem-
peratures is 30% lower for the topmost
spaces compared to those at the lowest
portion of the tower.
Heffelmire: Locating and rigging large
equipment can be the biggest problem
in high-rise buildings. For example, rig-
ging a chiller in place on the 30th floor
is extremely difficult but not impossible.
CSE: What changes in fans, vari-
able frequency drives (VFDs), and
other related equipment have you
experienced?
Heffelmire: It seems that most pieces
of equipment today are equipped with
VFDs as the standard as the cost of these
devices has come down substantially
and more and more manufacturers are
producing them. Years ago a VFD was
the size of a dog house and was very
expensive. Not so today. Fans (and their
cousins, the pumps) have become more
efficient but mostly by closer machining
of certain parts. For example, you can
hear a pump impeller scratch its casing
upon start-up until it wears a little and
fits tighter. Pump casings are pretty much
still cast using the same molds used 50
years ago. The cost of bronze has risen,
so some manufacturers are experimenting
with stainless steel impellers instead of
the heavier cast bronze.
CSE: What indoor air quality (IAQ)
challenges have you recently over-
come? Describe the project, and
how you solved the problem.
Heffelmire: We design our projects
very carefully to avoid IAQ problems. In
17

On a quarterly basis, Consulting-
Specifying Engineer conducts
research studies on the industries
serviced by the publication—
• Electrical and
Power
• Fire and
Life Safety
• HVAC/BAS
• Lighting
Download the Consulting-Specifying Engineer
Editorial Research Studies:
www.csemag.com/media-library/research
MEP Roundtable
a certain case on one of our projects,
radon gas was discovered on the upper
floors, a near impossibility. We traced
it to a batch of bad gravel that came
from a rock quarry in Virginia found
loaded with radon. The radon found
its way into the building’s block walls
via the gravel. We added permanent
outdoor ventilation air systems to the
affected areas.
Jalayerian: The height of the build-
ing and the building design are two
factors that influence the quantity of
uncontrolled ventilation in a build-
ing. Vertical zoning of the air systems
and building risers, introduction of air
locks at the main lobbies and sky lob-
bies, and maintaining two air separation
barriers between the building shafts and
the exterior on typical floors provide a
design approach with the highest degree
of air infiltration control.
CSE: In your experience, have
alternative HVAC systems become
more relevant? This may include
displacement ventilation, chilled
beams, etc.
Heffelmire: Alternate HVAC systems
like displacement ventilation and chilled
beams are relevant for certain projects.
Alternate HVAC systems always creep
up, and many are just a re-packaging of
an existing design. We used a variation of
chilled beams in the 1960s where chilled
water piping was imbedded in ceiling tiles
and was a part of the ceiling system. Dis-
placement ventilation systems are pretty
innovative, but I personally prefer the sim-
pler tried-and-true systems and make them
as efficient as the hybrids we see today. In
Florida, building owners receive generous
incentive payments from the utility com-
panies to make ice during off-peak hours
and melt the ice during on-peak hours.
This competes against a lot of the alter-
nate HVAC systems on the market.
Read the longer version of this online at:
www.csemag.com/archives.
n Automation and controls
n Low- and medium-voltage power
n Sustainable practices.
Career Smart
10 ways
to improve strategic planning
These 10 tips will give business leaders strategic planning tools
to set the direction for their firm’s success.
T
hrough promotion or a new job
assignment, most business leaders at
some point in their career will hear
these words: “Congratulations, you are now
responsible for strategic planning.” While
the need for strategic planning knowledge
may be driven by career advancement or
necessity, business leaders are looking for
the strategic planning tools to help set the
direction for their company’s success.
Unfortunately, very few technical edu-
cational paths prepare business leaders
to implement a sound business develop-
ment program. Go online, and you will
find thousands of links on how to build a
strategic plan, or why strategic planning
is good for your organization. However,
resources to help business leaders select
and staff a strong team are very limited.
So how do you assemble the right people
in the most efficient way to drive a suc-
cessful strategic planning process?
1. Select a cross-functional team with
a mix of high-level and tactical thinkers.
Include a few high-performing or younger
staff members to push the envelope and to
absorb the development opportunity that
comes from the process.
2. Consider these options for the session:
 A 1- to 2-day immersion session
away from office distractions. The team
then works on the tactical implementa-
tion after the session. You will need to
closely track post-planning implementa-
tion to maintain momentum.
www.csemag.com
BY JANE SIDEBOTTOM
AMK LLC, Louisville, Ky.
 Multiple 1-day sessions spread out over
several months with pre-work in between.
This approach can often be more efficient
as it drives a more focused planning ses-
sion with tactical plans being assembled
and reviewed throughout the process.
3. Structure the planning session(s)
to reflect your desired contribution level:
If you choose to be the facilitator, create
a well-defined agenda to manage your
time. If you want to participate in the dis-
cussion, consider a third-party, unbiased
facilitator to lead the session. There is no
right or wrong way to do this—just keep
in mind it is very difficult to do both well.
4. Use your company’s core proj-
ect management skills to maintain the
momentum and schedule, and to drive
completion. Target your annual budgeting
process to drive alignment and implemen-
tation of your key strategic initiatives.
5. Monitor momentum and commit-
ment through periodic updates. If a key
team member is falling behind due to
workload, then consider assigning a less-
experienced, high-potential employee to
help with the work associated with the
strategic planning process.
6. Incorporate the voice of your custom-
ers in your planning process. Consider bring-
ing together several customers for a round-
table discussion to share ideas or provide
opinions on your strategic direction ideas.
Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014
7. Update your SWOT (strengths, weak-
nesses, opportunities, and threats) analysis
and competitor analysis. Consider assigning
each planning team member a competitor
to analyze as pre-work. A standard template
can be used to help guide the analysis, col-
lect consistent data, and document anecdotal
information across competitors.
8. Develop a strategic staffing plan.
This is often overlooked but can be critical
to driving successful plan implementation.
9. Draft a set of talking points that
you and your team can use to commu-
nicate progress and direction. Create a
feedback loop where the general staff can
share ideas and feel part of the process.
10. Measure and track implementation
throughout your executive timeline. Review
the strategic plan often and use it to gauge
new opportunities against strategic initiatives
to keep your company on track. After all,
your strategic plan is your roadmap.
Jane Sidebottom is the owner of AMK
LLC, a management and marketing con-
sulting firm that provides market develop-
ment and growth expertise to small- and
medium-size firms. She has more than 20
years of management and leadership expe-
rience in both consulting engineering and
Fortune 100 organizations. Sidebottom is
a graduate of the University of Maryland.
Read more about Nos. 2, 5, 6, and 8
online at www.csemag.com/careersmart.
19
input #12 at www.csemag.com/information
 Codes & Standards

NFPA 72-2016 proposed changes

NFPA 72: National Fire Alarm and Signaling Code technical committees
have been busy reviewing and preparing revisions to the 2013 edition of the
code that will ultimately be published in the 2016 edition. Here’s a look at
changes that may have a significant impact on fire alarm design.
By Raymond a. GRill, PE, FSFPE, lEEd aP, Arup, Washington, D.C.

C
hanges proposed for the 2016 edition of
NFPA 72: National Fire Alarm and Sig-
naling Code will continue to revise and
clarify many of the new provisions that were
added during the major revision that occurred
between the 2007 and the 2010 editions. The
proposed changes are intended to improve the
2013 edition of the code.
Why should you be concerned about what
will be in the 2016 edition of NFPA 72, when
you may not even be applying the 2010 edition
yet? The 2010 edition is being applied in many
jurisdictions as they adopt the 2012 edition of
the International Building Code. The Centers
for Medicare and Medicaid Services also has
announced that it will be moving from the 2000
edition of NFPA 101: Life Safety Code to the
2012 edition of NFPA 101. The 2012 edition of
NFPA 101 adopts the 2010 NFPA 72 by refer-
ence. Also, some federal government agencies
such as the Dept. of Defense and U.S. General
Services Administration (GSA) want the most
current codes and standards applied to their proj-
ects. If you are working on federal projects, it
is important to identify not only the applicable
codes, but also the edition of the codes and stan-
dards that will be applied to the project.
While the 2016 edition won’t be applied
on most projects for some time, there are a
number of proposals that will clarify current
requirements and can often be used to inform
a current design. In some cases, it may be pru-
dent to pursue use of new code requirements
even if the new code has not been adopted. If
new code requirements are used, the author-
ity having jurisdiction (AHJ) should be con-
sulted to confirm that it will accept the new
provisions. New code requirements could be
www.csemag.com
accepted under the equivalency provisions of
the code.
If you are a fire alarm product manufacturer or
installer, knowing what is coming down the road
can also help you prepare for implementing the
new code requirements that can impact product
design or help you develop training material for
your staff that design and install systems.
Some of the more significant potential changes While the 2016
are identified in this article. The Technical Com-
mittees met in June to review comments to the first edition won’t be
draft report of the technical committees. The result of applied on most
the meetings will be the Second Draft Report of the
Technical Committees, which will be subject to public projects for
review before the code goes before the membership some time, there
for approval at the June 2015 Annual Meeting.
are a number of
Documentation requirements proposals that
During the development of the 2013 edition
of NFPA 72, Chapter 7 was added to consolidate will clarify current
the requirements for documentation. Revisions requirements
to these requirements are proposed for the 2016
edition. Minimum requirements for documenta- and can often be
tion are proposed to include: used to inform a
n Floor plans that are required to show room
use and building features that will affect the current design.
placement of initiating device and notifica-
tion appliances
n Power loss calculations for amplifier notifi-
cation appliances
n Mounting height elevation for wall-mounted
devices and appliances
n Minimum sound pressures required to be
produced by notification appliances in areas
where notification of occupants is required
n Pathway diagrams between control unit,
supervising station, and shared communi-
cations equipment.
Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014 21
 Codes & Standards
The minimum documentation is
required to be provided only when
made applicable by the enforcing
authority. When it is required, it will
need to include all of the items noted in
NFPA 72 for minimum documentation.
There may be numerous systems that
may not have all the features noted in
the minimum documentation. If a fea-
ture is not part of the system, it is not
It is important to note that smoke detectors
are required by NFPA 72 in elevator shafts only
if the shaft is sprinkler protected or if the smoke
detector is required to operate a normally closed
vent. Elevator shaft ventilation is only required for
certain occupancy types.
required to be documented. It should
be understood that it is not the intent of
the code to require additional devices or
features based on this chapter.
A paragraph is proposed for the
annex (A.7.2.1) to provide guidance
on documentation when work is being
done on existing systems. The commit-
tee statement incorporating this annex
material indicates that with the permis-
sion of the AHJ, the documentation may
only be applicable to the modifications,
additions, and interfaces to an existing
system.
Transient protection
A requirement was added in
the 2013 edition of NFPA 72 that
required all signaling system cir-
cuits entering a building to be pro-
vided with transient protection. This
requirement is currently proposed to
be removed from the code for the
2016 edition.
The justification for the requirement
was to limit the impact of lightning or
electrical surges on the fire alarm sys-
tem. In the substantiation for eliminating
the requirement, the technical commit-
tee notes that not all circuits that enter
or exit a building are prone to lightning
or surges.
22 Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014
Class N pathway designation
The new Class N pathway designation
has the following performance charac-
teristics:
n It includes two or more pathways
where operational capability of the
primary pathway and a redundant
pathway to each device shall be veri-
fied through end-to-end communica-
tion
n A loss of intended communications
between end points is annunciated as
a trouble signal
n A single open, ground, short, or com-
bination of faults on one pathway
shall not affect any other pathway
n Conditions that affect the operation
of the primary pathways and redun-
dant pathways shall be annunciated
as a trouble signal when the system
minimal operation requirements can-
not be met
n Primary and redundant pathways
shall not be permitted to share traf-
fic over the same physical segment.
This new material was developed to
address issues with the use of Ethernet
and other non-fire mass notification sys-
tem (MNS) networks.
Class N pathways are also proposed to
be subject to the same physical installa-
tion requirements as Class A and X cir-
cuits regarding separation of primary and
redundant circuit paths.
Survivability
Chapter 12 of the 2013 edition of
NFPA 72 currently allows 2-hr perfor-
mance alternatives for providing protec-
tion of fire alarm cable. The current lan-
guage infers that any alternative to a 2-hr
listed cable or 2-hr rated enclosure would
have to provide 2-hr fire rated protection.
The body of the code is proposed to be
changed to allow a performance alterna-
tive to 2-hr fire rated protection. Annex
material has been added to explain that
strategic applications of Class A, Class
N, or Class X circuits may be accepted
as achieving the code required survivabil-
ity. The application of redundant paths
that would not be exposed by the same
fire may achieve the integrity and sur-
vivability goals for a particular project.
Performance-based alternatives would be
subject to approval by the AHJ.
A couple of new exceptions are also
proposed to be included in Chapter 24
regarding the level of survivability. An
exception to allow Level 1 survivabil-
ity is proposed when evacuation zones
are separated by less than 2-hr fire rated
construction and Level 2 survivabil-
ity may have otherwise been required.
Level 1 is also allowed when there are
redundant paths that have a minimum
separation within the zone based on the
geometry of the evacuation zone. Level
1 allows wire in metal raceway in fully
sprinklered buildings. Level 2 requires
2-hr protection of the circuits or 2-hr
rated cable.
Elevator hoistway smoke
detector installation
There is a proposed code change
to Chapter 21 that will require smoke
detectors that are provided in elevator
hoistways to be installed in a manner
that allows them to be tested and ser-
viced from outside the hoistway. This
will require installation within reach of
an access door through the hoistway.
It is important to note that smoke
detectors are required by NFPA 72 in
elevator shafts only if the shaft is sprin-
kler protected or if the smoke detector
is required to operate a normally closed
vent. Elevator shaft ventilation is only
required for certain occupancy types.
Access doors will typically require a fire
rating consistent with the code require-
ments for opening protection based on
the fire resistance of the shaft.
www.csemag.com
Performance of signaling line circuits CSE
Solutions
A requirement had been added to the
2013 edition of NFPA 72 in Chapter 23
that limits the loss of no more than 50
addressable devices from any single fault
on a signaling line circuit. A proposed
code requirement would change this to
prevent a single fault from causing the
loss of more than one zone of address-
Supporting Engineers
able devices. Additional code and annex
language also has been included to define In-Person,
zones for purposes of this requirement.
Offering
Risk analysis and looking ahead
Requirements for the risk analysis that High-Value
is required for the design of MNS will be
clarified based on proposed code changes.
There are proposed code changes that rec-
Content
ognize that a risk analysis may have been
performed for a facility in order to develop
In-Print
an existing emergency response plan. The
proposed code language recognizes that
and Online
the risk analysis for the design of the MNS
can focus on the communication require-
ments of an existing emergency response
Webcasts:
plan.
Need some continuing
This article highlights a number of
education?
changes proposed for the 2016 edition
Look no further than www.csemag.com/webcast.
of NFPA 72. These proposed changes are
Topics covering every vertical—critical power, lighting, fire and
only a sampling of what I believe are sig-
life safety, HVAC, codes and standards, data centers— give
nificant and should not be considered to
engineers a great opportunity to learn about the latest industry
be the only proposed changes to the code.
practice while getting FREE CEU credits.
The code development cycle is less than
half completed, so there may be significant
modifications to the items noted above or eNewsletters: The wide array of eNewsletters gives
more changes may be developed during engineers a way to stay on top of the latest news in a
the completion of the cycle. convenient and easy-to-read electronic format. Sign up for
Fire & Life Safety; Electrical Solutions; HVAC; Pure Power;
Ray Grill is a principal with Arup. He Product and Media Showcase; Codes & Standards;
has been a member of NFPA 72 Technical Newswatch: Hospitals; and Newswatch: Data Centers.
Committees for more than 30 years and
currently serves on the Technical Commit- www.csemag.com: CSEmag.com is a highly rated
tee on Notification Appliances, Technical industry website with industry news updated throughout the
Committee on Emergency Communica- day, a top-notch search engine that segments results by
tions Systems, and the Technical Corre- category, and thousands of archived articles.
lating Committee. He is also member of
the NFPA Technical Correlating Com-
mittee for Automatic Sprinkler Systems
and serves on the Technical Committee
on Building Services and Fire Protec-
tion Equipment for NFPA 101/5000. He
Subscribe today at
is a member of the Consulting-Specifying
Engineer editorial advisory board. www.csemag.com/subscribe
 Artwork courtesy: Kyla Vana,
Affiliated Engineers Inc.

24 Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014 www.csemag.com

Efficient
building water use
The escalating cost of providing potable water in the United States is
creating new urgency for owners of commercial, industrial, and institutional
buildings to respond with greater engineered water efficiency.
BY WILLA KUH and FRED BETZ, PHD, LEED AP BD+C, Affiliated Engineers Inc., Madison, Wis.
N
ational surveys of the cost of
public water supply utility
rates show average annual
rates of increase over the
past 10 to 20 years as high
as 8% per annum. According to an often-
quoted survey of 100 U.S. cities whose
findings were published in USA Today,
rates of water/sewer utility cost increases
from 2000 to 2012 average 7% per annum
over that term with the greatest increases
concentrated in the nation’s largest cities.
Proven techniques and technologies exist
to design and retrofit for significant cost-
justified water efficiency. Driven in part
by the sustainable design movement, some
strategies outpace existing regulations and
codes. However, economic necessities,
mainstreaming sustainable sensibilities, and
the results of pilot testing of water reuse
and recycling are combining to suggest that
standards will soon catch up.
The rising cost of water
While other utility rates have generally
tracked the Consumer Price Index, water
and sewer costs have, in the past 30 years,
increased at a much faster pace (see Fig-
ure 2). A web of interconnected reasons
for the growth in water and sewer utility
rates explains this phenomenon and sug-
gests that the trend will continue (see side-
www.csemag.com
bar, “Why is the cost of water rising?”).
From the perspective of water’s status as a
Learning
public good, some who monitor this issue objectives
suggest that the public has, perhaps reluc-  Understand the true cost
tantly, accepted this cost phenomenon. of water in the commercial
Association of Metropolitan Water Agen- building sector.
cies executive director Diane VanDe Hei  Learn about ways to con-
sees it a bit differently. Observing Seat- serve and/or reuse water.
tle’s 2011 move to increase water rates by  Learn about water stan-
dards and how they are
25% over a 3-year period, she suggests
changing.
that despite a depressed economy and sig-
nificant anti-tax sentiment, the public will
pay to ensure long-term access to water of
the quality and quantity that they desire.
While this may be true, it should
not be confused with an
unwillingness to conserve
water use. The significant
distinction is which water
uses we are willing to con-
serve. It appears that there
is no strong inclination to
conserve water for uses
considered essential to
health. Thus, at the house-
hold level, the most likely
accommodation to a call for
conservation is in restricted
water use for landscape or
optional cleaning, such as Figure 1: These are the key drivers in anticipating
car washing. A secondary future water/sewer rates. Their relative influence varies
interest would show itself by location. Courtesy: Affiliated Engineers Inc.
Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014 25
 Efficient building water use
as willingness to participate in subsidy
programs for showerhead water restric-
tions or more efficient toilets—activities
that still allow for the basic water-using
activity of a household, but with more
efficient resource use.
Meanwhile, studies establish that com-
mercial /industrial/institutional entities do
respond to increases in the price of water
through reduced use of water support-
ing non-health-essential functions. This
conservation response occurs across the
spectrum of utility price points, not just in
locations where the cost of water is most
Figure 2: While project water/sewer costs remain smaller than energy costs, the
diverging cost of water rates has elevated its importance in the design process.
Courtesy: Affiliated Engineers Inc., based on Consumer Price Index data
expensive; it is a reaction to change in
price more than to absolute price. These
modified processes and practices dif-
fer from those of the residential sphere,
which tend to respond episodically to
drought conditions rather than by institut-
ing fundamental ways of reducing water
use. In the commercial/industrial/institu-
tional setting it is possible to more than
offset cost increases with conservation.
Water use efficiency in code,
building rating systems
In the past 20 years, water efficiency
has been a less urgent cost issue, and
thus codes and building rating systems
26 Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014
have focused on enabling greater energy
efficiency. Consequently, there has been
measured and slow research to exam-
ine the real or perceived health risks
associated with water reuse as part of
creating a path for safe water reuse. The
International Association of Plumbing
and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO) has
made significant updates to the uniform
plumbing codes (UPC), including issuing
the first Green Plumbing and Mechanical
Code Supplement in 2012. However, the
UPC covers only a fraction of the water
usage in buildings, and many states and
local governments have yet to adopt the
new code. Water use related to nonhu-
man consumption is only beginning to be
addressed in the codes.
ASHRAE 191P: Standard for the Effi-
cient Use of Water in Building, Site, and
Mechanical Systems is a proposed stan-
dard that works to address water usage
in buildings holistically. ASHRAE 191P
is meant to be a minimum standard with
high-performance water usage gov-
erned by ASHRAE 189.1: Standard for
the Design of High Performance, Green
Buildings. ASHRAE 191P governs:
 Site water usage
 Greywater
 Plumbing systems
 HVAC systems
 Appliances
 Process equipment.
The standard is being developed in
cooperation with the American Society of
Plumbing Engineers (ASPE) and the U.S.
Green Building Council. A first draft of
the proposed standard was issued for pub-
lic review in October 2012, and review
comments are currently being incorpo-
rated into a second iteration.
LEED 2009 for Healthcare introduced
prerequisites and credits for process loads,
food service equipment, and cooling tow-
ers, as well as submetering water usage.
This approach has been expanded in
LEED v4 (November 2013 release). How-
ever, even with a gaining presence in the
marketplace, it is estimated that approxi-
mately one-third of new commercial con-
struction is designed to LEED standards.
The Living Building Challenge, a
nascent program with three buildings that
have achieved “living” status, works to
press and inspire the design community
to move beyond LEED. Comprehensive
in its reach of issues, it calls for net-
zero water buildings. Here, participating
building owners work to use only water
that can be captured on-site and to safely
process and retain all of it on-site once
that water is used. Stormwater also must
be managed naturally and within the proj-
ect site.
Regardless of efforts to advance regula-
tion to allow for water reuse and recycling
and of the progress of building rating
systems to guide a more aggressive path,
some contrary legislative anachronisms
exist. Fifteen western states’ constitu-
tions, statutes, and case law are tied to the
prior appropriation doctrine, a mid-19th-
century concept that does not recognize
water rights as connected to land owner-
ship, but to use (and prior use). Those who
argue that these laws do not benefit con-
temporary needs reference recent case law
that promises movement toward enhanced
ability to manage water to better serve the
region’s population and environmental
protection needs.
www.csemag.com
Water use efficiency in new construction
The first priority in designing for water-
efficient buildings is to do what is easiest
and most cost-effective. Regardless of
building type or geography, this priority is
addressed through avoiding water use. Five
universally cost-effective examples are:
1. Reduce lawn size and select plants
appropriate to their settings. This
can be accomplished without sac-
rifice to the aesthetic or monetary
value of the site. Figure 3: A 2003 analysis of California commercial sector water use documents the
2. Attend to the fundamentals of levels of cost-effective water use reduction in key standard industry codes. Courtesy:
building orientation and massing to Affiliated Engineers Inc., based on Pacific Institute data
reduce building energy demand. In
so doing, these steps work to reduce Sense and Energy start programs being reduced water and energy use
the size and water use associated and through the design team’s own (and capital investment). Meter and
with building mechanical systems. research. In this setting, equipment automate water use on the desired
3. Engineer building systems for ener- refers to water fixtures, landscape schedule and as programmed to
gy efficiency; this will also reduce equipment, kitchen equipment, and meet specific circumstances.
water use. scientific and medical equipment. The second priority is to use second
4. Select the right equipment. Energy- 5. Procure the right amount of equip- generation and inferior (nonpotable) qual-
and water-efficient equipment can ment. Some building use lends itself ity water. Strategies include:
be identified through a combination well to shared locations for some  Access the availability and cost of
of relying on the U.S. EPA Water- equipment with the consequence reuse water sources, looking for reduced

8 1.
reasons
the cost of water is rising
Significant backlog of capital projects. Nationally, the rate of invest-
4. Population shift to higher demand climate zones. The U.S.
population is growing and is concentrating in areas where long-term
access to drinking water supply is a significant and costly challenge.
ment in public water systems lags behind need. The U.S. EPA calculates that The nation’s 10 fastest growing cities (metropolitan areas, included)
$344.7 billion must be invested before 2026 to attend to needed in-kind are all in Sun Belt states: Raleigh, N.C.; Austin, Texas; Las Vegas, Nev.;
system replacement, including the costs associated with the Safe Drinking Orlando, Fla.; Charlotte, N.C.; Riverside-San Bernardino, Calif.; Phoenix;
Water Act rules established through 2006. The National Association of Clean Houston; San Antonio, Texas; and Dallas-Fort Worth.
Water Agencies and the Association of Metropolitan Water Agencies collabo-
rated to assess the costs to public water supplies of climate change. Their
5. Limited access to clean water. Sixty-eight percent of the U.S.
public consumes water sources from rivers, streams, lakes, ponds,
2009 analysis, published in Confronting Climate Change: An Early Analysis
and reservoirs. In 2009, the EPA reported on surveys of these sources,
of Water and Wastewater Adaptation Costs, estimates that $448 billion to
showing that 64% of the nation’s lakes, ponds, and reservoirs are so
$944 billion is needed through 2050 for infrastructure and operations and
polluted so as to be characterized as impaired, not clean enough to
maintenance to respond to climate change impacts (exclusive of emergency
support their designated uses. Also, 44% of the nation’s rivers and
response/removal resulting from extreme storm events and drought).
streams share the same status.
2. Shift from federal to local funding for capital projects. In
6. Changes to North American water cycles. As precipitation shifts
the past two decades the federal government has withdrawn from its
from snow to rain, so too rain water volume is increasingly concentrated
long-established role as key capital investor in public water supplies,
in the most intensive storms. These changes correspond to an increase in
leaving states and local utilities to grapple with instituting new ways to
flooding and a reduction in snowmelt supply to water sources, and frus-
attend to current and future investment needs.
trate demand for water to support human health, food, and energy needs.
3. Utilities’ adoption of full-cost accounting practices. Water/sewer
7. Simple supply and demand. In some locations, consumers’
utilities are improving their financial practices through full-cost accounting.
conservation patterns are reducing net volume of water use, which
Approximately 75% of the cost of supplying and maintaining water systems
prompts the need for an increase in rates to provide for system capital
is supported by property taxes rather than utility bills. To avoid tax increases,
and operating needs.
governments are shifting the costs of supplying and maintaining water
systems to utility bills. While an important vehicle for long-term stability, 8. Regulation. Regulation of water quality has expanded, and is
this shift is the reason for many short-term steep rate increases. expected to continue to do so.

www.csemag.com Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014 27

 Efficient building water use
cost combined with appropriate qual-
ity and quantity to support project reuse
opportunities. Alternative water sources
can be found both in and outside of the
building. These include cooling coil con-
densate waste water, desalinated water,
equipment/system wastewater, fire pump
Figure 4: Avoided water (though conservation) and water
reuse working together can substantially reduce potable
water consumption. Courtesy: Affiliated Engineers Inc.
testing water, foundation drain water,
groundwater, municipal treatment waste-
water, roof water, surface water, and
stormwater.
 Reuse water within the building
project. This dictates water quality and
quantity (including schedule of quantity
over a year) that matches between donor
water and use that can employ this water.
Building water-consuming uses that can
easily reuse water range from the kitchen
and laundry room to the mechanical sys-
tems and central plant. By way of strategy,
the best success comes with working to
first match large sources and large water-
consuming activity.
 Identify reuse water opportunities
outside of the building project that can
consume the building project’s waste-
water. Secure those opportunities rather
than releasing good quality water to the
municipal sewer system.
Recycling water is a third priority
because it implies water treatment, using
more energy and chemicals than water
reuse. Site landscape and central plants
28 Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014
are locations that offer great opportunity
to use recycled water. However, some
recycling activity is more challenged
to gain needed approvals than is water
reuse. For example, using treated grey-
water for toilets typically comes first
to mind when one thinks of a use for
recycled water within
a building. This is an
excellent response
when a site has no or
constrained access to
public water and sewer
utilities. However, in
the majority of set-
tings the viability of
this greywater reuse is
undermined by regula-
tory hurdles and/or is
cost prohibitive com-
pared to other water
recycling options.
Water use
efficiencies in
existing buildings
Water conservation
in existing buildings can be compared
with energy conservation: opportunities
range from low-hanging fruit (affordable
investments with short payback terms)
to complex, expensive investments with
worthwhile paybacks over a longer time-
frame. In each setting, building owners
establishes their desires in terms of
paybacks, total investment budget, and
innovation.
The first priority for water conserva-
tion in existing buildings is to institute
the least expensive water conservation
measures: avoided water use. Changed
landscape management and facility main-
tenance regimens can save water, energy,
and maintenance labor costs. Though not
undertaken with the objective of water
use reduction, a regular schedule of
recommissioning is similarly attractive:
saving water, energy, and building main-
tenance labor costs.
The second priority is to make exist-
ing systems and equipment more water
efficient. This is accomplished through
two approaches:
1. An inventory of mechanical systems
and water-consuming equipment in
the building to assess proper use,
condition, and utility.
2. Exploration of opportunity to
modify and/or replace elements
of mechanical systems and water-
consuming equipment to introduce
or expand on facility water reuse
and recycling.
The results of this effort will recom-
mend a combination of improved facility
operations and a schedule that addresses
a combination of equipment replacements
(in-kind and upgrade to a more water-
efficient alternative) and cost-effective
means of introducing or expanding water
reuse and recycling.
Metrics: The potential for water
use reduction in the commercial/
industrial/institutional sector
While techniques for reducing water use
are well established, the metrics and rigor
of chronicling their outcome lag. Ideally,
water use reduction experiences would
be described by quantity of water volume
reduction in the categories that are likely
to be the three largest factors by volume:
 Total water use for irrigation (potable
and reused/recycled water metrics)
 Building reuse/recycling of water
exclusive of cooling towers or cen-
tral plant
 Reuse of water in cooling tower or
central plant.
Following is an introduction to three
sources of information that both general-
ize and provide desired, specific analy-
sis of water use reduction potentials for
building types found in the commercial
sector.
First, federal agencies operate under
several mandates that address sustain-
ability, including EO 13423 and 13123,
which require agencies to reduce water
consumption intensity (measured as gal/
sq ft) by 2% annually through FY 2015 or
16% by the end of FY 2015 (2007 base-
line). EO 13423 also mandates a schedule
of water audits. EO 13514 expands on the
www.csemag.com
earlier guidance in dictating 26% water
consumption intensity reduction by FY
2020 (using FY 2007 baseline).
The Dept. of Energy’s (DOE) Federal
Energy Management Program, Office of
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Ener-
gy is the repository for all agency data.
It characterizes the primary building use
of these agencies, allowing the owners of
certain types of commercial buildings to
see what the federal government accom-
plished between 2007 and 2012 in reduc-
ing water use in these same building types
(see Table 1). Figure 5: Even with moderate water/sewer rates, each of this project’s comprehensive
Each of the 17 federal labs (DOE) water use reduction and reuse investments was a sound financial investment.
offers detailed information about its water Courtesy: Affiliated Engineers Inc.
use reduction strategies and accomplish-
ments on its websites. Two examples:  The Pacific Northwest National Lab is a bottom-up analysis of cost-effective
 The National Renewable Energy Lab (PNNL) reduced its metered facilities water use reduction. Careful to qualify
(NREL) FY2013 Site Sustainably Plan from a water consumption use intensity that the analysis relied on the best avail-
details significant water consumption use (gal/sq ft) of 77 in 2007 to 31 in 2012. To able—though imperfect—data, a range
intensity reduction on that campus. It chron- accomplish this, it installed a comprehen- of conservation potentials for buildings
icles that the campus reduced potable water sive system of meters, replaced bathroom (including landscapes) in the State of
use intensity by 30% between FY 2007 and fixtures, installed flow restrictor aerators California are shown (see Table 2).
FY 2012. To accomplish this, NREL modi- in lavatory sinks, established a regular Finally, popular and design industry
fied its design standards and operational pro- program of water audits, and instituted a press sources and the Internet provide
cedures to promote efficient use of potable system for reducing landscape water use. valuable information about project water
water, created operational constraints on all Second, Waste Not, Want Not: The use accomplishments and strategies. A
once-through cooling devices, installed com- Potential for Urban Water Conservation sampling of informative presentations
prehensive metering, established a regular in California is the Pacific Institute’s about water conservation in existing
program of water audits linked to capital 2003 comprehensive modeling of water commercial/industrial/institutional
planning, installed smart irrigation systems conservation potential by Standard Indus- facilities includes:
to support the limited lawn area that it does try Codes (SIC).
irrigate in order to aid the establishment of E x a m i n i n g t h e Table 2: Activity
its plants, and replaced its gas scrubber with building use activ- Range of water use
Commercial sector activity
one that uses no water (decommissioned ity associated with reduction %
scrubber used 2.2 million gal/year). select codes, here
Hospitals
31 – 46
Table 1: Agency (SIC code 806)
Hotels
Predominate 2007-2012 water 30 – 38
(SIC codes 701 and 704)
building type use reduction %
Office (SIC codes 60-64, 67, 73m
30 – 46
Research and 81, 87, and 90)
Dept. of Energy 16.6
science
Restaurants (SIC code 58) 27 – 32
General Services
Office 19.2 Retail stores
Administration 16 – 38
(SIC codes 53, 55-57, 59)
Housing and Urban
Office 15.7 Retail stores: grocery
Development 28 – 43
(SIC code 54)
Research and
NASA 28.4 Schools: higher and special
science
education 39 – 50
Social Security (SIC codes 8219, 9382)
Office 35.6
Administration
Schools: K-12 36 – 49
Veterans Affairs Hospital 24.3 (SIC codes 8219, 9382)
Courtesy: Affiliated Engineers Inc. Courtesy: Affiliated Engineers Inc.

www.csemag.com Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014 29

 Efficient building water use
 MicroSemi UPSD Inc., a semicon-
ductor device manufacturer, reduced its
water use by 30%.
 Intel Corp., a semiconductor chip
maker corporation, has made a corporate
commitment to water use reduction that
shows itself across many Intel campuses.
 Stanford Hospital & Clinics, a
regional scale comprehensive health care
provider, saved more than 12 million gal/
year by upgrading its sterile processing
equipment. ‎
 Water Sense: an EPA Partnership Pro-
gram is a federal program that provides
the public with information and education
about water efficiency. For a collection of
case studies, visit the website.
Willa Kuh is Affiliated Engineers’ director
of planning. She has expertise in campus
projects with an emphasis on resource plan-
ning, assisting clients in their development of
facility master plans, strategic energy plans,
sustainability plans, and climate mitigation
plans. Kuh is a planner for the UW Health
at the American Center project. Fred Betz
is a senior sustainable systems analyst with
Affiliated Engineers. With a doctorate in
building performance and diagnostics from
Carnegie Mellon University, he specializes
in advanced building systems integration,
energy and other resource simulation and
planning, renewable energy and power gen-
eration, and controls and diagnostics. He is
the lead energy and water analyst for the
UW Health at the American Center project.

Wisconsin health care campus achieves water conservation

T he University of Wisconsin Hospital & Clinics (UWHC) will soon open

UW Health at The American Center. Referred to as a health care cam-
pus, the 42-acre site includes a 492,000-sq-ft hospital, a universal care
center, and a wellness campus, representing a unique approach for the
Madison, Wis.-based health care provider to serve a growing patient popu-
lation and establish a service point separate from the main UWHC campus.
The three-wing facility is designed to be U.S. Green Building Council
LEED for Healthcare Silver and to promote the city’s goal of reducing
water use. From a base design that would have used 17.6 million gal/
year, the selection and right-sizing of mechanical systems and facility
equipment reduced the total water demand to 11.7 million gal/year. Of
that number, more than half of the building’s water use (6.1 million gal/
year) will be with second-generation (reuse) water.
This water reuse enabled the project’s stormwater management
ponds to be designed to a reduced water infiltration level, supporting
site design objectives and making it easier to secure approvals for the
stormwater management plan. When the building opens in 2015, UWHC
will avoid purchasing 12 million gal/year of potable water that the base
design would have used.
“We practice our mission of advancing health both within our facilities
and in the communities we serve,” said Ralph Turner, UWHC vice president
Figure 6: The 492,000-sq-ft UW Health at The American
Center will open in 2015 using 34% less water, and more than
half of the facility’s water will be second-generation (reuse).
Courtesy: Flad Architects
of facilities and support services. “The water-conserving design of UW
Health at the American Center illustrates this, partnering with our host city
to meet the water needs of our growing community without increasing
groundwater withdrawal.”
The facility incorporates a number of sustainability measures, includ-
ing the following design elements that work to reduce building energy
demand and water use:
 Heat recovery chillers for base load heating and cooling
 High-performance window glazing and roof
 High-performance chiller plant with optimized chilled water plant, and
six cycles of concentration
 High-performance boiler plant with stack economizers
 Efficient lighting, daylight harvesting, and lighting controls
 Comprehensive HVAC controls to setback unoccupied airflows in
operating rooms, imaging, and outpatient spaces
 Chilled water cooled imaging equipment
 High-performance central kitchen with variable air volume (VAV)
hoods, end-skirts, efficient appliances, water-cooled freezers, and
efficient hood layout.
Design elements that reduce water use and, consequently, reduce
building energy demand, with a premium placed on reducing potable
water use include:
 Chilled water cooled sterilizers (207 gal of quench water avoided per
cycle, 15 gal evaporated in cooling tower per cycle)
 A system of interconnected ponds that receive and naturally filter water
from air handling units, roofs, lawn, and parking areas
 A cooling tower and landscape system that use water from the site’s
interconnected ponds
 Landscape design with minimal irrigation needs
 An isopropyl alcohol liquid pool cover to reduce pool evaporation by
40% and reduce dehumidification and makeup water heating
 Efficient water fixtures and devices.
In addition to the direct energy and water savings from these systems,
reducing cooling loads on the main chillers reduces heat rejection and
consequently evaporated water, drift, and blowdown. Reducing heating loads
on the steam boilers reduces blowdown. For nearly every energy savings,
there is a complementary water savings, and vice versa.
Even with relatively low water and sewer rates, the design of this building
was able to offer the building’s owner a payback of less than three years for
many of the water use reduction-and-reuse elements of the building design.

30 Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014 www.csemag.com

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 Lowering energy use,
elevating building
performance
Net-zero energy buildings can be achieved with smart building design.
Here are tips on how to design a high-performance building.
BY RUAIRÍ M. BARNWELL, BEAP, HBDP, QCXP, LEED AP BD+C; and
PREMNATH SUNDHARAM, AIA, BEMP, CEM, LEED AP BD+C, DLR Group, Chicago
T
he National Renewable Energy
Learning Laboratory’s (NREL) definition
objectives of a net-zero building is a building
 Understand and reconsider that generates enough renewable energy
the definition of high- on-site to equal or exceed its annual
performance buildings. energy use. Net-zero energy design is a
 Learn the two-step reality. We can achieve it today without
approach to net-zero: reduce, the need for futuristic technologies. The
then produce.
questions we should be asking ourselves
 Understand total occupant are: Is net-zero enough? Is net-zero the
comfort.
end goal? How does the pursuit of net-
zero design impact the overall perfor-
mance of the built environment?
According to Architecture 2030, non-
residential buildings consume 47.6% of
all energy used in the United States annu-
ally. The sheer volume of energy con-
sumed by buildings is one of the biggest,
if not the biggest, contributor to carbon
emissions and global warming, and that
is only going to increase.
Design industry leaders, including
ASHRAE and AIA, have established
clearly defined goals for achieving
net-zero design by 2030. The aim of
ASHRAE Standard 189.1: Standard for
the Design of High-Performance, Green
Buildings is to provide an iterative road
map toward achieving net-zero design
by the year 2030.
32 Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014
A critical step on the path to net-zero
design is ensuring that engineers and
architects reduce the energy use of the
building while elevating environmental
performance as it relates to the overall
health and comfort of occupants. This
two-pronged approach to high-perfor-
mance building design can lessen energy
consumption and increase productivity.
Ultimately, buildings can be positioned as
a key component of the solution toward
decreasing emissions and improving the
environment.
High-performance: A new definition
Net-zero energy design is an iterative
and collaborative process. Setting clear
expectations within an integrated proj-
ect delivery (IPD) team is important. An
integrated team consisting of the owner,
architect, engineer, contractor, and all
vested partners must have a clear under-
standing of how the building will be
designed, built, and operated with clearly
outlined high-performance goals. High-
performance environments should be the
ultimate aim for design teams.
Perhaps it’s time to redefine high-
performance. DLR Group believes high-
performance buildings should be net-zero
www.csemag.com
 Figure 1: Building simulation tools such as options from Integrated Environmental Solutions (IES) are essential to accurately
predict daylight glare and associated energy impact in order to best apply available budget to achieve a net-zero energy
goal. Building simulation tools allow the design team to optimize, quantify, and present both energy and occupant comfort
design strategies and demonstrate compliance with ASHRAE Standards 90.1, 62.1, and 55. Courtesy: DLR Group

(or net-zero capable) buildings that maxi-
mize occupant comfort and productivity.
This vision of a high-performance
building requires the traditional design
process to evolve. A more integrative
and holistic process with a focus on
early decisions in the design phase and
rigorous performance simulation is nec-
essary. Building performance simulation
and energy analyses are vital to estab-
lish indoor environmental and energy
optimization criteria. Also important is
a clear understanding of the anticipated
use of building spaces to fully inform the
design. An initial visioning session must
establish measurable high-performance
goals based on the building’s anticipated
operations protocol.
Project energy budgets now take on as
much significance as project cost bud-
gets. Establishing energy and budget tar-
gets early in the design, and then tying
systems analysis and evaluation to both
project cost and energy budgets are criti-
cal to ensuring the project stays on track
for energy consumption goals within the
financial budget.
Synergies between engineered systems
must be evaluated and presented to key
stakeholders as part of a holistic analysis.
At this time it’s essential to share project-
ed energy and operational savings along
with first costs to illustrate the positive
impact on occupant comfort, and the total
cost of ownership (TCO) of the building.
If a building owner is to invest in a high-
performance glazing system, then the
associated reduction in chiller and boiler
plant size, and the associated energy and
maintenance cost reductions must also be
presented as a TCO comparison.
Yet we don’t want to design bunkers.
We want compelling, beautiful build-
ings that elevate the human experience
through design.
Two consistent challenges must be
overcome to produce buildings that
achieve our new vision of high-perfor-
mance design:
1. An emphasis on value engineering
to lessen first costs versus operating costs
2. Thoughtfully considering occupant
comfort and productivity through the
entire design process.
Cost conundrum
A building’s initial capital costs and
operational costs are often derived from
different funding sources. This can pose
a significant challenge in pursuit of high-
performance if value engineering and
minimizing first costs becomes the pri-
mary driver of the design process. Acqui-
escing to investor and/or owner demands
to lower first costs during design can have
negative long-term impact on occupant
comfort and productivity. This does not
have to be the case any longer.
The Research Support Facility at the
National Renewable Energy Laboratory,
Golden, Colo., is a 360,000-sq-ft office
building that generates as much electric-
ity as it uses. It uses rooftop photovolta-
ics for on-site production and was built
for the same price as a traditional Class
A office building. NREL’s “Controlling
Capital Costs in High-performance Office
Buildings: A Review of Best Practices for
Overcoming Cost Barriers” white paper
further documents that it is feasible to
design and construct buildings that can
achieve net-zero energy goals with stan-
dard first cost considerations.
A holistic, value-based building per-
formance analysis is key to any net-zero
design project. As part of performance
analysis the design team must be dis-
ciplined, maintain focus, and champion
the importance of elevating energy per-
formance to the level of schedule and
budget for the project. This ensures that
both energy goals and budget priorities
are managed and optimized throughout
the design process rather than addressed
in individual value engineering exer-
cises. When a clear business case for
a high-performance design strategy
has been presented to the project team
through a quality performance analysis,
it is much easier to retain that strategy
during a traditional value engineering
process.

www.csemag.com Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014 33

 High-performance buildings
Figure 2: DLR Group’s design for an on-site solar array at FedExField in Landover, Md., home of the Washington Redskins, uses
an 8,000-panel solar array to provide 20% of the stadium’s power needs on game days and 100% of the stadium’s power needs
through the year on nongame days. Courtesy: DLR Group
The engineering team has learned
that focusing purely on reducing ener-
gy consumption during design will not
guarantee high performance. A focused
reduction of energy consumption must
go hand-in-hand with designing spaces
to optimize occupant comfort.
A commitment to ensuring occupant
comfort in the design process to pro-
duce a small increase in productivity can
potentially offset annual operational costs
during a building’s operational lifecycle.
A user-friendly, high-performance build-
ing with healthier and happier occupants
can provide opportunities to enhance the
morale of employees, improve opera-
tions, return a premium for owners
through increased rents, and ultimately
reduce operating costs.
During a building’s lifecycle, its use
changes and the needs and perception
of occupants also change. A design that
cannot bend and shape to evolving user
needs cannot deliver a state of mind that
expresses satisfaction with the surround-
ing environment.
When users are not comfortable, they
take action to modify their environment.
34 Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014
We see this every day. Personal space heat-
ers seemingly appear overnight. Next are
fans of all shapes and sizes. Then a power
strip for that heater, the fan, and the needed
mini-refrigerator. Perhaps some curtains or
posterboard to block glare. A book or trash
can might be placed over the diffuser. In
the end, all of this extra equipment and
modification alters system performance
and ultimately energy use and performance.
Reduce, then produce to find net-zero
To achieve our goal of high-
performance buildings, design teams
must first address energy reduction strat-
egies and then incorporate energy pro-
duction using on-site renewables. First
reduce, then produce.
The first step in high-performance
building design, whether new construc-
tion or a deep energy retrofit of an exist-
ing building, is to engage in a holistic
assessment of practical energy reduc-
tion strategies. This assessment includes
building systems optimization, high-effi-
ciency equipment, energy recovery, sys-
tem synergies, an emphasis on plug load
reduction, and passive energy reduction
such as mixed-mode natural ventilation,
thermal massing, and solar shading.
DLR Group’s “reduce, then produce”
belief is grounded in a 75-25 approach.
First, reduce the energy demand of a
building by as much as 75% compared to
baseline. Then invest in renewable ener-
gy production systems for the final 25%
reduction to achieve net-zero. At a 75%
energy reduction, the return on invest-
ment of the energy production system
generating 25% of energy need becomes
more practical.
Optimize building design for
occupant comfort
The second element in our new defini-
tion of high-performance building is to
ensure the optimization of a building’s
indoor environment for the ultimate
comfort of building users. DLR Group
defines occupant comfort as “the state of
mind that expresses satisfaction with the
surrounding environment.” This also is
the essence of design. As designers, our
challenge is to balance both aims of high
performance to maximize occupant com-
fort with zero-net energy consumption.
www.csemag.com

Optimization entails critical thinking
about the impact of the human factor on
design and how occupant use will impact
performance. We must understand the cli-
ent, the ultimate purpose for the space(s),
the influence of plug loads, and other
variables through design discovery to
effectively understand the human factor.
The aim is to ensure optimum occupant
comfort.
Design for occupant comfort begins
with holistic thinking about four key
aspects: visual, thermal, air quality, and
acoustical comfort. Balancing these ele-
ments within a net-zero energy environ-
ment can produce true high-performance
design.
Visual comfort is critical in all spaces
for a welcoming, productive environ-
ment. One of the essential design strate-
gies for net-zero energy design is daylight
harvesting. However, daylight harvesting
without proper glare control can often
negate the predicted energy savings. If
occupants are uncomfortable due to glare
or heat gain, they will take control of their
environment by blocking the daylight that
induces glare. Daylight induced glare is
subjective based on the direction of view
and angle at which daylight luminance
reaches the task surface.
For example, Fireside Elementary
School, Phoenix, is designed to reach
net-zero. The design team controlled
glare by choosing different visible light
transmittance glazing with customized
window shading solutions for differ-
ent orientations. The daylight harvest-
ing strategy included a simple control
system. Light switches were offered
with three options: auto on, off, and an
audio/visual setting. The auto on but-
ton does not turn on all light fixtures. A
photocell takes into account the amount
of daylight and only turns on required
light fixtures.
Designers can evaluate daylight simu-
lation models to understand harvesting
potential. Again, the collaboration of
an integrated design team allows inte-
rior designers to clearly understand the
assumptions for surface reflectance
www.csemag.com
Tools for visual, thermal, air, acoustic comfort
Metrics to evaluate occupant visual comfort are essential. Some of the key tools
for verifying visual comfort:
 Non-daylighting lighting power density (LPDND) < 0.8 W/sq ft (AGI 32; IESVE). This metric
refers to connected power of light fixtures as an average for the whole building that light
spaces without daylight opportunities.
 Daylight lighting power density (LPDD) < 0.4 W/sq ft (AGI 32; IESVE). This metric refers
to connected power of light fixtures that light spaces that have daylight opportunities. To
model daylighting, dimming is modeled within the IESVE energy modeling tool. The dimming
reduces the LPD based on a factor dependent on the foot candles achieved as a result of
natural daylight.
 Daylight glare index (DGI) < 22 (OpenStudio, EnergyPlus, AGI 32, IESVE).
Key methods and tools for monitoring occupant thermal comfort within
educational environments:
 Follow ASHRAE Standard 55 standards (OpenStudio, EnergyPlus, IESVE). Spaces can be
modeled within IESVE, eQUEST, or Trane TRACE to verify mean radiant temperature, air
temperature, and operative temperature to ensure thermal comfort criteria are met.
 For spaces with sedentary daytime tasks, maintain a window-to-wall ratio between 10%
and 15% to optimize daylight harvesting and thermal comfort.
 Explore outdoor thermal comfort by performing microclimate analysis to take advantage of
shared and common outdoor spaces. For warmer months, provide an outdoor micro-climate
equivalent temperature <= 95 F (Rayman, Autodesk Vasari).
Key methods and tools to ensure air quality:
 Comply with the latest version of ASHRAE 62.1, a minimum standard for ventilation. Increase
ventilation rates for occupied spaces by 30% to improve occupant comfort and productivity.
Look for opportunities to provide more treated fresh air as much as possible (Trane TRACE,
IESVE).
 Locate air intake and exhaust systems through micro-climate analysis (Autodesk Vasari).
Methods and tools to consider for acoustic comfort:
 Reverberation control > 0.7 noise reduction coefficient (NRC) (many online resources)
 HVAC background noise < 47 dBA (Trane Acoustic Program)
 Sound transmission – ANSI S12.60 (many online resources)
Table 1: Reverberation time Sound transmission class (STC)
Open office <0.8 sec Open office 45 STC
Closed office <0.6 sec Closed office 50 STC
Classroom <0.6 sec Classroom 50 STC
Meeting room <0.8 sec Meeting room 50 STC
Hotel/motel room 55 STC
Courtesy: National Institute of Building Sciences
values within a space. When interior In another case, at Google’s Kirk-
designers select paint colors and surface land, Wash., campus, designers recently
finishes, these can be chosen to maxi- maximized the daylight zones as part of
mize the daylight harvesting potential a major tenant improvement. The design
of the design. provided interior glazed partitions, which
In addition to the quantitative analysis, increased the number of spaces with a
it is important to access qualitatively the view and extended access to daylight for
scenarios when glare may be an issue, additional spaces.
especially due to direct sun. This is when Thermal comfort of occupants, more
the interior blinds will be used, and some than any other criteria, can have a high
modeling may fail to capture the impact potential to optimize energy use. Sev-
of these shading features on the daylight. eral factors impact thermal discomfort
Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014 35
High-performance buildings
in a space. These include metabolic rate,
clothing, mean radiant temperature,
relative humidity, air temperature, and
air speed.
ASHRAE Standard 55 specifies con-
ditions for acceptable thermal environ-
ments. However, regardless of the air
temperature, the reality is if occupants
perceive increased radiant heat or heat
loss within their space, such as from an
exterior glass wall, their first instincts are
to turn on the fan or space heater, or reach
for and alter the thermostat. Over time,
the adverse impact of this behavior on
energy use is significant.
At Fireside Elementary School, this
behavior was mitigated by providing a
thermal mass wall that provides a lag in
the heat transfer and, most importantly,
by optimizing view glass with shading.
This helps in avoiding direct solar radia-
tion and in maintaining a comfortable
operative temperature.
Indoor air quality (IAQ) impacts ener-
gy consumption and plays a crucial role
in occupant health. Indoor pollutants
can be diluted by bringing in fresh air
from outside. However, depending on
the building type and climate, filtration
of outdoor air can prove to be energy-
intensive. The greater the volume of
air and the more filtration required for
this outdoor air, the more energy will be
required to condition it.
A common strategy that high-perfor-
mance buildings employ is demand-
control ventilation. Based on changes in
occupant density within a space, carbon
dioxide levels can be measured and the
amount of outdoor air required can be
controlled. However, this strategy is often
executed poorly in buildings. Due to
poorly implemented sequences of opera-
tions or sensor calibration issues, it’s
common for outdoor air to be completely
eliminated during occupied hours based
on the CO2 levels. This increases indoor
pollutants, such as volatile organic com-
pounds (VOCs) emanating from finishes,
which can negatively impact air quality.
The role of an integrated design team,
including the mechanical engineer and/
or control system integrator, is to clearly
communicate a sequence of operations
for the HVAC controls and establish
adequate sensor calibration procedures
to ensure air quality. Diligent commis-
sioning or retro-commissioning can also
address and enhance IAQ.
At the Google Kirkland Campus, the
mechanical system selection was based
on system performance in regard to IAQ
to optimize comfort in addition to energy
efficiency. A number of mechanical sys-
tems were modeled and evaluated as part
of a mechanical decision-making matrix.
Competing systems were evaluated for
energy performance as well as the client’s
goals of thermal comfort, acoustics, IAQ,

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High-performance buildings
and the total impact on lifecycle costs.
For this reason, a 100% outside air sys-
tem with chilled beams was selected to
meet all of the criteria.
Acoustic comfort can be achieved by
controlling noise at the source; this is
Without post-occupancy evaluation, it is
impossible to know if a building is performing as
designed and if the client is, in fact, receiving a
valuable return on investment.
a key strategy especially with HVAC-
induced background noise. Early input
on acoustical issues, particularly around
key adjacencies, can aid in avoiding
costly and energy-consuming acous-
tical interventions. Proper isolation
of HVAC to minimize noise requires
careful planning on equipment selec-
tion, ductwork layout, and air distribu-
tion system design. Value engineering
can have a significant impact on noise
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control when sound attenuators, duct
runs, and HVAC equipment with simi-
lar efficiencies but varying noise levels
are debated. More attenuation and lon-
ger duct runs with extra fittings result
in greater pressure loss. This requires
more energy to power fans, more noise
to push the air, and the deterioration of
acoustical comfort.
Tracking building performance
The true measure of high performance
is assessed over the operational life of the
building, not just at the moment the project
is handed over to the owner. It is vital to
understand that high-performance building
designs don’t necessarily produce high-
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performance buildings without correct
operations and maintenance procedures.
Evaluating the actual performance of a
building design post-occupancy is vital.
Without post-occupancy evaluation, it
is impossible to know if a building is
performing—both operationally and
programmatically—as designed and if
the client is, in fact, receiving a valuable
return on investment.
As design professionals, the best
course of action is to ensure post-
occupancy evaluation of building operations
and program performance are part of the
standard design services or that this scope
is included in the commissioning process.
A measurement and verification
(M&V) process adhering to guidelines
set forth by the International Perfor-
mance Measurement and Verification
Protocol (IPMVP) should be standard
practice for all high-performance build-
ing projects. Designers also can use the
energy model as an operational target
throughout the first year of operation.
Tracking against the model will help set
the building on a track for high-perfor-
mance. The predicted building systems
energy use from the design energy model
should be verified and updated post-
occupancy with actual energy break-
downs for each building system.
Tracking energy consumption and peak
demand can be as simple as collecting util-
ity bills for at least 12 consecutive months
of operation. In a high-performance build-
ing, a detailed breakdown of energy use
for each major energy-consuming system
is needed to track ongoing building perfor-
mance. This data can be harvested through
utility meters and system submeters, build-
ing automation data trend analysis, or
with portable data-logging devices. At a
minimum, submetering key energy end-
use systems to match the predicted energy
consumption breakdown for loads includ-
ing cooling, heating, fans, pumps, lighting,
plug loads, and domestic hot water sys-
tems will enable a thorough M&V process.
Commissioning the submeters to confirm
that they are designed, installed, and cali-
brated to operate as intended is critical to
ensure high-integrity data is being har-
vested for analysis.

Assessing occupant comfort can be
accomplished in several ways. Most
often, you will hear about issues within
the first year during a typical warranty
period. However, a more detailed post-
occupancy evaluation can reveal occu-
pant related challenges. Regular survey-
ing of occupants is often the best method
to gauge occupant satisfaction and estab-
lish baselines for future measurement.
The next big step toward ongoing
tracking of building performance is
real-time monitoring. This is a continu-
ous optimization process that tracks both
energy consumption and occupant com-
fort patterns.
Energy tracking, benchmarking, and dis-
closure are becoming a mandatory proce-
dure across many of the nation’s major met-
ropolitan areas including New York City,
Chicago, and San Francisco. For committed
owners, a net-zero energy focused building
certification such as ASHRAE’s Building
Energy Quotient (bEQ) may prove to be
beneficial to reinforce and communicate
their commitment to tracking, measuring,
and verifying building performance.
technical potential for more than 47%
of existing commercial building floor
space to achieve net-zero energy using
currently known technologies and design
processes.
Above all, design engineers and build-
ing performance analysts can play a sig-
nificant role in achieving the industry
goals for net-zero energy while elevating
the indoor environmental quality and the
health, well-being, and productivity of
building occupants.
Ruairí M. Barnwell leads DLR Group’s
Building Optimization practice and con-
tributes his high-performance building
design expertise on design teams in the
firm’s core market sectors. He was a 2013
40 Under 40 award winner. Premnath
Sundharam is a Certified Energy Man-
ager and a certified Building Energy
Modeling Professional. Premnath is an
expert resource for energy modeling and
sustainable design at DLR Group.
Glossary and
definitions
Acoustical comfort: Resources include
ANSI S12.60: Acoustical Performance Crite-
ria, Design Requirements, and Guidelines for
Schools and ASHE’s Facility Guidelines Insti-
tute. These are nationally recognized standards
for acoustic comfort. For the purposes of this
article, we define acoustical comport as having
an appropriate level and quality of noise to use
the space as intended.
Indoor air quality (IAQ): This is defined
by ASHRAE 62.1 and 62.2: The Standards for
Ventilation and Indoor Air Quality. Acceptable
IAQ is air in which there are no known contami-
nants at harmful concentrations as determined
by cognizant authorities and with which a
substantial majority of the people exposed do
not express dissatisfaction.
Thermal comfort: ASHRAE Standard 55:
Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human
Occupancy defines thermal comfort. Thermal
comfort is that condition of mind that expresses
satisfaction with the thermal environment and
is assessed by subjective evaluation.
Visual comfort: For the purposes of this
article, we define visual comfort as that state
of mind that expresses satisfaction with the
visual environment. The Lighting Handbook
from IES is a recognized guideline for visual
comfort criteria.

The high-performance future

Why Make It Hard on Yourself?
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input #16 at www.csemag.com/information
 Power
for fire pumps
Power is a key element in
ensuring a fire pump works in an emergency situation.
BY ERNEST E. LEAF, PE, Stanley Consultants, Austin, Texas
Learning
objectives
 Learn the basics of design-
ing electrical power system to
feed the fire pump system.
 Understand the basic prin-
ciple behind fire pump electri-
cal power systems.
 Know the codes that pertain
to providing power to fire
pumps, chiefly NFPA 20 and
NFPA 70, and know how NFPA
1, NFPA 101, NFPA 110, NFPA
5000, IBC, and IFC pertain to
fire pump designs.
40 Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014
T
here are few pieces of equipment
in a building more critical than the
fire pump. Although it will hope-
fully never run for its intended purpose,
when there is that dreaded fire in a build-
ing, the fire pump must work. A failure in
the fire pump system endangers people’s
lives. Because of the critical nature of a
piece of equipment that rarely runs, the
engineer designing the system must fully
understand the codes and standards, and
use his engineering judgment to provide
a robust system that will operate during
the most critical of times.
When designing the power supply for a
facility fire pump, there are specific code
requirements that apply and must be fol-
lowed. The two main code sections for
providing power to fire pumps are NFPA
20: Standard for the Installation of Sta-
tionary Pumps for Fire Protection Chapter
9 and NFPA 70: National Electric Code
(NEC) Article 695. Although there is some
overlap between the two codes, there
are differences in the scopes of the two
articles, as they both state right up front.
Article 695 covers the requirements for the
electric installation. NFPA 20 covers the
fire pump selection and installation. NFPA
20 also covers reliability concerns for the
power supplies, which is where most of
the overlap with Article 695 occurs. For-
tunately, Article 695 references NFPA 20
extensively, minimizing the code-hopping
that engineers are so fond of.
Engineering coordination
Before we start discussing technical
details, the first step to designing the
power for a fire pump system is to coor-
dinate with the architect and fire protec-
tion engineer on whether a fire pump
is required, and if so, what size will it
be. The architect will review the build-
ing type and number of occupants to
determine if a sprinkler system and fire
pump are required. He or she also will
review the locally adopted codes such as
the International Building Code (IBC),
International Fire Code (IFC), NFPA
5000: Building Construction and Safety
Code, NFPA 101: Life Safety Code, and
any other specifications, local codes, or
amendments to the codes.
Specific references to fire pump
requirements are sprinkled throughout
these codes, and almost all reference
NFPA 20. IBC Chapter 913 is dedicat-
ed to fire pump requirements and deals
essentially with protection of the fire
pump room within the building. In Chap-
ter 403.4.9 the IBC defines electric fire
pumps as emergency loads. IFC Chapter
913 deals specifically with fire pumps
and the room requirements. NFPA 5000
briefly references fire pumps, requiring
www.csemag.com
that the fire pumps in high-rise buildings
be fed from the emergency system and
monitored from the emergency command
center. To reserve space for electrical
equipment and fire pump controllers,
coordinating early with the architect is
critical. There are some battles you have
to continually fight, and you will have
better luck the earlier you start.
The fire protection engineer will
review the existing water pressure and
determine, if required, what type and size
the pump will be. He or she will review
and design to NFPA 20, NFPA 1: Fire
Code, NFPA 72: Fire Alarm and Signal-
ing Code, and any other specifications,
local codes, or amendments to the codes.
NFPA 1 Section 13.4 lists requirements
for fire pumps. These are primarily taken
from NFPA 20 and relate to the design of
the fire pumps. NFPA 1does not deal spe-
cifically with power to fire pumps. NFPA
72 lists monitoring requirements for fire
pumps by the fire alarm system.
Power sources
NEC Article 695 starts appropriately
with the requirements for the power
source for electric motor. Where the
power source is determined to be reliable,
only one source of power is required.
NFPA 20 Annex A gives clear direction
as to what is determined reliable. The
source cannot have had more than a 4-hr
shutdown in the previous year. So, if the
project is a new building, the local utility
will need to be contacted to determine
what outages occurred in the past year.
Also, the service connection cannot be
from an overhead service. Finally, more
than one disconnect cannot be installed
on the service conductor.
A single reliable source of power can
be furnished by one of three methods:
1. A dedicated service from the util-
ity, or a tap ahead of the normal utility
service disconnecting means.
2. An “on-site power production
facility.” This is a facility that is continu-
ously running. A standby generator does
not meet this requirement.
www.csemag.com
Figure 1: Fire pump and related equipment are shown in a dedicated room.
Courtesy: Poole Fire Protection
3. A dedicated feeder from a dedicat-
ed utility service. It should also be noted
that phase converters are not permitted.
Phase converters convert a single-phase
service into a 3-phase service, but due to
the voltage imbalance they cause, they
can have a negative impact on the fire
pump controller.
In practice, the most commonly used
single source for a fire pump is the tap
off the electrical service. To meet NEC
requirements, this has to be ahead of the
main electric service; has to be in a differ-
ent cabinet, enclosure, or vertical switch-
board/switchgear section from the service;
and is required to minimize the possibility
of damage from fire. It’s a good idea to
locate the tap enclosure in a different area
or even a separate room from the main
electrical service equipment, so that a fire
at the main electrical equipment will not
affect the fire pump service.
Where a single source of power does
not meet the reliability requirements, a
second alternate source of power must
be provided. The alternate source of
power may be a combination of the
single source options. The alternate
source may also be a standby generator.
Finally, a diesel or steam-driven backup
fire pump is allowed to substitute for an
alternate electric source.
Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014
Both the NEC (695.3(C)) and NFPA
20 (9.2.2(4)) recognize that multibuild-
ing campus-style arrangements have
unique requirements. Many larger
industrial facilities, military facilities,
and institutional facilities purchase
their power at a substation at high- or
medium-voltage and then the owner is
responsible to distribute power within
the campus to the buildings. Provid-
ing a dedicated service or a dedi-
cated feeder to the fire pumps is just
not feasible. The codes address these
common situations by requiring two
electric feeds that originate from inde-
pendent sources. Note that a loop feed
to a building with both legs originat-
ing from the same substation does not
meet this requirement, and an alternate
source of power, such as a standby gen-
erator, would be required. This part of
the codes is subject to various interpre-
tations, and the prudent engineer will
seek the authority having jurisdiction’s
(AHJ) interpretation upfront.
Having laid down the requirements
concerning the source of power, Article
695.4 gives requirements for the continu-
ity of power. The main goal is to maintain
power to the pump(s); however, at first
glance many of these requirements will
feel wrong because they are opposite of
how the rest of the code is written. We
41
 Power for fire pumps
Figure 2: In this example, we see the
combined fire pump controller and auto-
matic transfer switch. Courtesy: Poole
Fire Protection
need to take a step back to think about
this. Most of the NEC is written to min-
imize the risks of fires, and therefore
equipment is taken offline when it is
in danger of starting a fire. However,
here the codes are addressing situa-
tions where the fire has already started.
Therefore, the equipment must continu-
ously run to protect lives, regardless of
the risk to the equipment or additional
fires. Keeping this reasoning in mind
will help clarify the codes’ intention.
To keep the power available to the
motor, minimizing the number of ways
to disconnect the circuit is important.
Although a direct connection is prefer-
able, the NEC allows one disconnect-
ing means, with overcurrent protec-
tion, between the source and fire pump
controller or transfer switch. When a
standby generator is used as an alternate
supply, an additional disconnect, and
overcurrent protection, is allowed. The
NEC also recognizes that a multibuild-
ing campus-style arrangement is more
complex and will require additional
disconnecting means, and for only this
42 Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014
situation, it does not give a limit to the
number of disconnects.
The overcurrent protection require-
ments (NEC 695.4(B)(2) and (NFPA
20:9.2.3) are important, because the
protection will be set to act as though
there were a direct wired connection. The
only protection allowed is to trip during a
short circuit fault. To do this, the overcur-
rent protection device (OCPD) must be
rated for the locked rotor current (LRC)
of the largest motor and the jockey pump,
and then the sum of the remaining pumps
and associated accessory equipment (see
Figure 1). New to the codes, when a “list-
ed” fire pump OCPD is used, protection
is allowed and specific trip settings are
listed in 695.4(B)(2)(b) and 20:9.2.3.4.1.
Example 1
In Example 1, we review sizing an
overcurrent protective device (Figure
1). At 460 V, the full-load amps (FLA)
for the 50 hp motor is 65 amps, but the
locked rotor current (LRC) is 363 amps
per NEC Table 430.251(B) or NFPA 20
Table 9.5.1.1. We also have a 2-hp jockey
pump. Although the FLA is 3.4 amps, the
LRC for the jockey pump is 25 amps.
Adding the two LRCs together, we have
388 amps. Per NEC 240.6 the next size
standard overcurrent protective device
(OCPD) is 400 amps.
Fire pump:
= 363 amps
50 hp LRC
Jockey pump:
= 25 amps
2 hp LRC
Total LRC = 388 amps
OCPD rated for 400 amps
When a standby generator is used, the
OCPD is sized to allow for instantaneous
pickup of the full pump room load only,
not the LRC. The OCPD is not required
to provide any overload protection, only
short-circuit protection (see Example 2).
Although not required, ground fault detec-
tion (not protection) is allowed by code.
Providing a local visible signal and a tie
to the BAS and/or to the fire alarm system
should be considered for maintenance pur-
poses. When connecting to the fire alarm
system, NFPA 72:23.8.5.9 requires that
any signal other than a “pump running”
signal be supervisory. NFPA 20:10.4.7
requires four signals to be transmitted
remote from the pump when the pump
room is not constantly attended. They are
“pump running,” “loss of phase power,”
“phase reversal,” and “alternate source
of power connected.” Only the “pump
running” signal can be either an alarm or
supervisory signal.
Example 2
Let’s look at Figure 1 again and size
the OCPD for a standby generator. The
FLA for the two motors is 68.4 amps.
Per NEC Table 430.52 the maximum rat-
ing for the inverse time breaker OCPD is
250%; therefore, the maximum OCPD is
171 amps. The next standard size OCPD
is 175 amps. An acceptable range would
be 150% to 250%. Therefore, using 175%,
the OCPD should be rated for 125 amps.
Fire pump:
= 65 amps
50 hp FLA
Jockey pump:
= 3.4 amps
2 hp FLA
Total FLA = 68.4 amps
Maximum OCPD
= 171 amps
FLA X 250%
The disconnecting means for the fire
pump system must be clearly identified,
be separate from the other disconnects in
the facility, be lockable in the closed posi-
tion, and be monitored in the closed posi-
tion. All of these requirements are designed
to keep the fire pumps online, and prevent
mistakenly shutting the fire pump down.
Imagine the beginning of the firefighting
effort when in the rush to cut power to the
building, the fire pump disconnect is mis-
takenly opened by the very team that is try-
ing to fight the fire. These regulations are
in place to eliminate this potential scenario.
Transformers are only allowed when
the service voltage is different from the
fire pump requirements. If a transformer
is required, it must be dedicated only to
the fire pump system. It must be sized for
www.csemag.com
125% of the fire pump motors and jockey
pump, and 100% of the remaining loads.
See Example 3 to size a transformer.
The transformer can only have primary
side overcurrent protection. The over-
current protection complies with the ear-
lier requirements in that it is intended
only for short-circuit fault protection,
and is set for the LRC of the largest
motor and jockey motor and the FLA of
the remaining loads.

Example 3
Using the pumps from Examples 1 and
2, let’s size a transformer to feed the fire
pump. This time the service is 4160 V.
A dedicated 4160 V to 480/277 V trans- Figure 3: The conduit feeding the fire pump motor must be RGS, IMC, EMT, liquid-tight
former will be used to supply voltage to flexible metal, liquid-tight flexible nonmetallic conduit Type LFNC-B, listed Type MC
the fire pump system. What size should cable with an impervious covering, or Type MI cable. Courtesy: Stanley Consultants
the transformer be? Using the informa-
tion from Example 1, we can calculate the The next standard size overcurrent which usually means they are routed
sum of the FLA and multiply by 125%. protection device for the primary side is under the building or encased in 2 in. of
50 amps. brick or concrete. From the load side of
Total FLA (from
= 68.4 amps
The code recognizes in 695.5(C) that a the last disconnect, the route of the fire
Example 2) multibuilding campus-style arrangement pump supply conductor must be inde-
FLA X 125% = 85.5 amps with feeders and distribution radials/loops pendent of other wiring and protected
will require the distribution transformers to from damage. As this is relevant only to
Transformer V x amps x 1.73 feed additional loads. For these situations, cables outside of the fire pump room, it
=
size (kVA) 1000 distribution transformers are allowed. The typically applies only to the conductors
transformer is still required to be sized for run from the standby generator. When
Transformer 480 x 85.5 x 1.73
= 125% of the fire pump motors and jockey run through the building, the conduc-
size 1000
pump, and 100% of the remaining loads, tors must:
Transformer including the non-fire pump loads. The n Be encased in a minimum of 2 in.
= 71 kVA
size overcurrent devices may be set as nor- of concrete, or
mally required by the code (NEC Table n Be protected by a dedicated fire
The next standard transformer size is 450.3(A) and Table 450.3(B)), and must rated assembly, listed to achieve a
75 kVA. be set for indefinite time for LRC of all of minimum fire resistance rating of
Next let’s look at what size overcurrent the fire pump motors, LRC of the jockey 2 hrs, or
protective device is allowed, but remem- pump, FLA of the associated fire pump n Have a 2-hr fire rating by using a
ber only on the primary side. From Exam- accessory equipment, and 100% of the listed electrical circuit protective
ple 1 we know that the sum of the LRC is remaining loads. system.
388 amps. This needs to be converted to
the primary side of the transformer. Conductor protection The conductors directly feeding the
The conductors feeding the fire pump fire pump from the controller, includ-
Transformer 480 V LRC at system from a utility or on-site power ing the control wiring, must be installed
4160 V side = x production facility must be protected in rigid metal conduit, intermediate
4160 V 480 V
protection
from a building fire as well. They must metal conduit, electrical metallic tub-
Transformer 480 V 388 be installed outside the building until ing, liquid-tight flexible metal, liquid-
= x they enter the fire pump room. When tight flexible nonmetallic conduit Type
size (kVA) 4160 V amps
they are installed indoors, the cables LFNC-B, listed Type MC cable with an
Transformer are still permitted within the building impervious covering, or Type MI cable.
= 44.7 amps
size when they meet NEC section 230.6, New to the 2014 NEC is a requirement

www.csemag.com Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014 43

 Power for fire pumps
Example 4
You may have noticed that
the conductor size for the fire
pump system feeder of previ-
ous examples has not been cal-
culated yet. So let’s determine
the conductor sizes required
to feed the fire pump system.
We’ll assume that equipment
terminals are 75 C and the
distance from the transform-
er to the controller is 200 ft.
First, we must determine the
minimum cable ampacity. If
you remember, the ampacity
is based on the FLA, not the
LRC. We’ve already calcu-
lated this value in Example
3. The sum of FLA x 125%
was 85.5 amps. So, from
NEC Table 310.15(B)(16), a
THWN #3 AWG copper cable
is sufficient, until we look at
Figure 4: This is a typical jockey pump motor and voltage drop.
controller. Where the jockey pump is fed from the For the voltage drop, the
fire pump supply, it must be considered in the load NEC requires two calcula-
calculations. Courtesy: Stanley Consultants tions: one requiring a max
drop of 15% during motor
that a listed type of termination for the starting conditions, and another during
cable be used. Twist-on and soldered running conditions requiring 5% at 115%
wire connectors are no longer permit- of FLA. The basic voltage drop equation is
ted. below. (This neglects inductance).
While the overcurrent protection to the For motor starting conditions, the current
fire pumps is sized indefinitely at LRC, was calculated in Example 1 as 388 amps.
the conductors feeding the fire pump are
required to be sized at a minimum for 1.73 x K x L x I
125% of the fire pump motors and the 3-phase Vd =
Cmils
jockey pump plus 100% of the associated
fire pump equipment. Of course this is the Cross sectional
Where: Cmils =
minimum, as the impedance in the cables area of conductor
due to long runs must also be considered.
Voltage drop in
The voltage drop at the incoming (line) Vd =
Volts
terminals to the fire pump controller has
to be less than 15% during starting con- Current in
I =
ditions. The voltage drop during running conductor (amps)
conditions at the outgoing (load) termi- One way length of
L =
nals of the controller has to be less than conductor
5%, and this is required to be calculated
Resistance in Ohms
at 115% of the FLA. This is a change
for 1 Cmil foot of
from the 2011 code, which required the K = wire (for copper this
voltage drop to be calculated at the motor is 12.9 Ohms at
terminals. 75 C)
44 Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014
1.73 x 12.9 x 200 x 388
Cmils =
460 x 0.15
Cmils = 25,099
Per NEC Chapter 9, Table 8, a #3 AWG
cable is 56,620 Cmils and is sufficient.
The second calculation is for 5% max
voltage drop at 115% FLA.
1.73 x 12.9 x 200 x 68.4 x1.15
Cmils =
460 x 0.05
Cmils = 15,265
Again, a #3 AWG cable is sufficient.
Therefore, a #3 AWG conductor will be
used to supply the fire pump system.
F i n a l l y, w h a t s i z e g r o u n d c o n -
ductor is required? This is based
on the upstream OCPD, equivalent
to 400 amps, requiring a #3 AWG
c o p p e r c o n d u c t o r p e r N E C Ta b l e
250.122.
These examples have provided
some insight into the basic design
process of providing power to fire
pumps. As we’ve seen, NEC 695 and
NFPA 20 are critical to understanding
the concepts behind providing power
to fire pumps. Be sure to determine
up front what the local jurisdictional
requirements are, review your design
in accordance with the standards,
and then coordinate your design with
the local AHJ. The uniqueness of
designing power for fire pumps will
be challenging at first. Keep in mind
that when your design is operating,
you will be providing life-sustaining
protection to victims of fire as well
as those men and women risking their
lives to stop the fire and rescue the
victims.
Ernest E. Leaf is a senior electrical engi-
neer at Stanley Consultants. He has 18
years of experience designing electrical
power distribution systems for universi-
ties and airports, including numerous fire
pump motor installations.
www.csemag.com
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input #17 at www.csemag.com/information

 The history and mystery of the
Neher-McGrath formula
In its abbreviated form, the Neher-McGrath formula appears straightforward.
For electrical engineers, it must be carefully reviewed and used.
BY TIMOTHY L. LINENBRINK, PE, North American Engineering PLLC, Richland, Wash.

A
while back, a col-
Learning league brought up
objectives a problem that had
 Learn the scientific basis occurred on a $100 mil-
for the Neher-McGrath for- lion industrial project. A few
mula. months after plant turnover,
 Understand how to use the several feeder breakers start-
Neher-McGrath formula to ed tripping. There are few
find conductor ampacity.
things that will cost an electri-
 Appreciate factors that can
cal engineer more sleep than
impact accuracy.
random breaker operations.
After considerable consterna- Figure 2: The NEC allows, under engineering
tion, the under-slab feeders supervision, the use of an abbreviated form of
were pulled out and found to Neher and McGrath’s cable rating equation. But
have heat damaged insulation. correctly applying it requires understanding the
The cables had been sized per assumptions and simplifications that are buried
National Elec- within. Courtesy: North American Engineering
trical Code
(NEC) Article 310 and the temperature above the insulation’s
there wasn’t any over- thermal limit. Overheating degraded
loading, so what was the the insulation; add a little moisture, and
problem? breakers start opening.
The cause is an object In hindsight the cable ratings should
lesson we could all learn have been adjusted for the actual tem-
from: You can not blindly perature in which they were expected to
apply the NEC tables to operate. Article 310.15 of the NEC points
determine cable ampacity. this out and provides the Neher-McGrath
The installation and oper- formula as the engineered solution for
ating conditions must be doing so.
considered. In its abbreviated form, Neher-McGrath
Figure 1: The NEC tables cannot always be used to Located above the slab appears straightforward (see Figure 2).
determine cable ampacity. The number of ducts, their were a series of industrial The devil is in the details. Tc is readily
proximity, and site-specific conditions combine to make furnaces. The cables’ available from product data; an Rdc value
ampacity calculations a complex undertaking. Here we Joule (I 2
R) losses, com- (not necessarily the correct value) is avail-
see a duct bank being installed free of interfering heat bined with heat radiating able from published sources, but what
sources. Courtesy: Stokes Electric of Central Florida Inc. through the slab, elevated about the other factors? Is the ΔTd sig-

46 Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014 www.csemag.com

nificant? What if there is an external heat
source affecting the installation? What if
a complex cable type is used? While the
NEC version of Neher-McGrath appears
straightforward, finding the right param-
eters that accompany it is not.
If a cable of complex construction is
used (see Figure 10), the rating equation
takes the form of Figure 3.
In practice the terms “conductor” and
“cable” are used interchangeably. For
clarity the term “conductor,” as used
here, indicates the current-carrying part
of a cable. The term “cable” refers to a
complete assembly, for example, conduc-
tors, filler, insulation, jacket, armor, serv-
ing, and so on.
Adapted from Ander’s, Rating of Figure 4: The underlying principle of Neher-McGrath is the Kennelly Hypothesis.
Electric Power Cables, ΔT is the temper- Developed by Arthur E. Kennelly in 1893, its premise is that the temperature rise at
ature rise over ambient, Wd the dielectric any point can be predicted based on the heat produced, the heat absorbed, the ambi-
heating, Ri the thermal resistances, n the ent temperature, and the intervening thermal resistivities. Courtesy: North American
number of conductors, Rac the ac resis- Engineering
tance, and λ i the loss ratios for armor
and shielding. History of Neher-McGrath Carnegie Institute and a founding mem-
Labeling Neher and McGrath’s work a John Hutchins Neher (1899–1973) and ber of the AIEE Insulated Conductors
“formula” implies ampacity problems can Martin Hager McGrath (1902–1980) did Committee, was vice president and chief
be solved algorithmically; provide a few not have an epiphany when they wrote engineer of the General Cable Corp. In
inputs, crank through some calculations, their 1957 paper, “The Calculation of the 1962 he arranged for then competitor
and out pops an answer. Their paper does Temperature Rise and Load Capability of Anaconda Wire and Cable (General Cable
not provide an algorithm; ampacity prob- Cable Systems.” They had worked with acquired Anaconda Wire and Cable in
lems cannot be solved by plug-and-chug. a cadre of engineers on the problem for 1999) to develop the first set of ampac-
Neher and McGrath’s work is a body decades; the significance of their con- ity tables on an IBM 650—tables that
of knowledge, some aspects of which tribution was in compiling the collected became AIEE Special Publication S-135,
are applicable to an installation, some knowledge as it stood at the time. Power Cable Ampacities, a forerunner of
are not. Equations like those above must Neher, a 1921 graduate of Princeton, IEEE 835, Standard Power Cable Ampac-
be considered case-specific; as presented was a senior engineer with the Philadel- ity Tables.
they include assumptions and simplifica- phia Electric Co. A Navy Commander Neher and McGrath’s goal was to
tions that affect the validity of any calcu- during WWII, he served in London work- develop something the practicing engi-
lated result. ing on the use of radar to find U-boats. neering could use with the computing
He was made a Fel- tools available at the time. For most
low of the American engineers that was the slide rule. This
Institute of Elec- was no easy task considering that in
trical Engineers their lifetimes published ampacities
(AIEE), now the varied widely. AWG #1/0 copper, for
Figure 3: The rating equation becomes more compli- Institute of Electri- example, had values ranging from 71
cated depending on the installation, the application, and cal and Electronics to 372 amps.
the cable used. When dielectric effects and shield losses Engineers (IEEE), (In full disclosure, Neher and McGrath
are factors, Anders’ equation is more applicable. (Based in 1957 for his con- also dealt with conductors in air, a topic
on the discussion in “Rating of Electric Power Cables: tributions in both which will not be discussed here. Inter-
Ampacity Computations for Transmission, Distribution, cable heating and ested readers are directed to IEEE Std
and Industrial Applications” by George Anders.) Cour- protective relaying. 738-2006, IEEE Standard for Calculating
tesy: North American Engineering McGrath, a 1924 the Current-Temperature of Bare Over-
graduate of the head Conductors.)

www.csemag.com Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014 47

 Neher-McGrath formula
The Kennelly hypothesis A heat source, +qc, is buried at a depth
Arthur E. Kennelly (1861-1939) was Lb in uniform soil (constant ambient tem-
one contemporary Neher and McGrath perature, constant thermal resistivity,
drew on. His research on ampacity was a etc.). Heat will migrate from the source
de facto standard until 1938 when Samuel to all points of lower temperature by con-
J. Rosch, an employee of Anaconda Wire duction (and by convection and radiation
and Cable working under the auspices of if enclosed in a pipe or conduit containing
National Electrical Manufacturers Asso- air). If the heat sink is treated as a single
ciation (NEMA), produced what became point, -qc, represented by the reflected
the NEC ampacity tables, which were in image of the source, the temperature rise
use until the 1980s. can be found from the difference in the
Aside from working on other topics, two heat flows.
Kennelly developed the hypothesis that A relatively simple design problem
underlies Neher-McGrath: The movement (Figure 5) helps to put Neher-McGrath’s
of heat through a cable system’s thermal work in context; the objective being to
resistances will cause a temperature rise. find the cable system’s current carrying
Treat the cable system as an infinitely capacity. (This example was not chosen
long, cylindrical heat source buried at randomly; NEC Annex B and IEEE 835
some depth in a uniform medium, and the values are used so the results can be com-
temperature rise at any point—be it the pared to published values, an important
surface of a cable, interior of a duct, or verification and validation step.)
any other point—can be predicted. This For underground cable systems, deter-
is shown graphically and mathematically mining ampacity involves five elements:
in Figure 4.
1. Defining the
installation
2. Finding the
conductor’s ac
resistance at the
desired operating
temperature
3. Determining the
thermal resis-
tances of each
element
4. Calculating the
total effective
thermal resis-
tance
5. Computing the
cable’s ampacity.
Inputs and design
Figure 5: For the design example, a three-way underground parameters
duct bank consists of 4-in. ducts encased in concrete and This problem is for
buried 36 in. below the earth’s surface. Neher-McGrath an industrial cable duct
uses approximations and empirical factors to reduce such operating at 480 V. It
systems to a cylindrical equivalent heat source and cylindri- consists of three poly-
cal layers of thermal resistances. The calculations require vinyl chloride (PVC)
understanding the factors and approximations that are valid conduits embedded in
and those that are not for each installation. Courtesy: North a concrete duct bank
American Engineering 11.5 in. tall and 27 in.
48 Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014
Figure 6: Fundamental to calculating
ampacity is the “buildup” of the cable.
Typical low-voltage cables are made of
stranded conductors covered by a layer
of insulation with a nylon jacket. Cour-
tesy: North American Engineering
wide, buried 36 in. below the earth’s sur-
face. Three parallel sets of equally loaded,
single-core, 75 C, 500 kcmil aluminum
cables form the circuit. The ambient tem-
perate of the earth is 20 C. The thermal
resistivity of the earth, insulation, conduit,
and concrete are taken as 120, 450, 600,
and 55 C-cm/W, respectively.
The cable buildup (Figure 6) consists
of a 0.813 in. diameter, multi-strand alu-
minum conductor with 95 mils (0.095
in.) polyethylene (PE) insulation under a
nylon jacket. (Insulation thicknesses are
from IEEE 835.)
Assuming no interfering sources, the
only heat production is by the conductor’s
I2R losses.
Temperature rise due to dielectric
heating, ΔTp, is ignored. Per the NEC,
dielectric heating is negligible for volt-
ages below 44 kV. As shown in Figure 7,
dielectric losses are less than 0.5 W/ft at
that voltage and virtually zero at 480 V.
A helpful technique is to think of the
installation as a thermal circuit (Figure
8): a rationalization justified by Ohm’s
Law being analogous to Fourier’s Law,
electrical resistance equivalent to thermal
resistance, electrical potential (voltage)
being on par with thermal potential (tem-
perature change), and charge flow (cur-
rent) being synonymous with heat flow.
Viewing it in this way emphasizes the
elements included and allows the prob-
lem to be solved using circuit analysis
techniques. (This approach was advanced
by Donald L. Simons in the 1920s, and is
detailed Anders’ texts.)
www.csemag.com
 Figure 8: Reducing the physical installation to an equivalent
thermal circuit is the accepted practice for modeling under-
ground cable installations. If the only heat is from the Joule
losses, the thermal circuit reduces to a single source and with
the thermal resistivities connected in series. Elementary circuit
analysis techniques can then be used to find the temperature
rise, ΔT. Courtesy: North American Engineering

Figure 7: For voltages less than 44 kV, the NEC ignores heating
due to dielectric effects, justifiable since below this voltage the
losses are less than 0.5 W/ft. The dielectric effect was modeled
in MathCAD Prime 3.0 and the heat loss plotted for voltages
from 0.480 to 110 kV. Courtesy: North American Engineering

ac conductor resistance The work of

A precursor to finding the cable’s
ampacity is finding the conductor’s ac
resistance at the operating temperature,
or more precisely the factors that con-
stitute ac resistance, that is, skin and
proximity effects.
From Southerwire’s Power Cable
Manual, the dc resistance of stranded
aluminum, at a base temperature of 25
C, is 35.4 μΩ/ft. The corresponding 25
C temperature coefficient of aluminum
is 0.00395 K -1. Referring to the accom-
panying worksheet—related equations
indicated parenthetically—the dc resis-
tance by (2.1) at an operating tempera-
ture of 75 C is 42.392 μΩ/ft.
ac resistance is found by adjusting
the dc value by the skin effect at 60 Hz
and the proximity effect of all cables.
Using an approximation for the Bessel
function, the skin effect coefficient is
found by (2.2) and (2.3). Similarly, the
proximity effect coefficient is found
from (2.5) through (2.8). k s and k p
are factors related to the arrangement
and coating of the conductor strands;
their values are available in published
sources.
Equation (2.9) is the Y c factor in
Neher-McGrath. The total ac resistance
is found from (2.10).
(2.1) through Figure 9: The literature uses differing forms for many of the equa-
(2.10) can be tions. Here an example from Neher and McGrath on the left is
avoided by substi- contrasted with the equivalent metric form used by Anders on the
tuting published right. The two are equivalent, but not obviously so without some
ac resistance unit and exponential manipulation. Courtesy: North American
values, but care Engineering
must be exercised
to ensure that the right temperature- A complication in these calculations is
corrected resistance, skin, and proxim- the mix of British Imperial (U.S. Cus-
ity factors are used. tomary) and metric units: Lengths and
thicknesses are in inches, temperatures
Thermal resistances in Celsius and Kelvin, thermal resistances
Thermal resistance, the inverse of in Thermal-Ohm-Feet, and so on. As a
thermal conductivity, is the property demonstration consider (Figure 9) two
that restricts heat flow and causes tem- seemingly different, albeit similar, equa-
perature rise. In this example, there are tions are in fact—once conversion factors
five layers of material (cable insulation, and identities applied—the same.
the medium in the duct, the duct wall, Cable insulation thermal resistance:
the concrete duct bank, and the soil) that In this example, using three single con-
impede heat transfer. (The concrete and ductor cables in a triangular configura-
soil get treated concurrently in one com- tion, the thermal resistance of the insu-
plex sequence.) lation is found by (3.2). Equation (3.2)
In 1951 John Neher observed in his applies to single conductor cables only.
paper “The Determination of Tempera- If there were multiple insulation layers,
ture Transients in Cable Systems by (3.2) would have to be repeated for each
Means of Analogue Computer”: layer. If the cable was armored, or includ-
“The [ampacity] calculation … is a ed skid wires, or used metal tape (Figure
relatively simple matter; the only diffi- 10), the additional thermal resistances
culty experienced is that of determining would have to be accounted for and the
the proper thermal constants for the com- additional heating due to ferromagnetic
ponents of the thermal circuit.” effects would have to be included.

www.csemag.com Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014 49

 Neher-McGrath formula
Figure 10: Ampacity calculations for
complex cables like this one are more
involved due to the layers of material,
filler materials, and the additional heat-
ing caused by the magnetic induction of
the skid wires. Courtesy: ABB
Two- and three-core cables require
equations with a geometric factor, Gb. For
a three-core cable (3.2) would be:
Equations for Gb were developed by
Mie, Russell, and Simons but are fairly
involved; Anders provides a thorough
discussion of their makeup. Curves for
finding Gb are given in Simons’ Calcu-
lation of the Electrical Problems of the
Transmission by Underground Cables,
Standard Underground Cable Company,
Pittsburgh, 1925; in British Standard
BS7769-2-2.1; and in Anders.
Lastly, the nylon jacket is ignored. Nylon
has a thermal resistivity up to 830 C-cm/W.
Low-voltage cables have very thin jackets,
on the order of 10 to 50 mils, contributing
less than 0.5 Thermal-Ohm-Foot.
Duct medium: The thermal resistance
of the air in the duct is not insignificant,
amounting to 25% of the thermal circuit.
Ignoring it overstates ampacity by 16%.
The equation for determining it (3.5)
is unlike any of the others, and needs
explaining.
Within the duct itself, heat transfer is
by conduction, convection, and radia-
tion. Assuming everything is linear and
the principle of superposition applies, we
could just add the three together. How-
ever, combining all three heat transfer
equations crates a differential equation
without an analytic solution.
50 Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014
Neher, working in conjunction with a
General Electric engineer named Fran-
cis H. Buller, published a separate paper,
“The Thermal Resistances Between
Cables and a Surrounding Pipe or Duct
Wall,” in 1949 that developed an approxi-
mation approach to this part of the prob-
lem. Rearranging the terms in the com-
pound differential equation and plotting
the experimental data on duct tempera-
tures, they observed that the temperature
rise (of the medium in the duct) against
the thermal resistivity approximates a
straight line. Treating it as such, they
extracted A, B, and C from the slopes
and intercepts.
The values of A, B, and C, along with
the multiplier to find D’s, vary with the
cable type and lay. For the various con-
figurations, see Table VII in Neher and
McGrath’s paper.
n in this equation is not always n; Neher
and McGrath use the variable in differ-
ent contexts and their intent is not always
clear. Sometimes n is the total number
of ducts, sometimes the total number of
cables in the system, and sometimes the
total number of cables in the ducts. When
this ambiguity arises, clarity can be found
by asking, “How many heat-producing
cables are in this particular part of the
problem?” The answer is the value of
n. Here it is 3, the number of energized
cables within a single duct.
Per Kennelly, heat sources are reduced
to a single, equivalent, cylindrical source.
Within the duct this cylinder has the
diameter circumscribing all three cables,
hence the geometric adjustment D’s. A
similar situation arises in making the rect-
angular duct bank appear round.
Tm is the assumed mean temperature of
the air in the duct; Neher and McGrath
use 60 C. This may come from the IEEE
forerunner, the American Institute of
Electrical Engineers AIEE standardiza-
tion rules for the maximum allowed tem-
perature of natural rubber insulation, but
that is an inference from the literature.
An alternate approach is to assume any
air temperature, solve for the current in
the cables, determine the heat produced,
and iterate until a constant air tempera-
ture is achieved. Experience shows a
solution converges in less than 10 itera-
tions if 60 C is used (Figure 11), or 15
iterations if starting at the ambient soil
temperature, Ta.
Duct wall thermal resistance: PVC
conduit is the duct running through the
bank. Its thermal resistance is factored
in even though the contribution is on the
order of 1.0 Thermal-Ohm-Feet. If steel
conduit was used, a value of 1.0 could
be assumed.
In (3.6) Neher and McGrath substitute
a “thin-wall approximation” to find Rd; n
has the same value as before. (The thin-
wall approximation exploits linearity of
logarithms for numbers on the order of
1.001, 1.002, etc. In cases where the ratio
on the duct’s outer-to-inner diameter is
of this order, the approximation works.)
Concrete duct bank and earth ther-
mal resistance: Neher and McGrath’s
way of finding the thermal resistance
Figure 11: When an iterative approach
is used to find the temperature in the
duct, the temperature converges to a
steady-state solution in less than 10
iterations if a starting temperature of 60
C is used, or 15 iterations starting with
the ambient temperature. A program was
developed to calculate cable ampacity by
Neher-McGrath, determine the resulting
Joule losses, and then the temperature
in the duct (Tm). The process was then
repeated, substituting the new value of
Tm, until it became constant. Courtesy:
North American Engineering
www.csemag.com
of the concrete duct bank and the soil
is complicated. Included are load cycle
effects, a cylindrical equivalent duct
bank, and the mutual heating of all
cables. They find the thermal resistance
by assuming concrete throughout then
adjusting for the soil, a counterintuitive
approach compared to the other elements.
Load cycles
The load cycle effects show up twice:
in the form of a fictitious diameter, Dx,
and a corresponding loss factor, LF.
The fictitious diameter, D x , is an
assumed distance at which the effect of
load changes commences. For continuous
loading, a fictitious diameter must still
be found.
Dx is dependent on α, the soil thermal
diffusivity and the duration of the load
cycle. Equation (3.7) is the modern form
for α and not the one used by Neher and
McGrath. For continuous loading, the
load cycle is 24 hours.
Due to an odd choice of symbols and
an unconventional choice of terms, the
loss-load factors can be a source of con-
fusion. The loss factor LF is dependent
on a daily loss cycle having a load factor
lf. The latter is a percentage of the cable
systems daily loading. LF is found from:
For continuous loading lf would be 1.0,
making LF 1.0 as well. (“Load factor”
should not be confused with “demand
factor”; both are related to cyclical load-
ing but their application is different.)
Historically, the loss-load factors were
included for underground utility systems.
Utilities optimize their underground plant
by trying to operate near the thermal lim-
its. In 1953 the AIEE sponsored a sym-
posium on how to include load cycles in
cable ampacity, but no real consensus
emerged. Four years later Neher and
McGrath published their paper and this
equation became de facto.
The use of any loss factor is a matter
of engineering judgment and unique to
each installation.
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Neher and McGrath derive another
geometric factor, also called Gb, based on
the burial depth and radius of an equiva-
lent round duct bank. This is derived
from (3.10) through (3.12), where x1 is
always the short dimension and y1 the
long dimension. The equivalency is valid
for y 1/x 1 being less than 3. (For other
ratios, El-Kady and Horruck developed
an alternate form of Gb and published it in
“Extended Values for Geometric Factors
of External Thermal Resistance of Cables
in Duct Banks.”)
A very critical element is F, the mutual
heating factor, a multiplier directly relat-
ed to the Kennelly Hypothesis. The effect
of the hottest duct and its reflected image
is taken as 1. The effect of the other ducts
and their images are proportional to their
locations relative to the hottest duct.
Because of the former, (3.17) will always
have 1 term less than the number of ducts.
The ratios are the distance between the
hottest duct’s center and a duct’s reflected
image, divided by the axial separation of
the hottest duct and the corresponding
neighbor (Figure 12).
In simple situations the hottest duct can
be identified by inspection; in complex con-
figurations it may be necessary to calculate
all possible values of F and use the largest
found. F increases geometrically with the
number of ducts; it tends to dominate (3.18).
Referring back to n is not always n, it
is worth pointing out that n here is the
number of cables in one duct and N is the
number of ducts in the cable system. De is
the diameter in contact with the concrete
(if a duct bank is used) or the earth (if
direct buried conduit or cable is used). If
there is no duct bank (3.19) reduces to:
with ρe substituted for ρc, and n becoming
n’ = n×N.
It would be an omission not to pause
and discuss ρ; primarily, ρe and ρc.
As long as cable engineers have been
arguing over ampacity, they have been
Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014
Figure 12: The mutual heating of all the
cables is a dominant factor in ampacity
calculations. The mutual heating effect
factor, F, for a three-duct system is found
from the ratios of the distances between
each duct and its reflected image. Cour-
tesy: North American Engineering
arguing over soil resistivity. As Conrad
Bauer, a Commonwealth Edison cable
engineer, observed about calculations
and thermal resistivities at an AIEE con-
ference, “To date we have not been able
to match field tests […], without first
introducing known answers and work-
ing backwards…”
Soil considerations
For insulation and conduit the ther-
mal resistivity of the material is readily
available from the manufacturer or pub-
lished sources. However, NEC Annex B
provides some rather specific values for
earth and concrete without elaboration.
The 1920s and ‘30s produced a lot of
field research on soil resistivity. Taken as
a whole, one can conclude: 1) ρe varies
a lot between locations, and 2) ρe drifts
over time. The latter is especially true
where heat causes moisture migration
or in sandy soils that undergo cycles of
saturation and drying.
In the example, underestimating the
value of ρe by 25% will overstate cable
ampacity by 9%.
Similarly, the American Concrete
Institute’s Guide to Thermal Proper-
ties of Concrete and Masonry Systems
observes that the thermal resistivity of
concrete depends on the aggregate used.
Values of ρc can range from 8 C-cm/W
51
 Neher-McGrath formula
to 111 C-cm/W. However, the effect on
ampacity is small; the worst-case error
changing ampacity by 3%.
The simple fact is ρ can only be found
by measuring it.
A basis for the ambient soil temperature
also is needed. This can be done by long-
term measurement (a luxury rarely avail-
able) or by consulting research sources.
For example, Pacific Northwest National
Laboratories has extensive soil tempera-
ture measurement histories (Table 3.15).
It may be reasonable to infer soil tempera-
ture from the frost depth, a data source
being the National Oceanic and Atmo-
spheric Administration database. Below
the frost depth, soil temperature is unlikely
to ever be less than 0 C.
For the sample installation, a 10 C error
in soil temperature will affect ampacity by
±10%.
Returning to the thermal circuit, the
effective thermal resistance is found by
summing the components:
reducing the circuit to a Thevenin’s equiv-
alent from which the cable ampacity is
found.
Cable ampacity
Once the dc resistance (at the desired
operating temperature) is known—along
with the skin and proximity effect factors,
the total effective thermal resistance, and
the design temperature—finding cable
ampacity is, as Neher observed, rather
anticlimactic.
Including rounding and truncation
errors, the current carrying capacity of
the cables is found to be 250 amps, cor-
responding to the published value.
If the soil thermal resistivity turned out
to be 77 C-cm/W instead of 120 C-cm/W,
ampacity would increase by 13%; making
a 250 amp circuit a 300 amp one.
It was assumed there are no external
(i.e., interfering) heat sources. If the
ducts ran adjacent to steam lines, as in
the case of some facilities, the additional
heat source’s effect would have to be
included. A calculation similar to (3.2)
52 Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014
Figure 13: A modern approach to find cable ampacity is the finite element method.
Here, the finite element mesh for a two-duct system was developed in Lisa 8.0 (for
clarity, the mesh representing the air in the duct was omitted). The next step is to
solve the heat transfer equations at each node in the mesh using a known set of
boundary conditions. The boundary conditions are a constant temperature at the sur-
face of each conductor and an ambient temperature at the outside edges. Courtesy:
North American Engineering
would be needed to find the temperature been toward numerical methods using a
rise, ΔTinf. combination of boundary element methods
An interfering temperature of 15 C (BEM) and finite element analysis (FEA).
would drop cable ampacity to 223 amps. These techniques allow multi-physics sim-
ulations where both the thermal and electric
Keeping the equation in mind effects can be modeled concurrently. Figure
There is clearly more to Neher-McGrath 13 shows the finite element mesh of a sim-
than meets the eye. The calculations have ple duct installation used for such analysis.
ample opportunities for error and misap- This approach models the physical sys-
plication. Proper use requires keeping in tem at a granular level with each element
mind that: defined by its material properties. Using
 Neher-McGrath is a body of knowl- known boundary conditions, the underlying
edge; engineering judgment is energy conservation laws can be solved to
required. find temperature rise and ampacity values.
 Buried within its equations are The finite element approach makes pos-
assumptions, simplifications, and sible representing the entire installation;
constraints that may or may not transitions and terminations need not be
always be applicable. ignored.
 Neher-McGrath does not consider Today, the Neher-McGrath formula is
harmonics, and assumes balanced the code-accepted practice for determining
phase loading, two omissions that cable ampacity. Certainly no one wants to
can significantly impact operating revisit the acrimony that accompanied its
temperature, ampacity, and cable incorporation into the NEC, but modern
protection. techniques have a great deal to offer over a
method intended for the slide rule.
Computational methods and machines
have progressed considerably in the 45 Timothy L. Linenbrink is a principal
years since Neher and McGrath stopped engineer at North American Engineer-
working on the problem. (Neher retired ing. A 1986 graduate of the University
from Philadelphia Electric in 1966, of Wyoming, he is a licensed professional
McGrath from General Cable in 1969.) engineer in 14 states. He has performed
Today it is doubtful the problem would be engineering, consulting, and project
approached in a pseudo-algorithmic fash- management services for the Naval Sea
ion. Since the early 1980s the trend has Systems Command, Bechtel, and others.
www.csemag.com
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DE-1 Energy codes and lighting

in smart buildings
Successful lighting design in smart buildings can
be achieved in many ways.
BY SHANNA OLSON, LC, MIES

DE-5 Balancing passive,

active fire protection
The International Building Code and NFPA standards provide
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BY KATHLEEN ROACH, CET, CFPS

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www.csemag.com Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014 53

 Energy codes and
lighting in smart buildings
Successful lighting design in smart buildings can be achieved in many ways.
BY SHANNA OLSON, LC, MIES, KJWW Engineering Consultants, Chicago

L
ighting is an integral component of
smart buildings and is one of the
variables that is affected by—and
in some cases drives—a design team’s
decision to follow ASHRAE 90.1-2010
or IECC 2012 energy codes.
In October 2011 the Dept. of Ener-
gy adopted ASHRAE 90.1-2010 as
the national reference standard. Over-
all, ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2010 has
theoretically reduced energy consump-
tion by slightly less than 20% in com-
parison to ASHRAE 90.1-2007. Further,
the federal government mandated that
all states update their energy codes to
meet or exceed ASHRAE 90.1-2010 by
October 2013. While many states have
so far ignored this injunction, a handful

Nature, daylight enhance hospital setting

A dvocate Illinois Masonic Center for Advanced Care (CAC) is located is employed to manage the lighting within these areas. Dimming daylight
within the Advocate Illinois Masonic Medical Center campus in sensors balance motorized shades with luminaires to provide appropriate
Chicago’s Lake View community. This 162,000-gross-sq-ft addition is light levels and minimize glare.
under construction and pursing LEED Silver. The CAC is a state-of-the-art Novel solutions were implemented within the building to enrich otherwise
outpatient facility dedicated to ambulatory surgery, digestive health, and potentially dark spaces; a light scoop over a nurse station, for example,
cancer care. Ownership and the design team strived to create a space that bounces natural light from glazing above perimeter patient rooms into the
supports and interacts with the surrounding community. building interior. During evening hours this scoop is vertically illuminated
Enhanced daylighting and daylight harvesting are two of the innovative via integrated cove lighting.
design techniques. One of the programmatic goals A notable decrease in cost of ambient LED
for the project was to bring nature and daylight in PROJECT INFO: luminaires during the design phase resulted in a
to enhance the patient experience. Acting as more  Project: Advocate Illinois Masonic switch to LED (initially fluorescent 2x2-ft and 2x4-
than simple visual architectural elements, the build- Center for Advanced Care ft) in the addition (as well as campus wide), further
ing’s external sun shades, tuned to the solar cycle  Architect: SmithGroupJJR reducing the already low lighting power density.
of the Chicago area, maximize the optical qualities  MEP and architectural lighting: KJWW The team followed IECC 2012 to meet energy
of daylight while minimizing the thermal load of the Engineering Consultants code; however, in pursuit of LEED for Healthcare
sun. The curvilinear forms reduce incident solar  Energy code: IECC 2012 (and ASHRAE 2009, all considerations of ASHRAE 90.1-2007
radiation, direct solar heat gain, and reduce glare 90.1-2007 for LEED) also were implemented. The total lighting power
while simultaneously reinforcing the architecture. density is approximately 0.75 W/sq ft, allowing this
Equally important is how the building and its systems interact within the project to achieve nearly 40% better performance than IECC 2012 minimum.
community context. Energy efficiency is dramatically increased while light Furthermore, the project was created using an integrated project design
trespass is negated through the design team’s careful selection of all LED (IPD) approach. This methodology partners the design and construction teams
exterior luminaires. from the onset, enhancing communication and efficiency and optimizing
The building’s entrance lobby and “main street” corridor are grand, volu- the design and construction over the project’s duration. Design charettes
minous spaces, yet architectural forms create interactive spaces that bring between all parties generated interactive discussions on programmatic
an intimate, human scale to a large space. LED downlights, uplights, and goals and budget restrictions. This high level of collaboration led the way
slots, as well as fluorescent coves and grazers, subtly highlight surfaces and to the creation of an on-budget, sustainable environment that supports and
planes. A 0 to 10 V network dimming control system with software front-end enhances health and wellness.

DE-1 Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014 www.csemag.com


has already complied and several more
are expected to follow within the next
year. The majority of these states have
adopted International Energy Conserva-
tion Code (IECC) 2012 with an alternate
to follow ASHRAE 90.1-2010.
Both IECC 2012 and ASHRAE 90.1-
2010 include significant changes to the
lighting sections compared to previous
versions, including but not limited to
the scope, lighting power density, and
controls requirements. While IECC and
ASHRAE are similar in overall intent,
small differences exist. Many design-
ers believe that IECC may be a less
expensive design alternative, and cer-
tainly the lighting sections uphold that
theory. For example, ASHRAE is more
stringent in regard to scope as well as
lighting controls. However, it may offer
greater flexibility in other areas such as
lighting power density in combination
with the related allowances.
A design team typically considers up
to four criteria when choosing a code
to follow.
1. Will all disciplines be able to meet
the code requirements? For example, the
building envelope section of IECC 2012
may be too stringent or the mechanical
requirements too unrealistic. Converse-
ly, the receptacle control requirements
under ASHRAE 90.1-2010 may be
unamenable to a client.
2. Is the project new construction or
an alteration? Compared to ASHRAE
90.1-2010, IECC 2012 appears less
stringent in the lighting section for
existing buildings than new. For exam-
ple, the lighting scope for alterations
is much tighter in ASRHAE 90.1-2010
than IECC 2012. Under ASHRAE 90.1-
2010, lamp plus ballast replacement is
considered an alteration, whereas under
IECC 2012 it is considered maintenance.
3. Will the project benefit from the
allowances and exemptions offered by one
code or the other? For example, in ASHRAE
90.1-2010, retail spaces are exempt from the
daylight harvesting requirements.
www.csemag.com
Pedestrian walkway gets lighting upgrade
T his 22,000-sq-ft lobby renovation in the heart of Chicago connects two buildings and a
hotel; about 60,000 pedestrians walk through its doors each day. Programmatic require-
ments included creating a clean, contemporary aesthetic that enhances pedestrians’ wayfind-
ing. Energy and maintenance reduction as well as long-term flexibility were equally essential.
Rich, mahogany-toned wood and live bamboo planters balance the
broad spans of warm white stone. A wood screen wall provides PROJECT INFO:
a visual separation and subtle wayfinding between the hotel and  Project: River North Point
office lobbies.  Architect: Perkins+Will
The lighting design uses only LED lamp sources, with the excep-  MEP, technology, structural and
architectural lighting: KJWW
tion of linear high performance T8 (HPT8) fluorescent wall washers Engineering Consultants
and ceramic metal halide (CMH) adjustable heads for plant lighting.  Energy code: IECC 2012
Square LED downlights with varying lumen output provide cohesion
and exemplify the clean aesthetic of the space. After a mockup, 3000 K color temperature was
selected to amplify the perception of warmth and comfort. The bamboo, however, required 4000
K to maximize growth, and the design team chose to use both color temperatures. This differential
also allows the planters to pop. LED multi-head luminaires demarcate seating areas, while LED
linear grazing and cove luminaires enhance the wood screen wall and heighten columns.
At the coffee kiosk, lower-lumen square downlights and LED edge-lit signage create a composi-
tion of elements. Continuing this theme, LED decorative-lensed downlights and mini LED cove
lights are used in conjunction with wood paneling to wrap the escalators.
The lighting power density is less than 0.75 W/sq ft and beats IECC 2012 by more than 30%.
This project used a DALI-based intelligent control system, which was augmented with daylight
and occupancy sensors. By providing an advanced lighting system, the project will not only save
significant energy, but will minimize maintenance and increase flexibility and long-term func-
tionality. The addressable nature of the selected control system enables the creation of various
lighting scenes, which allows this multifunctional space to be used in several ways and enables
the building owner to reprogram as needs change. During commissioning, this flexibility was used
at several stages, modifying scenes and adjusting the light levels. In the long run, this system will
serve to reduce energy while adding wayfinding, flexibility, and functionality.
Figure 1: This rendering shows River North Point, a 22,000-sq-ft renovation of a
lobby that connects two buildings and a hotel in the heart of Chicago.
Courtesy: Perkins+Will
4. Is U.S. Green Building Council many ways this can act like a mini design
LEED certification being pursued? LEED charrette to accelerate early communication.
2009 follows ASHRAE 2007, while Extraordinary advancements in lighting
LEED v4 follows ASHRAE 90.1-2010. technology also affect the way a project
meets or exceeds the code, particularly
Ultimately the decision to follow IECC in smart buildings. The LED market has
2012 or ASHRAE 90.1-2010 is based on a boomed in the past 7 years, providing
cost and design implication breakdown. In more cost-effective, efficacious, and aes-
Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014 DE-2
 Smart building lighting
thetically pleasing solutions. At the same
time, many linear fluorescent lamps have
made significant strides in their lamp life,
in some cases more than tripling the stan-
dard fluorescent lamp life.
The lighting controls market likewise
has grown. It is becoming routine to
provide a building-wide network con-
trol system. A broad variety of control
protocols are available and selection is
typically based on lamp choice, program-
matic requirements, and budget. Many
spec-grade LED luminaires come stan-
dard with 0 to 10 V dimming drivers.
Thus, 0 to 10 V dimming control has
made a resurgence. For high-performing
buildings, digital control protocols are
frequently selected; two of the more
common are DALI (digital addressable
lighting interface) and DMX (digital
multiplex).
On a smaller scale and often because of
code requirements, many occupancy sen-
sors are being set to function as vacancy
sensors or 50% occupancy sensors, under
which the luminaires will still shut off auto-
matically. When using a vacancy sensor, a
manual control is required to turn on the
lighting. However, the 50% occupancy sen-
sors allow up to half of all lamps or 50%
illumination to come on automatically.
Exterior lighting controls also have
made substantial improvements. Integrat-
ed occupancy sensors, photocells, time
clocks, and dimming are becoming com-
mon place, depending on the lamp source.

Car dealership illuminates lighting design

T he DP Fox Ford and Lincoln dealership on Chicago’s north side their lumen output by 30%. This will allow for continued advertisement
bridges sustainability, innovation, and an elegant design with clean while reducing energy.
lines. Beyond energy reduction, other programmatic requirements The 7,000-sq-ft, double-height volume interior vehicle showroom is
include providing interior and exterior environments that increase divided into two distinct showrooms for brand separation. The showroom
sales, marry the needs of two dealerships into one aesthetic, minimize includes a 22-ft-high open-angled ceiling that presented a number of
maintenance, and are within budget. design challenges. Extended-life T5HO fluorescent slot fixtures create
This 150,000-sq-ft project is under construction and pursuing LEED continuity between the two spaces while single- and dual-head CMH
Certification. The interior lighting is just shy of 10% better than ASHRAE adjustable heads provide the needed directional punch. To maximize the
90.1-2010 and the exterior is well over 40% better. ceiling height, the plenum was minimized. This required tight coordination
As with any dealership, the illumination of the vehicle inventory sales among all disciplines and the team took full advantage of the software
parking is critical. Ceramic metal halide (CMH), LED, and even fluorescent tools that Autodesk Revit and Navisworks offer. In adjacent showrooms,
sources were analyzed for the illumination levels, efficacy and W/sq ft, lounges, and new car delivery, LED luminaires were used to balance the
maintenance, control, initial cost, and total lifecycle cost. While LED was higher required energy used in the showroom.
preferred for its maintenance and control options, The project used a 0 to 10 V network dimming
it was significantly cost prohibitive at the preferred PROJECT INFO: control system with software front end. However,
light levels. As an alternate, a high-efficacy CMH pole-  Project: DP Fox Ford and as with many retailers, the programmatic goals
mount with a 0 to 10 V dimming system was used. Lincoln Dealership did not include daylight harvesting in retail areas;
After business hours the luminaires are set to reduce  Architect: Gensler the design team took full advantage of ASHRAE
 MEP, technology and architectural 90.1-2010’s daylight harvesting exception for
lighting: KJWW Engineering Con- retail spaces.
sultants
The new dealership location was selected for
 Energy code: ASHRAE 90.1-2010
(and ASHRAE 90.1-2007 for LEED) its proximity and visibility to the adjacent freeway,
and the dealership was specifically designed to
optimize visibility from a variety of vantage points. Car stackers behind
a high-performing glass curtain wall system at the front of the third
level act as an interactive, large-format advertisement. A slow-moving
dimming control sequence is set up to highlight individual cars amongst
the stackers. To accomplish this, at each stacker level, four vertical track
runs with 12 adjustable heads are provided. The design team initially
considered integral LED track heads for efficacy and punch. However,
with the quickly evolving nature of LEDs and in an effort to reduce cost,
the team chose LED replacement lamps.
The project showcases the new direction of retail. The lighting is an
Figure 2: This rendering shows the DP Fox Ford and Lincoln integral component of the innovative integrated design that highlights
Dealership in Chicago. This 150,000-sq-ft project is under con- an interactive, user-friendly experience while reducing energy and
struction and pursuing LEED Certification. Courtesy: Gensler maintenance.

DE-3 Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014 www.csemag.com

Beyond the lamp source, the selection of
the exterior controls may depend on the
code the project is following, the initial
budget, and programmatic requirements.
These new lamp and controls technolo-
gies, in conjunction with scientific discov-
eries, have given rise to new luminaire aes-
thetics and design concepts. Edge-lit LED
and organic LED (OLED) luminaires have
created luminous planes and floating forms.
New knowledge of how photosensitive reti-
nal ganglion cells interact with the body’s
circadian system has created a field of new
design concepts. Employing color-chang-
ing or dynamic white LED luminaires with
DMX or DALI controls allows the lighting
to change color or tone throughout the day
to enhance circadian rhythms, which may
improve health and well-being. These same
technologies are often applied to wayfind-
ing, with luminaire types or colored light
employed to help occupants move through
a complex building.
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The ever-increasing complexity of
smart building systems and architecture
make it imperative for the design and
construction team as well as ownership
to have open communication and docu-
mented coordination.
Unfortunately, energy and budget goals
and their implications often are not well
understood by all parties.
According to the national commission-
ing manager of one large engineering
firm, both ASHRAE and IECC require
projects to be commissioned to prove
energy performance. The IECC, however,
allows the registered design professional
to commission the HVAC systems but not
the lighting controls. This system must be
commissioned by an independent party,
a requirement that provides another chal-
lenge when determining which code a
project will follow.
Clearly there is no one-size-fits-all
approach to energy codes and lighting in
smart buildings. However, the following
in-process projects illustrate how some
design teams are proceeding. Each project
is employing new luminaire and control
technologies as well as design concepts
to not only meet but go above and beyond
the requirements of the energy code being
followed.
Shanna Olson is Senior Lighting Design-
er for KJWW Engineering Consultants.
She is NCQLP certified and experienced
in creating lighting designs for munici-
pal, health care, educational, commer-
cial, and residential clients.
Read more about lighting, building
integration, and lighting controls
online at: www.csemag.com/archives.
 Energy codes and lighting design
 Integrating lighting design, building envelope
 Lighting control requirements:
What’s current and what to expect
 Save energy by integrating lighting controls,
HVAC systems.
 Balancing passive,
active fire protection
The International Building Code and NFPA standards provide guidance
on passive and active fire protection systems.
By Kathleen Roach, cet, cFPS, Interface Engineering, Portland, Ore.
F
ire protection for buildings and
their occupants consists of various
elements. This is an overview of
the International Building Code’s (IBC)
elements and integration of both passive
and active fire protection to reinforce one
another—and to cover for one another in
case of failure of any one element.
Once a fire has started, its impact is
influenced by previous choices of com-
bustible objects and construction in the
room of origin, which impact the heat
released and the path of the fire along
vertical and horizontal surfaces.
Fire alarm effectiveness can
be hampered by the choice of
inappropriate alarms for the
environmental conditions expected,
which can cause nuisance activation
and ignorance of a real fire event.
For successful control, suppression,
or extinguishment of fires, the active
system, whether it is water, gas, aero-
sol, or foam, relies on containing and
acting on the fire while it is still a man-
ageable size. Once a fire gets beyond
the size for which the active system has
been designed, the active system can
be overwhelmed and ineffective. This
is where the active and passive systems
work together. Passive fire protection
DE-5 Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014
provides the final opportunity to stop
fire and smoke, and is crucial in con-
fining fire to a manageable size for an
active fire protection system to work on.
Active systems
Active systems work to detect, con-
trol, suppress, or extinguish fires.
They rely on an action to trigger their
involvement, either manual, electrical,
or mechanical. A detector needs activa-
tion of a sensor detecting smoke or heat
or flame to send a signal to a notifica-
tion device such as a bell, a horn, or a
strobe to alert occupants and responders
or to send an electronic signal to another
active protection device such as a valve
supplying water or opening a canister of
fire-suppressing gaseous agent. Or, the
detector can send a signal to a releas-
ing device such as fire door closers or
to activate smoke evacuation fans. A
sprinkler needs heat to open it, either 1)
to melt a heat-sensitive solder that then
releases barriers in the sprinkler orifice
and to ready the sprinkler to discharge
water when it is available, or 2) to boil
the fluid in a small glass bulb of the
sprinkler, again releasing orifice barriers
and preparing the sprinkler for water dis-
charge. Manual pull stations can activate
fire alarms notification devices (bells,
horns, strobes, etc.) and releasing devic-
es, clean agent suppression systems, and
some kinds of sprinkler systems.
www.csemag.com
 Fire alarms—Active fire protection,
in the form of fire alarms, tends to acti-
vate first, giving occupants the oppor-
tunity to evacuate and notifying first
responders. Alarms need to be tailored
to the building construction type, con-
figuration, and occupancy use. An analy-
sis of the building elements and hazards
will dictate whether the best protection
can be achieved by ionization or photo-
electric smoke detectors, an air aspirat-
ing very early smoke detection apparatus
(VESDA), or by heat or flame detectors
or optical detection methods. IBC 907
and NFPA 72: National Fire Alarm and
Signaling Code address fire alarms.
Fire alarm effectiveness can be ham-
pered by the choice of inappropriate
alarms for the environmental conditions
expected, which can cause nuisance acti-
vation and ignorance of a real fire event.
The second barrier to effectiveness can
be human behavior—the tendency of
people to ignore the alarm, to decide that
the horns and strobes activating are “not
the real thing,” and to delay evacuation
of the building.
Fire sprinklers—IBC Section 903
and NFPA 13: Standard for the Instal-
lation of Sprinkler Systems address fire
sprinkler systems, which are the most
common form of active fire control and
suppression. Wet pipe sprinkler systems
are the simplest and fastest method of
control. Water filled pipes are ready to Figure 1: This shows dry and wet pipe sprinkler system main risers. All graphics
immediately spray water upon the acti- courtesy: Interface Engineering
vation of each individual sprinkler head,
which activate due to heat. result can be a larger area of fire damage tion systems only discharge water out
Dry pipe sprinkler systems have pipes and more water damage. of individual sprinklers that have opened
filled with compressed air or nitrogen Preaction sprinkler systems also have due to heat. Unlike wet and dry systems,
gas, which holds the clapper on a dry pipes filled with compressed air or nitro- preaction systems are designed to mini-
pipe valve in the closed position. If a gen, but require activation of a detection mize water damage due to broken sprin-
sprinkler activates, air pressure is lost device to open a deluge valve to fill the klers and/or broken pipes.
in the system, which then allows the pipes with water. These can be of single- Deluge systems have pipes and sprin-
dry pipe valve to open to fill the pipes or double-interlock style, depending on kler nozzles open to the atmosphere
with water, which discharges out of any the number of events designed to open and require a detection device to open
sprinklers opened by the heat of a fire. the deluge valve. These are popular for a deluge valve, which allows water to
Because of the delay in filling the pipes protection of areas where the risk of discharge from all sprinklers at once—
with water and being available to dis- inadvertent water application and leaks like in Hollywood movies. Unlike the
charge from the sprinklers, the fire area needs to be minimized: data centers, movies, these systems are normally
can grow larger and the fire intensity can museums, sensitive hospital equipment used in high-challenge areas, such as for
increase before water is applied. More rooms, computer server rooms, and the flammable or combustible liquids pro-
sprinklers can be expected to open. The like. Like wet and dry systems, preac- tection, but may also be used to protect

www.csemag.com Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014 DE-6

 Passive, active fire protection
a corridor opening where a fire rated
assembly is required.
Alternate methods of fire protec-
tion—In the IBC and International
Fire Code Section 904 are listed sever-
al alternate methods of fire protection.
These include high-pressure water mist
systems (fog), and clean agent gaseous
suppression systems such as 3M Novec
1230 Fire Protection Fluid and DuPont
FM-200 Waterless Fire Suppression
Systems, which act as coolants. Inert
gas systems employing atmospheric
gases that lower the amount of oxy-
gen in a room to levels below those
needed to support combustion are
active means of fire protection. Other
alternate methods include high-pres-
sure water mist systems, where water
supplies are limited or where water
damage needs to be limited and fixed
aerosol extinguishing systems, CO 2
extinguishing systems, and various
types of foam systems. The old Halon
gas systems have been banned in most
areas of the world due to environmen-
tal issues. IFC Section 904 and NFPA
Standards 16, 17, 2001, and 2010
address these alternate systems.
Standpipes—In buildings of a certain
height or use and located in stairwells
and certain horizontal exits, stand-
Active, passive protection and building codes
T he building and fire codes do not call out
specific fire safety goals; their main objective
is life safety of occupants and firefighters. Pres-
ervation of the primary structure and neighboring
structures is a resulting benefit.
Some occupancies, such as I-occupancies (pris-
ons, hospitals), where occupants may be unable
to evacuate themselves due to incarceration or
physical disabilities, limit fire protection strategies
to “defend in place” and require both active and
passive fire protection.
Because of the documented effectiveness of
functioning and adequate fire sprinkler systems,
the IBC allows a reduction of some passive fire
protection systems in some occupancies where
full fire sprinkler systems are installed throughout
a building. These usually mean full NFPA 13 sys-
tems. If a residential building of four stories or less
is otherwise eligible for an NFPA 13R system, if a
DE-7 Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014
pipes are a system of piping and fire
hose valves that act as vertical sources
of water for firefighting, similar to fire
hydrants in the street. Standpipes can be
filled with water (wet) or empty (dry)
with water supplied by fire respond-
ers. If wet, the pressure to operate
them can be supplied by fire respond-
ers (manual) or automatically, usually
by a fire pump. IBC Section 905 and
NFPA 14: Standard for the Installation
of Standpipe and Hose Systems address
standpipes.
Handheld extinguishers—IBC Sec-
tion 906 and NFPA 10: Standard for Por-
table Fire Extinguishers dictate the type
and placement of handheld fire extin-
guishers for occupant use, depending on
the hazards present in the building.
Passive systems
Passive systems require no external
power. They can be grouped into three
categories: limiting the growth rate of
the fire, compartmentation of the fire,
and providing emergency egress from
fire areas.
Limiting the rate of fire growth
and subsequent smoke—Fire growth
can be limited to some extent by choice
of interior finishes that limit ignition,
flame spread, and heat release, allowing
reduction of the passive systems is desired due to
the installation of a fire sprinkler system, the IBC,
in most but not all instances, requires that the fire
sprinklers be installed “throughout” the building,
meaning an upgrade to an NFPA 13 system. Keep
in mind that local authorities having jurisdiction
(AHJ) may consider that many of the alternate
methods of fire protection identified in IBC 904
(clean agent systems and the like) do not qualify
for these “trade-offs.”
Where fire sprinklers are installed, some of the
passive system trade-offs allowed by the 2012 IBC
include the following. State and local amendments
may affect them.
n Building height increases of 1 story and up
to 20 ft. (IBC 504.2).
n Building area increases of up to 300% for
1-story buildings and 200% increases for multiple-
story buildings (IBC 506.3).
more time for active fire protection sys-
tems to activate and more time for safe
occupant evacuation. Wall and ceiling
finishes and floor coverings cover large
surfaces. If these ignite easily, they can
have a significant effect on the spread
of fire and can lead to “flashover” of
the hot gases in the room, from which
there is no survivability. For this rea-
son, materials for interior finishes
may be subject to specialized testing
to determine their flame spread rating.
Fires generate particulate matter, which
hangs suspended in the air, obscuring
visualization of exit signs. The dis-
tance at which an exit sign is obscured
by smoke is directly affected by the
amount of smoke. For this reason, the
building codes limit interior finishes
that produce an excessive amount of
smoke. Most model building codes do
not address the issue of the toxicity of
smoke and gases produced by fire.
Compartmentation—If the limita-
tion of interior finishes and active fire
protection measures such as detection
and suppression fail to limit the fire to
the room of origin, the next strategy is
to contain the fire and smoke within
a certain zone for a certain amount of
time, delaying flame and smoke spread
throughout the building. Compartmenta-
n Unlimited areas in 1- and 2-story buildings for
group B, F, M, and S buildings (IBC 507.3 and 507.4).
n Occupancy separations: Up to a 1-hour reduc-
tion in the fire-resistance rating of fire separation
walls (IBC 508.4).
n Fire-resistance rated construction: Fire
sprinklers can substitute for 1-hour rated construc-
tion, unless the fire sprinkler systems is otherwise
required in Type IIA, Type IIIA, and Type V-A construc-
tion (IBC Table 601e).
n Corridor rating: Fire-resistance rating deleted
(IBC Table 1018.1).
n Balcony ratings: Balcony construction type
and fire-resistance rating and aggregate width
modified (IBC 1406.3).
n Exterior wall openings: Sprinklered maximum
allowable area of unprotected openings is allowed
to be the same as for protected openings (IBC
Table 705.8).
www.csemag.com
tion is a passive method of fire protec-
tion that confines smoke and fire into
zones. It works to protect the building’s
structural integrity and provides pro-
tected spaces through which building
occupants can evacuate. Fire-resistive
structural elements, floors, ceilings/
roofs, and walls are critical. Equally
important is protection of doors and win-
dows and protection of structural pen-
etrations, such as pipe, cable, electrical
conduit, and duct penetrations. Fire and
smoke dampers to prevent the passage of
smoke within building systems, such as
HVAC systems, are also crucial. Fire can
adversely affect load bearing assemblies
that need to remain effective for their
specified time to prevent collapse of the
building or portions thereof, to prevent
the spread of fire and smoke, and to pre-
vent injury and death of occupants and
firefighters.
Fire spread at exterior facades, which
may include plastics, exterior insulation
finish systems (EIFS), and flammable
exterior claddings and roofing materi-
als, is limited by the IBC.
Emergency egress/occupant evacu-
ation—Successful occupant evacua-
tion depends on effective fire and
smoke detection by the fire alarm
system and subsequent notification to
n Exterior wall openings: Where buildings are pro-
vided with sprinklers and water curtains are installed at
the exterior, the protection requirements of openings in
an exterior wall may be deleted (IBC 705.8.2).
n Exterior wall openings: Flame barriers pro-
tecting window separations of 5 ft or less may be
deleted where sprinklers are installed throughout
(IBC 705.8.5).
n Fire walls: Fire sprinklers allow certain modi-
fications in fire walls (IBC 706.5(3) and 706.8).
n Fire barriers: Permitted openings in fire bar-
riers may be increased if both fire areas are sprin-
klered (IBC 707.6).
n Draftstopping: Floor/ceiling assembly draft-
stopping requirements at 1000 sq ft and attic and
concealed space draftstopping at 3000 sq ft are
eliminated (IBC 718.3.3 and 718 4.3).
n Interior wall and ceiling finishes: May be
reduced to a lower category (IBC Table 803.9).
www.csemag.com
Figure 2: This wet class I standpipe has a 25-in. hose valve and is located in a stair-
well protected by fire-rated construction. It acts as an interior hydrant source for
responding firefighters.
alert occupants and to direct them, via
visual signs or audible devices, to safe
areas inside or outside the building.
Successful occupant evacuation also
depends on knowledge of the occu-
pant. Stairs and corridors need to be
wide enough and of sufficient num-
ber and location to accommodate the
flow of occupant evacuation during an
emergency.
n Interior floor finishes: Requirements reduced
for floor finish materials in vertical exits and exit pas-
sageways and exit access corridors (IBC 804.4.1).
n Accessibility stairs and areas of refuge:
48-in. Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) egress
stairs and areas of refuge may be deleted (IBC
1007.3).
n Elevators: Elevators are not required to serve
as ADA means of egress (IBC 1007.2.1).
n Elevators: Elevator hoistway venting may be
deleted in some occupancies (IBC 3004.1).
n Fire alarm: Multiple manual pull stations are
not required when sprinklers are provided in many
occupancies (IBC 907.2).
n Fire alarm: Heat detectors are not required
(IBC 907.4.3.1).
n Fire alarm: Locations allowed by NFPA 13
to omit sprinklers may omit smoke detectors if
sprinklered (IBC 907.2.13.1.1).
Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014
Kathleen Roach is associate principal
and senior fire/life safety designer at
Interface Engineering. She has approxi-
mately 20 years of experience in fire
protection design and strong techni-
cal knowledge of codes, standards,
and recommended practices. Her work
includes specification and design for
fire suppression systems and fire/life
safety reviews.
n High-rise buildings: Reductions in many fire-
resistance ratings where sprinkler floor control
valves are supervised and water flow initiating
devices connected to the fire alarm system are
provided (IBC 403.2.1).
n High-rise buildings: Fire barrier walls enclos-
ing vertical shafts (other than exit enclosures and
elevator hoistway enclosures) are allowed to be
reduced to a 1-hour fire-resistance rating where
automatic sprinklers are installed at the top and
at alternate floor levels within the shafts (IBC
403.2.1.2).
The National Fire Sprinkler Association’s “The
Fire Sprinkler Guide,” edited by Jeffrey M. Hugo, is
an excellent resource for a fuller listing of allow-
able trade-offs.
NFPA’s “Fire Protection Handbook” is another
excellent source of further information on active
and passive fire protection.
DE-8
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Consulting-Specifying
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Engineer
• MARCH
• JULY 2014 55
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630-571-4070 x2215; KNimmo@CFEMedia.com AERCO Int’L Inc ............................... 7 ......................5 ................800-526-0288................. www.aerco.com.......................................

Brian Gross, Marketing Consultant
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Michael Smith, Creative Director
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Basler Electric .................................. 13 ....................8 ................618-654-2341................. www.baslerelectric.com .........................
Burr Oak Tool Inc. ........................... 16 ....................11 ..............269-651-9393................. www,burroak.com ..................................

Paul Brouch, Director of Operations Bussmann by Eaton ........................ 2 ......................3 ................636-394-2877................. www.cooperbussmann.com/FMSCC .....
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Legrand/Wiremold ........................ C-4...................19 ..............800-621-0049................. www.legrand.us/evolution ....................

REPRINTS Reliable Controls............................. 8 ......................6 ................250-475-2036................. www.reliablecontrols.com/contact .......

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Siemens Building Technologies ..... 5 ......................4 ................847-215-1050................. www.usa.siemens.com/hvac ..................

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Yaskawa America, Inc .................... C-3...................18 ..............800-927-5292................. www.yaskawa.com .................................
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www.csemag.com Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014 59

 2 More Minutes

Top five things

female engineers should know
Female engineers, take this career advice to heart.

I
have been on a journey to become
empowered as a female engineer instead
of feeling like an outcast. These are
some lessons I have learned.
1. It is OK not to blend in—
you won’t, even if you try
Ladies, stop trying to blend in! As a
female engineer, you’ve probably noticed
you are in the minority. It is easy to focus
on the perceived challenges this creates
when we should be focused on the poten-
tial advantages. It’s OK to leverage the
fact you are not like your peers.
A tenured female engineer once told me REBECCA DELANEY, PE
when she attends meetings, the men often SKIDMORE, OWINGS & MERRILL
pay close attention when she speaks; per- CHICAGO
haps they’re intrigued to see what she will
say or maybe her voice doesn’t get lost in the room. Either
way, she doesn’t feel ashamed about using her differences for
her professional gain.
2. Men and women are different, and that
can be a good thing
Men and women are different in many ways: we look
different, we communicate differently, we think differ-
ently. And that’s OK!
At the beginning of my career I thought I had to be more
like the men to be respected and successful. Trying to be
someone I wasn’t didn’t work for me. However, I soon
discovered being different was actually a benefit.
By thinking differently, I bring an alternate point of view to
design challenges that helps me stand out from the crowd. By
communicating differently, I manage people and build relation-
ships with clients in a way which some of my peers may not.
3. Set clear boundaries
A young female engineer walks into an office full of
young male engineers—it sounds like the beginning of
a bad joke. But it’s reality for approximately 11% of our
incoming engineering workforce each year. Everyone wants
to be friends with their coworkers. However, friendly con-
60 Consulting-Specifying Engineer • JULY 2014
versation and an occasional happy hour
can quickly misconstrue your intentions.
I’m not saying interoffice relation-
ships are bad; just be mindful of the
boundaries you create.
4. Accept all comments as
compliments
To be young and female can some-
times feel like two strikes against you.
First, as a female I’m mistaken as one
of the stereotypical female roles (i.e.,
architect, interior designer) on the design
team. Second, as a young person, people
assume I can’t be well-versed in my
craft. I’m often met with surprise and
amazement when I reveal I’m the lead
mechanical engineer on their project and
it is clear I know what I’m talking about.
My experience has led me to believe most comments
aren’t made with malicious intent, so I try to accept all
comments as compliments and move on.
5. Women are your allies—at least they should be
In her book Lean In, Sheryl Sandburg said, “When a
woman is successful, people of both genders like her less.”
My experiences align with Sandberg’s findings. Some
of my harshest work environments have been with other
female engineers. I feel as women we are so focused on
competing with our male counterparts that we start to
assume everyone is our competition. By the time we suc-
ceed, we have alienated those around us.
Through pursuing relationships with my female cowork-
ers, I have discovered I’m not alone in my workplace chal-
lenges. It’s often easier to make changes when you aren’t
the only voice.
Rebecca Delaney is mechanical team leader at Skidmore,
Owings & Merrill’s sustainable engineering studio. She is
the 2014 ASHRAE New Face of Engineering, recognized
for her industry leadership in mentoring students and
sharing her passion of engineering around the globe.
www.csemag.com
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input #19 at www.csemag.com/information