COST 9

9 COShlETICS AND
ORNANHENTS

I. DRESSING :

It is a pitiable truth that Indian dressing style and clothing are

not often regarded as the part of Indian culture. Most of the scholars we of the
opitlion that there is no certain improvement or development in the Indian style
of dressing. The dress of present day like 'dhoti' 'ccidar' and 'pagag' had
been c~stumesof the past 2000 years. So, where there would be the history of
dressing? It is one another reason why scholars did not much regard the history
of Indian dressing that it was and is believed by everyone that stitched clothes
were introduced to Indians at 16' century AD by Muslims, but both the
opinion of the scholars in connection with Indian dressing is wrong. It is true
that we still use clotl~ingslike dhoti, cddar etc., which were in use 2000 years
ago; but the similarity of ancient and modern hdi<zndressing does not come to
an end. Who can affirm that dhoti-s were worn in the same fashion as today or
the saree of the yesterday is the same of tl1e present day ? 'The fact is thal the
style of dressing keeps on changing at each and every chapter of Indian book
of history. This is applicable to stitched clothes too. We have ample
information, at leasf starting fromthe vedic period to 7' century AD regarding
stitched cloth in literature and painting of that particular period. he truth is in
this hot country, dhoti and c d a r were the only comfortable clothes and
Indians adopted it desirously. So, it could not be concluded that Indians never
used stitched clothes. Women-folk always wore KaAcuku or Coli. Due to the
association of foreignen, stitched clothes became more popular in use, but
layman could not leave his dhoti and cridar. We have also enough proofs to
accept this point that even from very olden days, people fkom Gandhara and
Punjab worc stitchcd clolhcs to cscapc from UIC cold wd thec wa Iind thc
d u e n c e of Yunan, Iran, and central Asia, because the people in this region
had a close relationship with these foreigners. Under these circumstances
cultural exchange is quite cornon.

I n most of the atsc our litentturc give ismd ill idcntilying iuld
namitig the clothes. Such names of' clothes are safely remaining in vedic,
Buddhis* and Jaina literature, fables and fairy tales, and in lexicons. 'The
bha~ya-sand v y a k a r a ~ - swhich came through this mighty system of
literature, hfurther described the cloths. From the literature we come to know
where the clothes of good quality were produced and from the lexicons we
come to know about the dresses made up of jute and bark, which were most
commonly used by ascetics and poor. Here we also get information about
leather garments. Kpzdjinn etc., were used by ascetics with the view of
serenity while the other leather garments might have been exported to foreign
countries for the use of leather garments in this hot climate-prevailing country,
is h o s t chanceless.

It is hard to say how our ancestors dressed in those days. Till

date we do not know fiom our researches whether they used clothes or not. If'
yes, whether dresses were made of leather or leaves ! It is known fkom the cave
paintings of pre-historic period that man was naked and it was not considered
unculture. In this context, it will be appropriate to mention some of the
traditional seds which support nudity. There are lots of reference regarding
naked s d h u - s in Buddhist and Jaina literature. Probably their nudity is an
attempt to re-live the past tradition of primitive age wherein the awareness of
dressing was absolutely absent. Gradually when the society pew more
civilized, people becanie more inseparable fiom clothes while th&x spiritual
preceptors maintained the age old tradition of non dressing which was quite
common once upon a t h e . The reference about the dresses made up of leather,
bark and grasses found in vedic and later literature, also indicate the primitive
tradition. The point to be considered is when a society gradually develops, not
everyone folIows it. A certain group of people remain undeveloped and
uncivilized. They are later treated as tribes. However, we can draw the clear
picture of ancient culture by thoroughly studying the believes and habits of
these tribes,

We get the first pre-vedic reference about Indian dressing fi-om

the Indus Valley. Later, we have countIess information in vedic and later
writings. Here, a humble effort has been taken to study the dresses, their types
of materials etc., found in ARM.

1. MATERIALS OF GARMENTS :

Dress indicates the refmed taste of men. For a study of the dress
besides other facts, it is necessary to know which were the materials used in
making clothes. For knowing the names of materials u s 4 in making cloth in
ancient India, a study of ancient literature is essential. We frnd names of many
kinds of clothes in the vedic, Buddl~istand Jriina literature, friblcs and lexicons.
AXplaces not only names of clothes but a detailed description of the materials
are given. There was a tradition that man wore difrlt'erentclothes suitable for
1
different seasons. Fine, soft and cool cotton and silk clothes in the summer
season, thick and heavy silk and woollen clothes in the winter season were
worn by Indians, Similarly dresses differed fiom man to man according to their
d8erent professions.2 Hermits, nuns, hunters and foresters wore clothes made
up of barks and leaves. Kings and economically well-off individuals wore
precious silk and gold-ernbroided clothes. In the same way, the dress of the
people of one class differed from that of the other classes in one respect or the
other.
In the early age man used barks and leaves etc., to cover his
body. With passage of time the kinds of clothes changed and man began to use
clothes made from cotton. wool, silk md fibres of various h i t s and barks.
From a study of this literary evidence, we can know about the ancient Indirln
style of dressing, and how far Indians were technically advanced in the art of
weaving . Halayudha gives a classification of clothing into four major
divisions as cloth made up of leather, cotton, silk and wool.

i) Cotton: Probably cotton clothes originated in India.

Excavations at the Itldus valley sites have lcd to the discovery of some
appliances such as spindles which were used it1 spinning and weaving. This
shows that the process of spinning and weaving had started in this age. A pink
cotton piece of cloth was found in the excavation at one of the sites of this
3
culture. This is a testimony to the fact that the use of cotton cloth was in
vogue even in the prehistoric period in India. Mackay had also discovered
wound cotton thread at one of the sites of this culture. This also supports the
view that cotton existed in this period. According to Sir John Marshall, the
4
word 'sindhu' is used in the sense of cloth in the Babylonian language. This
leads us to the conclusion that cotton clothes were used in this region in this
period.

Probably we find the earliest literary evidence of the existence

of the cotton cloth in the Srauta Si&ra-s of A~vabyanaand ~ j ~ ~ ~ Ina the
n a . ~

list of clothes mentioned in the Ac~rli7igaszitra, cotton cloth is called

-
khomiya. It was used for making a civara a garment of a Buddhist monk6

In the Vlnayapipka it is named as k~pprisikam.7For making cloth, cotton

was first ginned, later it was changed into fine t h r d 8 The process of making
cloth was the same as is adopted in making with the handloom these days.'
According to Anian, Indian cotton cloth was whiter and brighter than that
made in other countries. Lucien was of the opinion that Indian cloth was lighter
and soltcr than cven Greek cloth.

We do not have many references to cotton elo111es in the Gupla

literature. There can be two hfkrences for the non-mention of cotton clothes,
either cotton clothes were used only by a few people or the use of cotton clothes
were so common that the writers considered it unnecessary to make a mention
of their use.

The Amurakoia mentions three words for cotton clothes

1I
phala, knrpusa and b d a r a . Dr. Motichandra feels that the words garjabha
and sphatika in the Ac~rangasutrahave been used in the sense of the variety

of cotton clothes.l2 H a l a p h a gives the two words kdrpirpdsa and bddara to

denote a cotton cloth.I3

ii) Wool: Woollen clothes were called as kambala. It is stated

in Divycivadcina that u variety ofthread called tungkela was made fi-om a tree
named Kalpadea in the Uttara Kuru country. With this thread were made
14
woollen clothes of many colours such as blue, yellow, red and whlte.

Beautiful cloth was also made by mixing wool and d ~ k t i l a . ' ~Ordinary
blankets and those made with the hair of camel were woven for trade as well.
We come across the following varieties of woollen clothes in -4RM - uvika,
16
urabhra, rallaka, ur@p and kambaku.

iii) Silk: It is a controversial matter when silken cloth began to

17
be manufactured in India. According to Dr. Sarkar, the term pGZn&iva
mentioned in the vedic literature means silken cloth. But according to Dr.
18 19
Motichandra and Monier Williams the term means woollen cloth and not
silken cloth. h the absence of any definite evidence it is dacult to determine
the correct meaning of the word p&n&va. Another word mentioned in the
vedic literature is tipya.20 Dr. Sarkw thinks it was a thick silken ~ 1 0 t h . ~ '
Sayiuja and Katyaydna have irhorprctcd it it1 thc scn:ic o["a limn' (;I;:)UUMLI), '21

piece of cloth dipped in clarified butter', 'a cloth made with a kind of grass
called tlpa', or 'a piece of cloth dipped three times in the clarified butter'.
From this it is quite clear that the commentators were not quite sure about the
meaning of the Dr. Motichandra has not expressed any definite opinion
about the correct meaning of the word. There is a reference to a garment made
with kuia called ~ a ~ d c 2 t a kAccording
a.~~ to Sayqa, in this context Kuia

means silk and so according to him candataka was a silken cloth. Thus If we
take tlic t h e words piirt&rvu, tapya and can&tuku in the sense of silken
clothes, then it can be said that the vedic people were acquainted with silken
clothes.

It can be said that most probably silk was used in India in the
5*' century BC as Paqini has mentioned thc word kanieY.yrr." Silken clothes

(kauieya) are also mentioned in the ~ r i m ~ Z ~ and , 2 the

d ~ in ~ Buddhist

literature. Besides kauieya, two other words used in the sense of silken clothes
26
werecinumiukuandpatfa. IntheSubhcZparva ofMuhabharara two other
27
kinds of silken clothes namely kotaja andpa@ja are mentioned.

In the literature of the Kusgna and Gupta ages silken clothes of

a number of varieties are mentioned. Haliiyudha interprets amiuka and
kzuuieyu in the sense of a. silken cloth.

a. Amhtka: It is a type of silken cloth widely used by the

people of ancient India. The a,rit.Cuka was made both in India and China.
According lo the corntnentary of Niilthacuraqi, in tlae decoration of en

a&ka gold thread was used to make beautiful designs.z8 In the

B~atkalpasutro Bhcipa it is said to bc a soft and bright silken cloth.29

V.S.Aganua1 also thinkr that it was a silken ~10th.~'

Many varieties of a , ~ k are

a mentioned on the basis of
32
different colours. Kglihsa has referred to sitGhSuka,3 1 am@kSuka,
33 - - 34 35
m&amSldka, nelanihku, and jlarniihiuka. Actually the aniSuka-s
were once produced in white colour. Later they had been coloured with
diflerent types of colours. Gtyayana also refers to, two arizhka-s - ScSkalika
and krirdamika coloured by iokala and k ~ r d a m a . ~Another
~ variety
mentioned was pa@?ni5nka. According to Dr. Motichandra it was white and
h ~ ~ variety of a ~ k was
plain silk ~ 1 0 t Another a cinri-ka. Most probably
it was the variety of silk imported from China. According to the
Bhasya it was made from a silk worm named kosak2ira or
B~hatkalpasiit~a
cloth made fiorn very smooth Chinese silk.38 According to the commentary of

. ~ ~the
Niiithaclira~i,very fme silk or Chinese silk was called c i n d l i r i ~ k aOn
basis of these commentaries it can be said that probably very fine Indian silk
cloth and Chinese silk were called cinLzriziuka.

B2nabhatta refers to amiuka many a times. In his opinion

a-ka is a very thin and white ~10th.~' In another context he refers to an

a-ka made up of fibre of stalkIk4'Bans has also referred to the o ~ k a

decorated with designs of flowers, leaves, birds etc.42 In the works of Praw
the word a&ya occurs in many a place. In Acarariga stZtra there is a
43
reference of a h u k a and cincMhka. B~atkalpasufruB h Q a also refers
to both the varieties of aHzi-uka-s.44 In ancient India a ~ S u k uwas the most
~ AD a*ku
liked dress, next to dukt2la. P&icularly in the 1 0 Cen. was a

prominent g'ument. Hal~yudha mentions two types of silk cloth, they are
dhauta kauieya and a*.hka. Dhauta kauieja is bleached silk cloth. It is
also blown as patror?za.45

b. Kauieya: Kauieya is made from the silky threads produced

by the worn. Silk is a very costly, beautfil and sophis$icnted kess. Since it
is a costly one, ordinary people cannot afFord to use them regularly hut they
used them in some important occasions like festivals etc. According to Dr.
Motichandra the silk made fiom the cocoons of a silk worm, which subsisted
on the leaves of rnulbeny trees was called k o u i q x ~ . ~ ~

Kautilya has given an elaborate note on kauieya. The silk

worrns were cultivated in the trees of ndgav$sn, llikucu, vakula and vafa.
The kauieya was also of four types accordingly. The kauseya made from the
silk wonns of nuguv&a was yellow in colour. The knuieya of likuca tree
was in the colour df wheat, kauieya of vukula tree was in the wlite colour and
that of vafa was in the colour of fresh butter.47 KauSeya was also produced in

The tern1 kauieya has been mentioned in the Modhyamavydyoga,

49
wherein a yellow coloured kauseya was worn by a b r d z r n a ~ . In the
50
Amarakoia the term dhautakauieya has been interpreted as 'washed silk'.

~a12yudhacalls it pa~orw.51

iv) Leather: Most probably skin of deer, goat and cow was
used to make leather garments. The skin of a deer is considered to be a
52
garment of ascetics in the Kirdtarjuniya, ~mdrasam
bhava,53 and
 54
Kudam bar i . The deer skin was used at .the time of sacred sacraments such

as the vidycl..ranzbhaetc. The slcin oftiger and deer were used on seats to cover
55
the bare ground. Skm of elephant was also used. Lord Siva is often descried

as Kmvasas.56 Dr. Motichandra mentions the use of the skin of a sea otter as
57
it was very thin and h e . -4part from this, the skins of animals like camel,

leopard, were also used5' HaJayridha has not mentioned that the leather of
which animals were used for preparing dresses during his days.

v) Garment of Bark: The garments of tree barks are usually

known as valkala-s. Monks, ascetics and foresters were expected to wear
valkala garment. It was worn by women while practising penance or visiting
We have also a reference to a bedding rnade of tree barks.60 It is
61
stated in the Vumana para% that vatkala-s can be cleaned with water.
62
HaQyudha also calls it valka.

vi) Cloth made with some other materials:

a. Saw: Probably cloth made with hernp is called Sam. In

Divyhvaduna there is a nmtion of a cloth measuring 36 feet long and about
64
24 feet 3 inches wide made of Sarees were also woven with hernp.

Probably poor f m e r s put on dhoti-s made of According to Yuan

66
Chwang monks used to wear deep red garments made of hemp.

b. I'halcrka: It is probably a cloth made fi-om fibres of some

~ ~ that it was most probably rnade with thin chips

h i t . Dr. ~ o t i c h a n d r aopines
of a particular kind of timber. It can also mean clothes made with the fibres of
some fruit.
 c. Mufija: Monks, sages rutd ascetics used to put on girdles and
68
garments made of muija. MaEja is a kind of long seed used for making
ropes.
d. Uurbha: It was a kind of grass which was considered,
according to Monier Williams, sacred and is also called ~ u f a . It~ was
' used by

monks and ascetics as a gamlent.70 E3h;ls.a calls these garments kiriucira.7 1

vii) Otllcr miscellaneous gmmcilts: Here are listed somc of the

clothes for it is doubthl to concludc with which material they were made of:

a. Patroma: It is called paplnnu in the Jaina literature and is

mentioned in thc list of costly varieties of clothes.7z According to Dr. J.C. Jain

it was made with the fibres of the bark of a In some dictionaries

pulrorrux is considered a cotton textile, but Dr. Motichandra has expressed
doubts about the interpretation of the word.I4 According to him patrorF
variety were named after the regions where they were made (like Maghada,
Paun&, Sauvarqakla@~kathen, lakt~ci,biikgli etc.,). In the A~nurakoiait
is called washed silk.75It is possible that it may have been a wild variety of
silk. According to Ksirasv2mi, the commentator of Amarakoia, this variety of
silk was produced by those worms which subsisted on the leaves of va@ and
lahca The meaning of the word urqa is wool. In the Rgveda sheep is
77
called urpzvari. On the basis of this evidence Dr. Gayatri Varma thinks that

patrorw might have been woollen ~ 1 0 t hIn. ~the

~ M&lavikljgnimitrca we have
a reference to kauieya-patrorw (Act V). Dr. Gayatri thinks that the phrase
Kauieya-patror- may mean a beautal and a smooth variety of cloth made
of mixed yarn of silk and wool of putrorv. According to Monier Williams
 156

pulrorruz was a variety of silk.79 In the opinion of IIalayudha it is bleached

silk8'
b. Dnkula: IlzrktZlu is a tvoven silk garment. In olden times the

royal flags were nude in dukuiu and omiuku. ,fdankucajya ihe commentator

ofA~uru%a opined tliat dukulu is a peculiar clotii madc up of Lhc: special

variety of cotton threads produced in Bengal.8 1 The iViSithactim?;r?k~r

has
told that dukrlla is made up of the threads produced fro111the barks of a tree
called dl,dkrlia.82 We get q 1 e information about d u k d a in Arthaiiist~a,
Kautilya says that dukiila made in Bengal were white and soft that of Paup&a
deia were of deep blue colour and shining, and the same of Sauvcrrwkud)a
were red in c o ~ o u rHe
. ~ has
~ also told that duklila were weaved in three styles
and they were named after their weaving as ek&?f&ka, aghj~ardhcirizSuka,

dvyaliliuka and tryalithlka."

In the Jaina literature dukBla is called dugrilu and it is

mentioned with other costly varieties of clothes.85 In the Acdn&?tga sritra it is
86
stated that the cotton growing in the Arigu country were called as dukala.
According to Divycivaduna a fine variety of cloth is made by mixing wool with
the fibres of d ~ k t i l a A. ~variety
~ of cloth dukrila mentioned in the
89
,LalitavistarasGwas a white cloth made with tlle fibres of dukrila. According
to Dr. Motichandra, tlie explanaltion of tlie word dukulu given in the
commentary of NiSZtha c t k a ~isi correct, which says that for making dukula
cloth, the bark of the duktila tree is soaked in water and pounded in a mortar to
separate its fibre. Later these fibres are spun.g0In the AmarukoSa, dukala is
given as a synonym of ksauma (linen). B2na has used both the words dzlkda
and dugtila. According to Dr.Aganval both these words were synonyms.91
According to Bana, dukfila was made in the country of Puv& (Bengal).
Baqia mentions many dresses made of duktLla such as rn upper garment,

sarees, bed sheets, pillow covers e t ~ . ' ~Dr. Aganval comes out with a
farfetched derivation ofthe word dukda. Probably cloth was called as kula in
the local dialect, or in the primitive language fion~which is derived the word
Kolika (weaver). Probably the cloth was brought for sale in two layers so it
was called dvikda or dz~ktila.'~

In the Gupta ,4ge weaving dukiila with the design of

hamsamirhzrna, in the border was a fashion. Bana says in Kdumbari- that the
dukda of ~udrakawas white like the foam of nectar and its border was
94
decorated with the harnsa-mifhuna marked by gorocani. Harsavardhma
too wore a pair of duk2la with the design of h~7msi~mithuncr
when he was
going to the battle field.95 It is said in Acicrdllgo that the prir of h m s a

dukrila given to Mahavira by ~ 3 k r awas so thin that it could be blown away

even by a gentle breeze. Any weaver skilled in his profession will appreciate
its quality. The dukula was weaved along with the threads of Kaldvaifu and it
is decorated with the design of swan.96 According to the Antoga& daslio,
97
costly dresses were given as dowry along with a pair of dukula.

Kfili&sa also refers to the homsa d~krila.'~But he did not

mne~ltionthat tither it was single or pair. In Bhafti K U I ~ the
C T word duktZla
occurs two times. But the references did not show any light to know if it was
single or double." In Gitagovindo there are some refet-enes about dirklao for
more than lb'our times. There is also a reference of the dual form of usage as
ciukdu. loo

From thi: abovc rcl'ircnccs LVC can co~lfinll!hat dtik;lilu was also
i~sedas a pair - one piece to wear and the another piocc to cover Ihc upper
portion of the body. Some other dresses were also designed out of duktiln.
Bana refers to utmriya, sarees, pcrlarigu posa dc., made up of duktila. 101

In the above discussion we have tried to make out the meaning

of the word dukula. Keeping in view the great popularity of it, we may
conclude that the material with which the cloth made was easily available in
the various forests of India. Illis fine and rxttractive cloth must have been very
102
pleasant in the summer season.

There is one more thing to be cl&ed about the word dukula

that is the later authors and the lexicographers have treated k.pzdn2a and dukGtn
103
as synonyms. Amara has sa.id k.yurncim duki2lorn synt. Hal~yldhn,also
104
says u'ukularn kqumamiycxte. But actually both were not the same.

Kautilya has treated both dukula and k~aurnaseparately. Rana compares the
whiteness of k+aurna with knrasdgaralo5 and the softness of nrnhka with

duktila.lo6 Hence it becomes clear that technically there were some minor
differences between dukula and kpuma. Dukula and k q u m a both were made
up of the same material. The only difference between them is - the thicker one
was k ~ a u m aand the thinner one was dukulu. Galapathy Sastry has clearly
mentioned that the thick dukrila was called as ksaurna.lo7

Hemacaidra has strived hard enough to solve tlie problem. He

says utasi - linseed is called as k+xmcS. Halayudha also says : afasbs y d uma
 108
k ~ u m d . The cloth made of k.pmc?.is ksauma. In the same way the cloth

made from the fibres of k+md is dtcklilc~."~ Sgdhu Sundara Gani has also

mentioned that the cloth made up of atasi is krlown as dukula. 110 The grass

namcly k p m d or rrtasE was cultivated in tf~cpiu4 of I'aslcm India. 111 DuE:~ikr

and ksauma must be the products ofthe fibres or threads of these grasses.

Somadeva has referred to dukeZla many a times in his

Yaiastilaka b~lthe did not use the word ksauma even a single time. Probably
even before the time of Somadeva both the words dukela and ksuuma must
have become synonyms. Hence Somadeva has used the word dakela alone.
But it is very clear from him that dukda was very much in use up to his time
(I 0' 43) and it was treated as a majestic and costly dress.

c. Ksaurna: It is also called a s khomiyo."' According to Dr.

Motichandra it was made with the fibres of the bark of linseed."3 According

to Dr. J.C.Jain it is a cotton textile.'l4 It was used for preparing civara, a

garment for Buddhist monk.'15 According to the explanation given in the

Niiitha csruni it was made either of the cotton or with the fibres of tree bark
116
of a banyan tree.

2. TYPES OF DRESSES:

i) Nudity: Halayudha refers to the Buddhist mendicants as

nagntifa and digvdsas. Regarding the origin of clothing and its development,
we have no evidence of dress in the sketch of krfa yugu. Like houses and
dwellings, dresses too had its origin in the Pefu age. This was an age of
luxuriant vegetation and the trees offered man his requirements of clothes and
ornaments. ' l7 When we come to the chapters on S r d d h u we fmd clothes as a
primary necessity of men. It is stated that without clothes there can be no
activity, no sacrrfrce, no knowledge of Veda-s, nay penance; so should clothes
be givcn to hrcihmay on thc time of irrrddtzu as a highly comcn&ble
118
act.

ii) Anmya: The B$af KaEpa SGfra refers that it covered the
waist and the upper half of the thighs. It was worn while changing garments.
(It can be compared to our modem tinles towel). Though Hal3yudh.a has
counted both antorip and nwasnnn as they are ddlierent. I-
Tsing, the Chinese traveller has given at some Imgth the description of tlle
layrncn as wcll L L of
~ the clergy. Dcscribiilg costu~ncof the clergy of thc
Mt%lasarvG,~itiv&inschool of Buddhism, I-Tsing observes that their costume
was made up of sornc ar-ticles like antcrnuisa and nivnsunu ctc. Here, I-Tsing
opines that antarvGsa is an inner garment, whereas nivasana is a lower
120
garment.

iii) Nivasana: I-Tsing int-'oms that the Buddhist of Gupta age

121
wore the lower g a m e d or nivt~sanain four different ways. Halgyudha

mentions the words like upsakv)%nu, paridh&na and antartya as synonyms

122
of nivasana.

iv) Upsasfivysna: It is a kind of lower garment. Somadeva

refers to upasarizvydna twice ill Yafastiluka. In a pczrtictilar context, a guru
lalls his ii.9" Hcre the Sanskrit
to tie t l ~ egod with his r~pusuri7~y&rzino.1z3

commentator says that upsa?hvy&a means uitariyo In another place

125
the Rajumutu is described to be wearing the upasn?izvyuna. Here the
wrntnentator gives 'the t l p s a ~ v d n ais
as synonpous to paabdhha, antartya and njvasana.126

v) Pddhana: It is one another lower garment. Halaymdlra has

liatcd thia word with ~ ~ ~ o r h v ~ & o .Amiuauimha

''~ ha also (Tcatcd both
upasa?hvycZna and paridhdna as adhovastra.128 Mewandra says tbat both
129
are lower garments. The Sanskrit commentator of Yaiastilaka has given the
meaning of adhovastra in one place and uttariya in mother place for the same
word Amara says upsarhy&a is lower and sa?fwyana is upper garment.
Probably the commentator should have been confused by these two terms.

: Dr. J.C. Jain i&om that Jaina mints are

allowed to use three pieces of cloth as upper ent. They are pracchikiana,
rqbharapu, and mukhovastrikd."*

vii) Mvarqa: It is mentioned in the Arthaiatra in the sense

131
of a curtain. , ' ~ ~ that the bhikkus used
In the ~ o h ~ i v a ~ it~ isa mentioned

uttar&o@a or mantle. In the ~hikkunipatimokkha'~~

it is described that the
uttarusariga is worn in different styles such as hastiiau @ka - elephant trunk
in which the pleated end was made to fall down in the same way as the pleated
end of the w e e of the women of Cola country; in the mafsyavdlaka style the
long and short borders were pleated in the shape of fish-tail; in the
catzi&arquku style four ends ofthe garment were shown. This is only possible
either in the case of uttarksariga or kaiicuka cut at sides.

viii) Watiya: Habyudha has included uttariya in the group of

upper garment. The shawl used to cover the upper portion of the body is said
to be an uftar@a. Arnara has included the word into the group of dresses &ed
to cover.
134
Bu&& -
mrsnks and nuns mainly wore these g m e n t s satigh&i,

. ~t~he~works of Midasa we have

ontorvlisoko, md uttarrisafiga ( m e n t ~ e )In

m e reference to ladies wearing an uttariya.136 But ladies wearing an

zltprij,a is generally not in vogue.

ix) Arcilhowka: In the Mathwa museum an idol of V i g u

belonging to the Gupta period figures with a petticoat which can be identified
wiah ardhoruka. This lower garment is transparent and is slicking to the body.
In some garments of this kind circular designs are shown. This lower garment
has tied round the waist with the help of a silk doth cded pa&u. It seems that
is was stitched as a modem lower garment is sewn these days. The only
difference in a modem lower and a r d h o h was that the present
day's lower garment has a stitched hollow strip ia the upper part wherein a cord
is passed for tying round the waist. W l e the crrdharuka was kept in position
round the waisr with the help of a In the Bfiatkolpasrina

~h@ya,'~*
the description of ardhoruka and its mode of wearing are given. It
covered the avagraha and the pa,@ therefore the whole waist. It was shaped
like the wrestler's &orts (jiirtghiy4 malla calandkflh) except that its broad
end was firmly tied between the two thighs (iimdvaye ca kaiuvabaddhah). It
resembled like the madern lap@. It was mainly used by Jaina nuns.

In the Har~caritathe word CanpZtaka occurs and Cowell has

translated it as a petticoat139 Amarakoia says that the women's petticoat

reaching to half the length of the thigh was known as co&tcrk~.~~*

Halayudha also says that ardhoruka is the dress of women folk also known as
cag&taka. 14'
 x) Kaficuka: It is a type. of mat va has used the word
entator sf YaSasalaka says that
Kafimka means ko2rprisaka. But kt;ip&aka is different fi-om kaficuku. The
lMah1zvuggu m o u s should not use the kaf cuka befitting the
laymen.142 The Bhikhnipotimokkho says that the kaiicuka-s were w a n in

different styles like hasti h u ~ k a in the Sornoyornritlk4 e m e n h a

observes a typically miser shop-keeper wearing a torn, woollen cckiar over his
long and thick k ~ i i c u k u . 'in
~ ~the ~ m a r a ' ~the
' meaning of a kaficuka is an

armour. On the basis of its description in various literary works, Dr.Agarwal

thinks it was a long coat which came down to the feet, had full sleeves and its
collar was closed in f k ~ n t . According
'~~ to Dr. Motichandra the kaRcuku of the

waniors was like a modem kurrri - loose upper Dr. Indu Rabha
Pandey opines that the kaiicuka was worn by b t h men and women. The
kaAcuka worn by women mostly came down to their feet while that worn by
men came down to a little above the knees. This type of kaAcuku can be seen
on the ordinary coins of Samudra Gupta. On these coins Samudra Gupta is
shown wearing half-sleeved kalicuka.148

xi) V8rab2na: HalQudha says that both kaficuka and

vrirablina are synonyms.149 Amamirnha also treats the two words as

Dr. Aganual thinksthat it was a garment of the same kind

samrin~rfhu?~u-s.~~~
as kalicuka but somewhat shorter in length and came down to the knees. A
statue made up of marble stone, belong to the 4' cent. AD is found out near
Kabul. The statue is wearing a long coat which more or less resembles the
. ' ~ ~is also a toy of Ahicchatra found out wearing s similar
~ d r o b r i ~There

coat.lS2 But Dr. Agarwal has not clearly stated the difference benveen a
vcZrabdw and a kaficuka. The kdcuka was of many types. Some came
down to the thigh, others to the knees still others to the calves, still others to
the heels. Therefore it does not seem proper to distinguish between the
kaficuka and ~e vdrubup~on the basis of its length. Dr. Motichandra states
that a varabaw was made Erom a variety of 40th called stavaraka, which
were stitched with bunches of pearls.lS3According to him stnvurnka is a word
of Pahlavi language which means a wstly On the basis of the
mention of stavaraka Dr. Motichandra was ofthe opinion that it was not an
amour made of iron. It was a coat stuffed with cotton which was most
probably worn to protect the body fiom the attack of sword. In this connection
we may also mention the views of Dr. Agarwal. He that the over coat in
the dress of the Sun and his attendant Dq& and Pirigala in the Miithura style
of sculpture is vkubaya. On the basis of the decoration on the coat of the
Sun, he was of opinion that it was viirubdv made fkom a variety of cloth
called stavaraka.

A h a mideration of the views of Dr. Motichandra and Dr.

Agarwal it seems proper to come to a conclusion that v a r u b u ~was a
kcriicuka made fiom a variety of cloth called stavaraka. Probably this kind of
cloth was used for garments worn in a battle field. For the sake of convenience
in fighting and to keep the body agile, probably viirab5q.u was comparatively
a close fitting gment. It might have been either closed or open in front, and
sometimes with full sleeves and the other times with half sleeves.

The reference to v&abdw is very less in Sanskrit literature.

Kaufilyahas included v d r a b d y with woollen dresses.154 IGli&sa describes

that the soldiers of Raghu were wearing the v ~ r aliw-s.

b 155 Malliniltha gives

the meaning of v l i r n b 5 ~as koiic~ka.'~~

Baqa has mentioned that some of
 165

the kings in the army were wearing ~ r i r a b r i ~ - s The

. ' ~ ~body guard of

Dadhici was also wearing a white vdrablina. '58 Bgqa has also refmed about
varubup in Kaumbari. When Candrapi& started for hunting he wore a
159
varubay. ARer returning &om hunting, he seated on the seat brought by

his servants, removed his varabaw.160

From the above reference, it can be known that the v&ubdy

was not only used as an amour, but also as an ordinary wear. According to
Kau~ilyavurabc2.w was made in wool also. It is very difficult to find out
when the dress would have been known or introduced to India. But fiom the
reference available, one thing is certain that vdrabdw was in use in the royal
houses and just like kaiicuka, vrirabap was also worn by both men and
women. It can be assumed &om the meagre reference of vdrabupa in Sanskrit
literature that it was used by royal personalities alone. It is possible that, a s it
was too expensive, it was not in use among ordinary people.

xii) Nivi: The one among the three garment. worn generally
during vedic age is nivi. It is a loin cloth or a piece of cloth tied round the
waist like a dhoti. Both men and women wore this garment. Dr. Motichandra
also opines that ntvE is a kind of under garment used by vedic Indim. He also
opines further that nivi and paridhdna probably consisted of simple apron
worn by the men and women alike. The nEvi has been explained by Sucar as
wider border of the cloth. He also gives the origin of the word nivi &om the
Tamil word 'ney' to weave.l6l But Halayudha says that nivi means the knot
162
which fastens the lower garment round the loins.

xiii) Niwlaka: Sometimes it was called as Cinnacolaka. On the

basis of its literal meaning of the word Dr. ~ ~ a r w a lhas
' ~ connected
~ this
garment with China. It was worn over all other garments such as a tunic. It
has been identified with the garment carved on an image of Kani~ka,in the

Mathura which belongs to the K y n ~ period

a According to Dr.
Aganval this gannent was worn in the Kusaqa period and it continued to be
worn even in the Gupta period. According to Dr. Motichdra it must have
been a fblI sleeve coat stuffed with cotton which is worn even up to the present
day in the Central Asia. It should have been worn over other garments like a
tunic. Indian soldiers have worn this garment in the 7" Cent. AD. Halayudha
has given the meaning of nicoiaka as a jacket.165 Amara gives the meaning of
166
nicola as a pracchadapap i.e. coverlet. JQirasv8rni has also explained it
clearly that nicolo is that spread on the bed etc.167 $abdararn&ara also gives
the five words nicoli, rzicuiaka, nicoiu, nicoli and nicula in the sense of a
168
coverlet. There is a reference of nicula in the beautiful description in
Yaiastilaka. The black-clouds were spread over the earth as if a black cloth
169
was spread on the earth. So it can bc unde&ood that nicolaka means bod1
the jacket and bed-spread.

xiv) Kurpasaka: Both men ad women wore this garment. The

170
Kurpdsaka worn by males were like half sleeved coats stuffed with cotton.
Dr. Agarwal has pointed out two special features of this gannent. It came
down only upto the waist and was generally without h l l sleeves. No doubt it
must have been called as kzirpusaka because the sleeves came only upto the
elbows. It is considered to be a garment which was originally worn in Central
Asia. This was brought to India by Uzgar Turks and Hunas who had settled in
Chinese, Turkistan before they came to 1ndia.17' HalQ~dhatreats both
172
kurpusaka and nicolaka as synonyms.
 xv) Avika: It is a woollen garment. It is men~onedin the

SabhZparva that Yu+@a was presented with woollen cloth-avika,

manufactured fiom the soft wool of the sheep.'73 The earliest reference to
uvika is found in the vedic literature. The wool was obtained from the sheep
(avi)for spinning and weaving. So it is called as r i ~ i k a . ' ~The
~ ArthaS'sfro
of Kautilya refers that the woollen fabrics (avika) were usually made of
sheep's wool and were either plain white, deep red, or light red. 175 Halsyudha

simply mentions that it is a type of woollen garment.176

xvi) Rallaka. In Kavy~~mimcZmsa,it is described -that the

women of LampGZka wore their hair fiee and their dresses were made of thick
woollen cloth (rollakam u ~ l a ~ ~ ~ ~Ra11ak.a
y a n means
~ ~ )a .kind
~ ~of~wild
goat. The blanket made up of its wool is also known as rallaka. Somadeva,
while describing the jungle refm to the rallaka goats being disturbed by a
Amara says that rallaka is a type of kmbala (woollen cloth).179
During the time of Yuan Chwang, the Chinese traveller, the rallaka was very
common among the people. He has mentioned about 'Hulul;I1Z ' or 'Rallaka' in
lris work as follows - the rullaka is made om the wool of some wild animal
and this dress was quite expensive.180 Somadeva has clearly mentioned in
another place that the woollen blanket was made h m the wool of rallaka
goats and were used in the cold season.181 HalGyudha treats rivika, aurcrbhra,
182
rallaka, u r w . and kumbala all synonyms, meaning a woollen blanket.

. wii) Kambala: It is mentioned in the Athorva ~ e d a . ' * ~It

formed part of the ordinary domestic outfit of men and women. Hahyudha has
184
counted it under the category of woollen garment.
 It is the basic tendency of human beings in all ages and climes
to arrange their hair in one way or the other. The practice of hair dressing was
in vogue from very early times as is evident from the antiques unearthed from
the Harappa and Mohenjadaro. These antiques reveal that men had varied
style of hair dressing Their hair was taken back &omthe fore head and was
either cut short behind or coiled in a knot or a chignon at the back with a fillet
186
to support it.

In the vedic period men wore their hair long or short according
to the fashion or pleasure. In the Pgveda reference has been made to Vasigha

having long hair, braided and coiled on the right lg7 Further, Gods Rudra and
Pusqa have been described as arranging their hair in the fonn of a conch-
shell.lH8 In the time of Rgvedo women dressed their hair in braids, so did

men. 18' The Gjtyastitra-s, however, contain two sothskoro-s (the

cu&arman and the goduna) which give numerous prescriptions regarding
190
the arrangement of the hair.

The ArthaSGstra of Kaufilya goes a long way in supplementing

the history of hair-dressing by men. Kautilya says that a man with shaven head
or braided hair desirous of earning is a spy under disguise of an ascetic.1g1 He
has mentioned the term Kapalaka which probably corresponds to the barber
class.192 This m8y indicate that 'to have hair mts' was considered as an item of
personal decoration. Manu and Y2jfiavakya says that snataka-s are allowed
to keep long and beautihl hair, while elaborate fashion of hair-dressing was
known among laymen. 193

Pataiijali, the author ofhluhiibhd~yahas given some details of

the ways in which the people dressed their hair during his time. It was arranged
with a parting line in the middle and the mass of hair was gatfiered logether at
the back and plaited into one or two long rolls hanging down as low as the
waist or twisted and tied into a large knot at the back.Ig4 In the Raghuvaliria,
Kali&sa has alluded to the hair dressing by the term Sikh& which was probably
locks of hair coiled on the apex of the head. lg5 Kdi&sa probably refers to the

top-knot fashion by his time. He has also mentioned the tenns sihan&vo196

and k & ~ ~ a k ~ probably

a ' ~ ~ corresponds to the hair in locks resembling the
wings of a raven. This type of hair style was popular among chldren. This
shows that during the time of mlidiisa it was the practice among men to have a
tuft of hair which, if long, was tied with a tape. Boys also wore long hair in
locks.

The Amarakoia, also adds some information regarding the

method of hair arrangement. Different terms are used to denote different types
of hair-style such as cikura, kuntala, keh, kaca etc. The mop of curled halr
has been alluded to by the terms Kaiiika and Kaijla. Curled locks have two
designations as ataka (curled locks) and cww kuniala (curly ringlets), the
latter being the favourite practice of hair-dressing in this period. The fore lock
or the lock of hair falling on the forehead has been alluded to by the term
iikhanhku. Sikha or hair-lock worn by men at the top of the head has been
198
described by the terms cu& and keiupasi;
 The practice of arranging the hair prevalent in the Gupta period
must have continued to survive in the succeeding periods. This fact may bz
corroborated by the literary accounts of f i e post Gupta period. Baqa has
furnished many interesting infomations as regar& the hair dressing of the
P 99
males and females. As regards the arrangement of the hair by the males, he
says that, Bhanl~,the brother of the Queen Yaiovati had side locks of curly
hair at the rge of eight. The chiefs who had come to visit Harsa had peacock's
feather stuck in the top-knot. In the Kdambari, Miitarigaka, the Sabara chief
had thick locks curled at the end and hanging on his shoulden. The hair of the
king bristled like an array of arrow-heads shot out in hundred to lighten him for
Bans hrther says that the students wore long trofts of hair.'"
hy.200 Children

probably wore matted hair.202

Yuan Chwang on refering to the customs of non-believers,

relates how some pull out their hair and cut off their moustaches, some mat
their side hairs and made a top knot wilUZo3.

The above literary accounts test@ to the practice of adorning

the hair and arranging it in different ways.

2. FEMALE HAIR-DRESSING:

The appearance and attractiveness of women depend very much

on their hair and the style in which they arrange and adorn it. In fact there is a
hair style to suit every age and every face and a beautifid hair style enhances
the beauty. It appears fkom the antiques of the Indus valley that the females
were very fond of arranging their hair in different ways. But according to
: r~e ~is known of the styles of hair dressing by the men than of
~ a c k a ~mo
those in vaogue among wornen, for the head dress worn by the female figurines
prevent their hair i?om being seen.

In the vedic period women dressed their hair in various ways as

is evident fiorn the literature. It Ins been dcscribcd by the terms stuka, kurira,
op& iiad kakardrdo.205 These terms probably denote different styles of hair
dressing. Young ladies probably dressed tlleir hairs in four braids of kaparda-s
which dangled at the back. In the opaia style the hair was arranged in a loose
O ~identified it with the plaits used in dressing the
topknot, but A . C . D ~ S ~has
hair especially of the women. Patafijali also conforms that the arrangement of
the hair was not so simple.207 He says that it was parted in the middle or the
rnass of the hair was gathered together at the back and plaited into one or two
long rolls hanging down as low as the waist, He also says that some times it
was twisted and tied into a large knot at the back of the head.

?'hc Nu@uStistru also co~fimqthat proper attention was given

by women towards arranging their hair.''* It is mentioned there that women
arranged their tufts of hair in well drawn up positions. Regarding the female
209
hau dressing Glidisa says that women grew long hair; combedz1* and

parted211and then h t them in long They wore flowers, pearls and

gems in their iong hanging tresses and on the p&g line.213It is mentioned in
the Meghadiita that the separated wives neither coiled nor combed their hair
nor did they undo their tresses in order to knot them afresh which consequently
grew rough and dry.214In times of mourning also they did not comb their hair.
They tied their tresses in one knit and put it at the top of the head, and it was
called ikhikhci or cli&.215 They also knit the mass of hair in a single long braid,
- 216
technically known as ekavent. It was probably a simple style of arranging
their hair which was worn at the time of sorrow as well as the p l e ~ r e in
. ~ ~ ~

the ,$ci~unlula,it is mentioned that ~ a k u n t aappeared

~ before the kmg with a
218
single braid, \vl~ili:in the Rlusuri~hhra,a wife sepw:itited from her husband

has been described as wearing ekaveni.-719 Probably the chief element in

women's glory lay in dark and glossy locks hanging down to the hip,220
which
may be proved by the fact that the poet refers to it more than once and uses it
in simile.

In the ~ n d a m b a r c Blna
~ ~ has mentioned the tying of the
hair. Besides this he has mentioned that hair net was also used by the females
222
to make it more attractive. The hair was sleeked with oil and a thick bunch
223
of flowers were used on the top.

Thus it appears that various types of lkair dressing was known to

the people of this period. Hence it may be suggested that people of this period
showcd much intcrcst in decorating tllcir hair in diKercnt ways. Majurndar, has
rightly observed that particularly women took more care for their hair
dressing.224Other learned historians like G.H. 0jha2" and C.V. ~ a i d ~ a
have also opined that people during the period 6" -1zLb cen. AD used to give
special attention to hair dressing.

There are some interesting references about the keia-vinyasa in

the ARM. Haliiyudha mentions the following words keSa, Sirasrjh; murdhuja,
koca, cikura, .firomha and v d a , to denote the hair.227M e r bathing the hair
will be dried by the fragrant smokes. Then it will be arranged or decorated
with fiagrant oil, sprouts, flowers etc. The decorated hair lock had different
names according to their style of arrangement. Veni; dhammilla, kuntala and
kavart were the bandha viiesa-s mentioned by Hal2yudha. The mode of
arranging hair is quite interesting in the research point of view.

At frrst, the wet hair aRer bath will be dried with the fragrant
smokes. mlidasa has described about the drying procedure. While drying the
hair in smokes, the fragrance will pass into the hair. Kali&sa refers to the hair
dried in smokes as liiycina - beautified.228 Since the hair is scented by the

smokes, it is called as ~ i h i i ~ a v l i r T
a h. ~s ~method
~ is known as ke3a
230
saniskGra. The heroincs of Blicbsa, sitting on the ups~irs,near the
windows used to dry their hair, and from the smokes escaping out of the
windows, the people passing through the'house will easily infer that a certain
After this keia sathskriro the hair lock is
ndyikd is doing keia sn~kskrira.~~'
arranged in different styles. IIal2yudha refers to some hair styles prevalent in
his time.

i) Kuntala: It is a type of arranging the lock of hair.z32 It is also

known as kuntala kaldpa. Kaldpa means both a peacock and a multitude.
The word kalapa in kuntala kalupa has got the suggestion of the above said
meaning. Arranging the hair, to appear beautifully as the feathers of peacock is
known as kuntala kaldpa. According to McZnascEra, kuntala style of hair
dressing will be done to the images of Goddesses LAqmi and ~arasvati."~

ii) Dhammilla: It is another type of hair style. According to

Arnara the lock of hair combined collectively as a single braid is known as
. ~ ~ ~type of hair style is adopted by both men and women.
d h a m r n i ~ l a This
Men's hair style is called mauli and that of women's is called dhammi2lu. The
hair will be collected and grouped, then it will be tied with wreath of flowers.
Flowers are also kept inside the lock of hair. Glidiisa mentions about this in
the ~ a ~ h u v a l i z s Bgga
c ~ . ~refers
~ ~ to the release of the knot of hair. This art of
dhummilla vinydsa can be seen in the Ajmha paintings. There are several
types of dhammilla vinyaa-s are figured in the toys of Rajghat. T h s hair
style is also figures in the stone image of Gupta period. 236

There are also hvo more varieties of hair dressing is mentioned

in the ARM. They are veni or ve?zidun& and k a v a r ~Tying
~ ~ ~the lock of

hair in a single knot is called veni. KavarE is the arrangement of hair in a

simple style.

111. COSMETICS

It is the basic tendency of human being in all ages and climes to

use cosmetics and to decorate one self in a way or other. ff a man of present
day decks himself with various means of cosmetics and clothing in connection
to his civilization and culture so did, the man of stone age, decorate himself
with a feather into his hair, as his possessions were limited and whose main
profession was hunting.

In the Indus valley civilization, the finds of 'Kohl' - (collyrium)

pots iud vases reveal the tnitll that kohl was applied to the lashes, eye-lids, the
part immediately below the eye-brows. It was applied for both beautifjrlng and
auspicious purposes as it was and is used by some sections of the Indian people
to guard against thc evil-eye at marriages and other rituals.

Cosmetics played an important part in the rituals while they

also satisfied the variety of men and women by adding charm to their
personality, increasing their natural beauty by artificial means. This is the
purpose of various recipes and formulas for cosmetics in ancient India.
 In the h d u s valley civilization which flourished at the most
conservative estimate about 2500 years before the Christian era, ornaments
have been found; gold, silver, copper, ear rings, nose studs of blue glaze and
bracelets of metals, shell and pottery. Hair pins, combs and mirrors are the
important articles of proof for the make-up and the arrangements of coiffures.

Bath farmed a very important part of the daily routine of the

vedic people, and one cannot take part in religious ceremonies before bodily
purification. In the ,.fatapatha Brdhihmaw it is mentioned that after the bath,
eyes and feet were anointed because, 'such indeed are human means of
embellishment and therewith they keep off death fiom t h e r a r e ~ v e s ' . ~ ~ ~

Atharvaveda offen information of ointments being presented to the brides239

and lo thc guests.24o

An interesting description ofthe costumes and cosmetics of a

housc Ilolder is give11 in thc A.+a/uyuna g$ya stitra in connection with the

equipment of a brahrnacarin, when aRer finishing his studies he was ready to

take leave of his teacher. Ai that time he was equipped with a jewel, necklace,
a wreath, a pair of ear ring, a pair of garments, a turban, a parasol, a pair of
shoes and a staff As regards cosmetics he had powder prepared fiom karafiju
seeds, ointment and eye-sa1ve.241Scents were favourites of women. In an
incantation to sleep, in the Athawaveda, the women of pure odour
242
(pu yagandaya fz) are mentioned.

?'he most important section fiom the point of view of cosmetics

and articles of pelfume is to be found in the KauGlya'~~ r t h o i d s t r a .It~ ~ ~

mentions a list of varieties of sandal wood as follows:

 Satana - 11 smels like the earth aRer the rain had fallen.
-
GoSir~aka Dark red in colour; smels like a fish.
-
Haricanclana Fine old wood; greenish yellow in colour.
Ttirpisu - Same as above.
Grameruka - Red or dark red; sniels like goat's urine.
Daiisasabhayaka - Red colour; smels llke lotus flower.
Japaka - The same as above.
Jorigaku - Red or dark red; soR in structure.
TaurGpir - Same as above.
Malaynka - Reddish white in colour.
Kucandana - Black as aloe; red or dark red, very rough. It
seems to be the true sandal wood.
Koiakiiraparvataka - Black or variegated black in colour.
Kalapawataka - It has a pleasant appearance.
Sitodakiya - Black and so&, smelt like a lotus.
Nagapawutaku - Product of the mountain of the same name.
was rough and had the colour of Saivdla.

-
jdcala It was brown coloured.

The majority of the Indians used twigs obtained from babul,

neem or some other trees. Tooth powders and pastes must have also been used,
as several have been prescribed in the Indian books of medicine. According to
SuSruta the best tooth pate was obtained from honey, t r i k a ~ ,trivarga,
244
fejovati, salt and oil.

In Kdambart, B a ~ adescribes the King ~ ~ d r a kwho

a &r
bathing in pefimed water, worshipped the deities and then proceeded to the
toilet room (vilepana bhumi) where he besmeared his body with sandal paste
mixed with musk, camphor and Even, when king Harsa started for
battle, anointed his body and his bow with sandal paste, put a chaplet of white
flowers on his head and drew to the regiola of krs ear a fresh gorocanu spotted
durva sprout.246

~ a l ~ y u d refers
h a ~ to
~ some
~ ofthe materials used as make-up
elements. K z ~ h b ~ m acandana,
, kastiiriku, karpura, agaru, farnbtiia,
a7igarciga, alaktaka and afijana are the chief articles of decoration to adorn
oneself After a bath the body of a person was perfumed by some modes called
248
carck or marsti. The ornaments are worn on appropriate places.

Mewards the forehead is decorated with tiiaka or pun&~.z4' Then

patravalli, a patch of musk and other ointments with which women adorn their
person, are painted on shoulders, breasts and on At last afigarrigq

different unguents used for perfuming the body, is applied.25 The art of make-
252
up is called pras&dhana. Sometimes, they also used ornaments of flowers,
leaves md sprouts.

IV. BaVAMENTS

Human mind has always been a worshipper of beauty since pre-

hstoric period. It is human nature to discover new things and present in an
attractive and usehl manner. All the attractive forms of nature must have
given an impetus to the development of man's desire for wearing ornaments.
Most probably man started wearing ornaments with a view of increasing beauty
but in course of time the practice was also associated with the utilitarian
aspects. With the passage of time there were many changes in ornaments. No
doubt the metals, jewels and stones which were used for making ornaments
changed but there were many notable clianges in their foms and designs as
well. The artists while making ornaments make the best of their imagination to
display their art at it? best. This results in changes in their ornamentation.
These changes in the art of malung ornaments can be clearly noticed from
various sources of 'Indi~mHistory'.

It is a controversial question when man begun to wear

ornaments and whether the tradition of wearing ornaments is earlier than that of
wearing garments or vice-versa. Most probably man began to wear ornaments
even in the pre-historic times and most probably man adopted both the
practices i.e, wearing garments and ornaments simultaneously.

In India the earliest authentic evidence of the practice of

wearing ornaments is available in the Itldus valley civilization. A perusal of
the art of making ornaments of this period makes us infer that long before this
civilization the tradition of wearing ornrunetlts had started. Probably first of all
men must have begun wearing ornaments made of flowers, feathers of birds,
beads, bones, conch sl~ellsand horns of animals.

We havc some idea of the art of making ornmnents in the Iildus

valley period fiom the images and the ornaments discovered in the excavations
at Mohenjadxo and Harappa. Most of the ornaments were made of gold or
silver in which were inlaid precious and semi-precious jewels and beads or
piece of stone.

From thc vedic literature we h o w the names af ornaments

worn by India* in that period.253 At some places we also have informixtion
about the shape of the ornament.

In the epics are mentioned a number of ornaments of that

period. The materials used for nuking ornaments were gold, silver, brass,
254
pearls, coral, diamonds, small shell and some times iron was also used.
 People even in the sixth c a t . B.C. were fond of wearing
ornaments. In the Buddhist literature, we find the names of many ornaments.
On the basis of the description of these omancnts is Buddhist literature we can
say that the art of making ornaments was fiilly developed in this period.

Man has always been in love with ornaments. The jewellers

with their power of imagination have been providing variety and beauty to the
ornatnents. It is dficult to identlfL all the ornaments used in the ancient time.
But man has been wearing these ornaments in various parts of his body not
only with a view of making them look beautifbl but also in compliance with the
requirements of Indian religious beliefs. hi the following pages, a humble
effort has been taken to identlfji the ornaments nlentiotled in the ARM.

1. NeA'TEKIALS OF JEWELS:

Ornaments cm be regarded as a symbol of man's attachment to

the material world. A man wears ommerits to satisfy his natural instinct
which makes lzim take steps by which he rnay look beautifid. People of lower
economic slaius satisfy this instinct by making omLvnentsonly with beads of
clay and conch shells. On the contrary the people with higher economic status,
in addition to the ornaments made with aforesaid material, wore those made
with precious metals like gold, silver etc., inlaid with precious grms such as
diamonds, emerald, sapphire and adorned with beautifill ornamentation. The
ornaments made of flowers were popular with men and women of all
categories. Tlie tradition has come to us from very ancient times. From a
study of the literary sources of ancient India it appears that ornaments were
made with the following materials.

i) Gold: Gold is a precious, lustrous, yellowish and beautxful

metal. This metal has been used in India for making ornament3 since very
255
ancient times. In the Amarkoiu we havc a list of eighteen synonyms of gold
and the gold ornaments are called ~ n i gand
i ~ a n a k a r n . The
' ~ ~ scissors which

was used to cut pieces of gold was called kypnni or karturi.257

ASvagliosa considers gold to bc tlic pu~cstand tllc bcst of all

258
metals. References to gold ornaments are met in plenty in the works cf
Bhasa, K2lid$sa, Magha etc. It was a precious ~r~etal.
It might, therefore, have
been used by people of high economic sL~tus. According to Yuan Chwxng the
business magnets wore finger lings made of gold.259

From the ancient literature we know that kings, emperors and

the rich used gold utensils for eating food. Chain, seats and beds were also
made of gold or they were gold plated.260 Pitchen, 261 pestles, yokes,262

pi~arsZ63
and coins264were also made of gold. There is a reference in
Kumurasambhava 6-om whch we know that seveii sages (sapfarig) had worn
gold ornaments.265 The horn of the cows were also plated with gold.266

From the Sivi Jatciku we know that gold was given in

charity.267The business of goldsmith was flourishing because people were fond

of gold ornaments. From the Buddhist literature we know that five hundred
gold smiths continuously worked all the twenty four hours for four months
before they could complete the work of making ornaments for a lady named
There is a reference to i ~ d g i konaku variety of gold in the

~ d d a m b a r i This
. ~ ~ variety
~ has also been mentioned in Amorakoio. Thus
there is atnple evidence to show that people were very fond of gold ornaments
from the ancient time itself.

270
It may be mentioned in this connection that Kaufilya
mentioned five varieties of gold and has also specified their colours.
 1. J a m bunada: It's colour was similar to that of'the h i t of rose apple
(black- plum). It was excavated in tllehferu mountai11region.
2. Scirulcumb ha: Its colour resembled the colour of the pollen of lotus

Ilowcr. It wns excavatcd in thc ,<rrtakumbhumoun1;iin rcgion.

3. Huraka: Its colour was equal to that of .fevdl'tflower. It was

excavated from the gold mines.
4. Yainuva: Its colour was similar to the kar,p'/'karaflower and it was
excavated fiom the V+ur mountain regions.
5. Sr@i &kt@: I$ colour rescnlbled Ulc colour ormcnsil. It was
excavated in Svarwb h iimi region.

Kautilya has divided gold into three categories, Jatarupa

(naturally pure), Rasasiddha (purified by Chemicals) and Akarodgala

(impure gold excavatcd from mines). The Sdiakumbha variety was considered
the best, the red-yellow coloured next best and the red coloured the worst.
27 1
Halayudha mentions 25 names of gold likejan b anada, Sdtakurnbha etc.

ii) Silver: Silver is a lustrous and white metal which can be

moulded into many forms after melting. It is difficult to determine since when
from the metal has been used for rnt&ing ornaments. We come across many
references to this metal in many literature. The earliest wchaeoIogica1
evidence comes tiom TaksaSila where silver ornaments aid utensils have been
discovered. These ornaments and utensils have been made in the tradition of
Greek cult~rrc. Tl~eseare regarded as having been made in the first cent.
No utensils made in the Kussna or the Gupta periods have been
discovered but from the contemporary literature we know that silver was used
in this period. In the Jaina literature, silver was included i11 .the category o f
precious gems and jewels.'73 Tlie middle class people used silver for making
274
ornaments. Just as people gave gold in charity so they did silver.275

r@ya was also used for silver.276The AmarukoSa

Besides the word raj~~fa,
gives five synonyms of silver namely 1) duvurym, 2) rajatam, 3) rGpyam, 4)
277 278
khurjurclun and 5 ) S I ~ C S ~ ~ or11iioic11ts
V ~ / U ~ . CS ;md coins, n~ir.r.or-s ;iild .jars

etc., were also made o f silver

~ a u ~ i l mentions ~ variety of silver namely -

~ a ' ~ fom
1. Tmlttadgata: Its colour resembled that of Jasmine flower. It was
excavated fiom the Tuttu tllou~ltainregion.
2. Gau@ka:Its colour was equal to that of tagara flower. It was
found in Assam.
3. K'dmbuka: Its colour also resembled the flower of tcrgara. It was
excavated from the region of K d ~ bu
n mountain.
3. Cdkrav~laiiza:Its colour-was similar to that ofKunda flower. It
was cxcnvatcd from the ccrkrnvaln mines.

%kite, smooth and soft silver was considered the best. Black
coarse silver with cracks was regarded worst. Haliiyudha me~~tltions
four words
to denote the silver.28D

iii) Pearl: Pearl has been used for making ornament in India
since very ancient times. The pearls were con~ideredmore useful for making
neck ornaments than for other From a perusal of sculptures of
the Kusaqa a ~ Guph
d periods it cat1 bc stated h a t Ihe coxntnon practice was to
thread the pearls in a string or wire and wear it as a neck ornament. A gasland
282
made of good quality pearls was called tdr&hdra.
 Pearls were also used to decorate fbrnitures such as a wooden
seat, umbrella283 or the handle of a sword.284 A pearl was also known as
S&i and muktuphalu. The necks of elephants were also decorated with the
285
garlands of pearls. The pearl is regarded as having originated from a
286
mountain rock. AmarkoSa informs about the drills used for piercing hole in

a pearl, namely risphopni or vnidhanikci.Z87 Halsyudha gives two words for

288
a pearl.

iv) Stiryakiinta: The gem siiryakantu is mentioned with other

precious gems ir. the Jaina literature.289 According to ASvaghoga, the gem
produced fire of fire1 and the Sun rays were brought together through this
gem.2go11is not possible to identify such a gem in modern times. Scientifically
the existence of such a gem is not i~npossiblebecause if a lence or curved gem
is placed in front of the Sun at a particular angle, fire can be produced.
~ a u t i l ~has ~ ' this gem, a kind of'crystd gem (sphogku). 11is possible
a ~called
that t h s gem was prepared by having curves in various ways. The synonyms
292
llkc ark%~narind dahanopala mentioned by Haliiyudha lu-e note worthy.

v) Sph3ika: It is a crystal gem. It is a colourless, transparent

295
gem. It was used for making ornaments,293staircase$g4 begging bowls

decorating buildings296 etc. Kautilya has mentioned four varieties of this

298
H~al2yudhahas treated it as a synonym of siiryakrinta gem.

vi) Vaidurya: It is considered one among the nine precious

299
gems. In the Sara ~ k t a k a ~ "its colour is said to be blue, and in the

its colour is said to be dark (Syrimn). Besides its use in

~ratjmlincifnka~~'
ornaments it was also used in making feet of a bed-stead etc.302 Kau~ilyahas

given a detailed account of tlds gem.303 Haljyudha calls it also as

304
bal~vayyfu.

vii) Marakata: It is also one among the nine The

Ama~.akoSu gi.ves t h e e other synonyms of -&hsi word as murzitrnata,
airnagarbha and h~zrinrna~i.~"63na has also referred to tlis gem at many
places. Its colour is said to be green. Halayudha n m e s it iza~inmcr?ddenoting
307
its green colour.

viii) Diamond: In the Amara it is called ratna and rna~zi.It was

considered as precious as any other gem. Bana rnentioi~sa room inlaid with
diamonds. '" Kaultilya gives a ddailed account of this logHalByudha

310
also mentions the terms rutna and ma%.

ix) Padmaruga: According to Kau~ilyait rcsernbled a variety

of lotus called padma.311 It was red in colour and was used in ornaments as
312
my other gem. It was also !mown as Son&51zd.

x) Saikllrt : In the literary works we do have many references to

313
the ornaments made of conch shells. Probably people with Ijrnited economic
means used these ornaments. It is also possible that even the rich might 11a.ve
worn ornaments made of conch shells for a change. Halayudha also mentions

xi) Iron: Probably the pcople of limited ecoiiomic means must

have used ornaments made of iron. It is also probable as in rnodern times,
people might have worn iron ornaments to protect thernselves from various
misfortunes. From Bgna we h o w that an ascetic named ~ a i v n c a r ~wore
a a

conch shell threaded in an i r ~ n - r i n ~ .Halayudha

~" refers eight different words

to mean the iron.3 16

xii) Flower Ornaments: It is vety popular in Indian Society.

Kings and poor, nzen m d women all were equally fo'und of wearing flower
ornaments. Probably flower ornmnents must have been so popular because
they could be worn always in new designs and ways. On the contrary the
ornaments made of precious metals, gems and other substances cannot be made
in different designs so easily. It was for this reason that flower ornaments of
various designs contiliued to be popular for so long. The fashion of wearing
garlands of flower appears to have been very popular with the Rgvedic
317
Arym. From the words of Bh2sa, IGli&sa, M2gha, and B a ~ ait can be
b o w n that the ornaments made of flowers were won1 in all parts of the body
from feet to the head.

These ornments werc n-ladc with flowcrs like voscrnl~,i ~ ' ~ r i d r l ,

kurcrvuka, kumula, manddra, nameru, Icar+lkWra, sindhuv&-a, kesara,
parpita, Grip,lodhru, kudarnba, malati, uioka etc. In addition to all these
flowers, s ~ n d lleaves, sprouts, stalks of gasses and clusters of blossom of
various bees were also won1 as omments.

3 18
There is a reference in the Pc~~lmcryrGZzhfluiccr that a wonla11
~ U k~rravaka. In the
decorated her hair with flowers of -\:dsanli, ~ C ~ L Mand
Meghduta it is stated that in the Alakapurz, women had lotus flowers in their
hands to play; they used kunda flomlcrs to decorate their hair, powder of lodhra
to beauti& their fdces, used kurcrvuku lo decorate their coiffires, used 6rZu
flo~ieras an ear ornament and in parting of their hair they used kadhmba
flower which bloomed on the arrival of their beloved.319Ornaments made with
tender leaves were also very popular. Kalidasa has stated that in the spring
season, not only the flowers of aioka tree excited the lovers for sexual pleasure
but also the tender leaves of that tree worn as ear rings by their sweet hearts
also generated amorous feelings in the hearts of pleasure seeking gentlemen.320
B2na states that the tender leaves of the dBrva grass in the ears of king Harsa
resembled an ear ring made of emerald (marakafoTZ1Flower ornaments were
also worn at the time of marriage. It is stated in the Narsacarita that
Orahavanni wore a garland of rnallika flowers on his head, nuptial head dress
made of flowers in the centre and the vaikak~kzr(a garland won1 in tlie
manner o f a sacred thread) made offlorvers on his chest.32z

A bird's eye view of the literary refkrences quoted above makes

us conclude that jewels, gems and other substances were widely used for
making ornaments by the people in that period.

Halayudha gives some valuable information regirding flower

ornaments prevailed in his time. The flower garland is known as mulu or
sr&323 The wreath of flower worn on the lock of hair is called garbhaka.324
If the wreath is fastened to the look on the crown and hrther hanging down
with the braid of hair, it i q grabhraS&kii.325 A wreath of flower worn on the

forehead is named as lalcimoka.326 The vaikak;~ is a garland ww-n scarf-like

327
in the same way as the upav$ta, across the chest. A garland worn round the
328 -
neck is termed as pralambaka. Apt& is a chaplet worn on the crown of the

head.329 Flowers, sprouts and some leaves were also worn on the ear.330 Apart
from flower, leaves and sprout, the red lac called ahktu was also produced
33 1
from some trees and were used to dccorate the Feet.
2. TYPES OF ORNAMENTS :

Probably wearing o r ~ ~ m e nhas

t s played at1 inlportant role in
increasing the beauty of human beings. The different types of ornan~entsworn
in thc various parts of t11c batly citn bc classified ns hcad omiullcnts, ciu
ornaments etc., Here an effort is made to identity and study the on~aments
mentioned by HalByudha.

i) Head Ornament: The habit of wearing liead ornaments is

very old and it can be traced back to the Indus valley civilization. Most of the
figures of Indus valley period have high fan-like head-dress on the head and in
some cases broad ribbon like ob-jects are shown around the lower parts of the
head dresses. Other types such as 'V' shaped ornaments are also noticed on the
forehead or some of the l ~ u ~figures
le found tiom Mohelljodaso.332 'i'he hair
333
pins have also been found which might have been used by women.

We have no evidence from the Rgveda whether the people used any head

ornaments such as a crown or a turban. The iutapotha B~ahihmapadescribes

334
lllclra~ias weari~lglJle usrLr.!n as her head-dcss. Ciods mid men li-ow the

Barhwt sculptures wore mostly the turbans and not the jewelled crowns,335and

the same can be said from the evidence of Sanchi The

Nagarjn~zakondasculptures of about the second century A.D. shows that in tlie
South India of that period, turbans formed the most cornmoll head dress for
Inen but here we find the wearing of crowns coming illto practice especially by
337
princes. Halayudha has also included USTL~W
into the head ornament
338
category.
The use of head ornaments has been attested to by Panini who
has alluded it to by the term lailipk~Z.kr~
Various types of head ornaments worn
by both men atld women are referred to in the ~ d ~ y o ~ c i sthey
r a ;are
~~~
muJzm@, ma&, k z r i ~ , czidumapi, Sirsajda, SikhzpGtra, rnuktajda,
gcrvdk~ukt7,ver~ikuZjc~,
si'khapuiu, Sikh&j&la,pinqkputra, vczrtulala~ik&and
lal6ipkntild-o. K2lidast-i has menlioned ns many of three types of head
ornaments and had alluded to it by the term cr,i&nzani, kapulama* and
i n r i / ~ . ~Cli&maru
~' and Kaprilamn@ were worn on the forehead and
correspond to djildem, w l d s the kirtg cor~espondsto the cro\vn was studded
with jewels. According to ~ l i d i s only ~ ~types of head ornaments were
a ~ two
worn by women and they are rnukt@iinlaand rndlya. Mukfujdla was a net of
pearls while m d y a was worn on the bun or knot of the hair. ~ 2 g h a ~has
"

frequently mentioned about mukufa which was made up of gold and was beset
with prccious gcms. l3;irja 344 has dcs~ribcdttlc licad orl~amcnlsby lhc tcrnis
ctZ@rna@, laldtikli, mnuktikn, ~nukutcr,Siroruhn and marigdlthara?zcl. ,

Cu&ma@, Kirip, Ko#ira, U.t:tisn uid h h h p were the head ornaments

345
meiltioned by I-Ialiiyudlia. The It?rir&z, ko@~'cr
a11d mukup are one and Ihe

But Somadeva in his YaSastilakm,uses the word u s p i ~ ain the sense of a

si'rovusz~a-turbm. He describes that the soldiers of northern region were
wearing multi-coloured uSnisa-s.347 From him it is not h~otwihow it war in
shape and appearance and how to wear it. But one thing we can know from
348
this reference is that us?zi$.a-s are made up of clothes of different colours,
CG&ma@ is a popular head ornament ofwornan. It is a crest jewel. It was in
vogue right from the day of Rumdyn?za where S i gives
~ her cii@rnani as a
token for Hanumn. It was not o.tlly regarded as an ornament but also
respected as the mark of auspiciousness. Garbhuku, prubhra#aka, Ealumaka,
 iipi47, Sekhnrtx, ~rttnmsL~
and nvatnmsn are all flowery ornaments worn on

ii) Ear orncunent: The terr:~cottasdiscovered from Harappa and

350
Mohenjodaro reveal the use of' only circular type of ear-drops. In the
351
I~arnaya~m, two types of car omimlcnts arc mcntioncd. '141oy arc lcu~(ialn

and trikaraqa. P,;i~inirefen to a type of car ornament called Kctrykc? 352

There is a mention of a heavy type of kunhla in M u h u b h w a by
~ataiijali."~In the NZtyufstra there are references to five h d s of ear
ornaments used by men and they are kcrrvabhi2rav, kuv&la, mocakala, kilo
354
and .CronisGtm. It also informs us that various types of ear rings were also
used by women like kundala, karwkd, karpuvalaya, pafmkar@ku,
kumplpinudrci, kurnotkilaka and ka:nrwrira.35s ~ a l i & s dhas
~ ~mentioned
L

many kinds of ear ornaments. Most of these types were pendants made up of
357
rubies and other precious stones. Bsna has described the ear ornaments by
the terms karnuvurumsu, kur?uptira, ktl~~&la,tpka~~faku,bdika and
358
kur nabh q y . Uttamsa, avatunisa, kur.!mpuru, tdurijdil, tfiqbpatril,

kundaia and karnikd are the ex ornaments mentioned by ~ a ~ ~ u d h a .

Among them uftamsa and avatamsa are flowery ornaments, usually made of
sprouts and flowers. The habit of wearing uvatamsa was in practice in
Karnataka and Bengal. This can be known from the references - 'Kar?&@
yuvuti surat~vatamsa'and 'bangavanitu Srava~avatamsa'of somadeva in
Karnnytiro,
his ~n.f'o,~tilaka.~" or tddapotra, k14,cndalaand korwkd
rfi~aljkn

are ear ornaments made up of gold. The deii word available for kcrrypura is
lianphul (Kaqmpuru r k-arqzphtila > kanphi.71). It was in the stage of a hlly
bloomed flower and an opening bud. K a r ~ i k lis
i a golden ear ring. According
t o Apnura both kar~pkdand tdlaparra are one and the same.3" K p m v d m i

further clarifies that kar*zici was mkde in gold like tdlnparro.362 But
Halayudha generalises the te~m by denoting all the ear onlaments as

k ~ r ~ u Probably
k b ~ ~by~the time ol. Halayudha the tern1 must have lost its
particular rnea~lingmid came to mean 2u.t ear ornament in general.

jii) Neck On~rm~ert: as revealed from the

The neck o~r~aments
terracotta figurines ofthe Indus vallcy pcriod iwe characterised by two different
types, ilallely llre dog-collared or close fitting type md the flowing type which
passed round the neck hanging down to the chesi region.'" The use of

is as old as the figveclu for wc Br~din il such an

nccltlace as or~~larncnts

366
to be wo111 in later times. The Ad&i?ablziirnta refers to jewelled necklaces.
367 368
A? a cnsc in point, reference may bc l ~ ~ a dtoc ~i.~kagriva, rzikma a~nd

kanfhahdra369 corresponding to close fitting strings. TI12 hanging necklaces

which xe not nu close fitting as thc dog collared types have also their parallel
370
in ,sraju, IcuZcanmalu and cundruhd~c.iofvedic and Rrdmmical literature.
371
Kautilya adds many niosr: types of nzck ornkunents. Thesl: types of neck

under the supervision of Suvarr~~dhy(zksu.

ornaments were rna~ufic~ctured
According to the -Rii?g,nScistra various types of neck ornaments were used by
372
men and Even Kslidgsa has nrentiooned various types of neck
ornm~ents, From him we come to b o w the colltinuation of the two types of
necklaces (close fitting and hanging) though they have been described Ey
different terms on the basis of their fom, shape and design. Among the short
necklaces he hs~siner~tioncdniska, a neclclace probably i~lrrdeup of coiils
stringing togcdler. Among the liiingi~lgor flowing types hc h:\s n~cniioiicd
mukrrivali, . fdrkhcira, hrirahuraiekhara, haraya.s#, vaijaylintikd,

hemast.itra,pralamba and In the KLidornbari it has been alluded to

by the tern kanakamayya, hara, tciro, hGraprabh& gkGvali and m d ~ ~
by the terms mauktikahara and
M2gha has described the neck orn~ment,~
376
mdld.

Hal2pdha gives the following names of the ornaments worn

around neck. De~acchanda,mayavaka, hum, guccha, ardhaguccha,
gopuccha, ekuvali, kantika, nakqtramald - and pralam baka are the
grivdbhurana-s mentioned by him.377 Devacchonda is a necklace of pearls
consisting of hundred strings. A4&wvaka is w. necklace of hundred strings.
In a h&ra there will be 108 or 64 strings of pearls. A necklace of 32 strings is
called guccha.3 78 According to Nemacandra, ardhaguccha is a necklace

consisting of 24 strings and gopuccho is of two ~trjngs.~~'Ekrivali is a

ncckluc of singlc stri~~g
of pcnrls. Ajnlrrlr hi^ dcfincd it as E~UVU&

ekaya~p'k6i.e. single string necklace.380 Many images and pictures of Gupta

age can be seen wearing ekaalz.

- 381 Bdna has refereed to an interesting story

in connection with ekuvali, in Harqacarita, Divakaramitra narrates the

background of the ekavali to Haqa. 'This ekavalt' was made fiom the pearls
born out of the eye-drops of moon. Vgsuki, the king of serpants collected all
the pearls and made it as an ekmuli. Later he presented it to Nsgajuna and
he inturn gave it to his friend Siitav~hana.The same ekavalf has now come to
us through tradition'.382 K ~ is also
Q a necklace
~ of single string ofpearls.
Nuksutrumdld is a necklace of 27 pearls. Prdurhbaka is the garland worn

round the neck.383 The centrat gem of the hura is known as t a r a ~ a . ~ ~ ~

 iv) Hand Qrnaent : Some of the male figures &om
Mohenjodaro have been shown wearing circular ring round the arms and
hands. There are as many as eleven rings from the wrist to the arm. Several
such rings have been found in Harappa and ~ o h e n j o d a r o . ~ * They
~ are
nothing but wristlets and armlets. The hand o m e n t s appear to be very
popular among women during this period. This is confiied by two bronze
figures with each of their hands having been adorned with a row of rings rising
Frmn the wrist to the shoulders.386 Bracelets were used by the Aryans of the

Rgvedic period.387 Both ongada and keyrira are frequently mentioned in

the Mahdbhdrara . Hopkins says that armlets are the most commonly
mentioned ornaments in the great epic.388 There use is also indicated in the

South. India of the 2'' cen.

Pataijali confirms the use of hand ornament called kap~ka.~~'

Various types of hand ornaments used by men are mentimed in the
Nhtyaidstra and ffiey are valaya, rucika, citika, hastavali, keytira and
a ~ i ~ o d o .It~ also
~ ' contoins numerous references regarding the use of hand

ornaments by women.3g2 These ornaments were worn on the wrists, arms, in

between the elbows etc. Ulidiisa has alluded to it by the terms aiLgada and
vulayu corresponding to armlets and bracelets.393 Arcordig to B g ~ aB
, h d

has decorated his fore arms with bra~e1et.s.~~~

In the Kdambari, some chiefs
of Udain have been described wearing bracelets.395 ~2gha has also

mentioned that these ornaments were worn by men during his

Keyiiru, angada, LZvGpa and parihdrya are the ornaments

worn on the arms mentioned by ~ a l a ~ u d h a . They
~ " all denote UIC armlets.
Halayudha treats both keyt3ra and aligadu as synonym. Amara also has
treated them in the same way.398 &irasv2mi gives the etymology of the two

words - 'ke bahuiirse yauti iti keyuram, ahgam dayate zti aligadam'. 399

Both men and women wore this armlots. Valap, kurikap~and knpkct arc
the ornaments worn around the wrist enlisted by ~ a l a ~ u d h aKufaka
. ~ * ~ and
valaya are a kind of bangle or bracelet. Kalikay is a rope or thread tied
around the wrist during some auspicious ceremonies. It is also known as
pratr'sura.40 1

v) Waist Ornament : The use of girdles or the waist ornaments

can be traced back to the Indus valley ~ivilization.~" In the vedic;O3

I3rahmanicd4O4 nod ePic4O5period as well wc get numerous literary references

to the use of various types of ornaments. It has been alluded to by the term
roianri and rnekhalri.406 The $atapntha Brahmap shows that waist band
was worm around the lower garment and it appears that it was more a part of
dress than an ornamental devicen407 Its use in South India of about znd
Century AD is clearly testified by the evidence of Na@rjunakon&
408
sculptures.

PA~inialso c o d m the use of wais.t ornament by the term nivf

.409 The Nu&aSGstra informs us that two types of girdles were used and they

were called taralu and ~titraoka.~'~

Tamla was a loose girdle while siitroka
was a girdle string. It also inform about kuAcl; mekhala, raiand aid kalupa
worn by women.411 KGiiici was made up of one string of pearls or beads,
mekhulu was a girdle with eight strings, r a h n a was made up of sixteen
strings, while kaldpa was a girdle of twenty five strings. Gli&sa also
 confirms the use of girdles during his tirne412 In the Har;acarita, it har been
stated that king Haw has presented tlie ambassador kern the king of Assan,
besides other ornaments, a waist-band called the parinive$a.413 In the

$iwrilnvadha also mention has been made to the use of k ~ b a n d h o It. ~was
~~
probably made with the mufija grass.

Kaldpa, saptaki; kaficl, mekhala raianu, ka p's atra,

s8rasana, ki&iqi; k.pdraghantjkii were the ornaments worn around the
waist, referred by ~ a b y u d h a , ~Both
* HaQydha and ~ t n a r a s h h a ~have
'~
treated kaldpa, saptaki, kaAci, mekhala, rasand and sdrasana as synonyms
meaning a girdle. But fromthe description of Sornadeva it can be known that
there was a slight difFerence between mekhalfi and kafici. Kt.Zici should be a
girdle of strings of small beads and mekhu2d should be entwined with small
bells. He refers to kufici as k a 2 c i g u ~ and mekhal6 as mmukhara
rna@rnekhalii. In another context he refers to a mekhaEGZ entwined with bells
- mekhlci mani kinkini j61a ~ o d a n e ~ KaQ'sliha
.~'~ was a silken thread or
cord worn by females round their loins. Kilikiyi and k+xdrughan#u must
be the tiny bells attached with mekhnlli. 418

vi) Leg Ornament : That the anklets were worn by the women
of Mohenjodaro becomes certain from the little bronze foot and the pottery
419
figurines. The Na%yaSiistra informs us that various types of leg ornaments
were used by women during that period iil~dthey are pdapafra, ngpura,
krr&@, andp&aka@ka."' Ulidlisa makes numerous references to the use

of various types of anklets by women.421 It appears from the literary

evidences that men were initially not fond of log ommonts, as there are no
evidence of men wearing leg ornaments in the early literature. But later on,
they also adopted it from the women. B2na says that the chieftain who came to
visit king Htqa had worn anklets called pidubandha inset with precious
422
stones.

Sifijin i, plfdakcr&ka, tul~3koti, n apura, rnaiijira and

hamsaka are the cara@bhara~-s enlisted by ~ a l i ~ y u d hAccording
a . ~ ~ ~ to
him all the words are synonyms of an anklet or a tinkling ornament for the
feet of women.

vii) Finger Ornament: Finger rings have occasionally been

found at Mohenjodaro. The discovery of a few silver rings may suggest that
424
frnger rings were used. The arriguliyukcr is found frequently mentioned in
the Ramuya~taand Mahtibhiirata. The N d y S d s t r a i d o m us that the
finger rings were used by men. It has been alluded to by the terms aligulvaka
and m u d r ~ i . ~ 'During
~ Lhe time of Kalidlsa finger ring have become very
popular and were worn by both men and women as it is evident fi-om his
master piece namely ~dtuiiculam. The poet makes numerous references to
426
the use of finger rings by women. They are either with the design of serpent

or with the name of the owner imprinted on them. In the Siiupdavadha there
427
is a reference to another type of finger ring called urmikd.

According to Halgyudha both ariguliyaka and tkrnika mean

a ring worn in the finger.428 A ring marked with the initials of its owner is

called a ~ i g u l j r n u d r s (signet
~ ~ ring). Du~yanta presented sucli a ring to

~akuntak.The aliguZimudr&-s are very common among royal personalities.

* * *
 NOTES

Raghu, 5.76; 6.10; Rtusam., 1.7, 2.26, 4.3, 5.2, 6.15 etc.

Raghu, 9.1 1, 9.50; Vikrama, III. 12; hk.,VII.2 2 etc.

Dr. Pmdey, Indu Prabha, Dress and Onximnets in Ancient India, p. 17
Marshall, Mohenjodaro and h d u s Valley Civilmation, I. p.33.
iiva.~r.SU.,2.3.4.17; Lat.Su.,2.6.1+;9.2.14.

Jain, J, C, Jaina Agama Sahitya meriz Bhiiratiya Samaj, pp. 206-7.

Mahgvagga, 8.2.1,

Divyavadana, 11 9, 11,
+

Ibid, 11.21. 25,

Warrnington, Commerce betweent the Roman Empire and India,

p. 212.

Amara, 2.6,111,

Motichandra, Bharatiya VeSabhUsa, p. 154,

ARM, 2.395,

Divya, ~ ~ 2 1 6 .

Watters, Yuan Chwang Travels in India, I. p. 301.

ARM, 2.326,

Sarkar, Some Aspects of the ealier Social History of India, p. 59.

Motichaidra, p. 13.

Monier Williams, A Sanslait English Dictionary, p, 616.

AV, 18.4,31,

21. Sarkar, p. 6 , fn.5.

Motichandra, op, cit., p.15.

sat. Bra. 5.2,1.8,

Panini, Astadhyayi, 4.3.42.

Rama, 2,40.9,

Aca, ~ a .2, . 5 . ~ .

Mbh, 2,47,22,

Nisitha carani, p, 467.

Br. Kal, Su. B h a ~ y a ,4. 3661,

Agarwal, V. S., Harsacarita eka Samskrtika Adhyayana, pp. 78, 79.

Vikrama,, 111.12.

Raghu., 9.43.

Rtu., 6.4. 27.

Vikrama., p, 60.

Megha,, p, 41,

Agarwal, V. S., India known to Panini, p. 225,

Motichandra, p. 93,

By, Kal, Su. Bhasya, 4.3661,

Nsitha,, 7, p.467.

Harsacarita, p. 7.

Ibid, p. 10,

Ibid, p. 114.

Acarariga, Vastra, 14.6.

ARM, 2,394,
Motichandra, p, 95.

Arth. Sas., 2. 1 1 .

Ibid.

Madhyama Vydyoga, p, 5 .

Amara, ed. Ramanathan, A . A , , 1, p. 434; V, 113.

ARM, 2,394,

W t a , 11.15,

Kumara,, 5 . 30.

Agruural, V. S., KSdambari: eka SfimsQtika Adhyayana, p, 56.

Kumara., 7. 37; Raghu, 4. 65, 14.81.

Kumgra., 5 . 67; SZU., 4, 64.

Motichandra, p. 151.

Niiithacurani, 7.467.

Sak., I,8.19; Kum2ra, 5.8.16;V.S. Aganval, K2d. Sam. Adhy,,

pp. 178,214, 328.

Agarwal, V. S,, Kad. S2m. Adhy, p. 150.

V2mana pur,, 14,61.

ARM, 2.28.

Divyavadsna, p. 349 quoted by Motichandra, p. 96.

Ibid, p, 83 quoted Ibid,

Ibid, p. 194. quoted Ibid.

Watters, Yuan Chwang Travels in India, I. p, 120.

Motichandra, p. 3 1.
 199

Lalitavktara, p. 3 12; ed. Vaidya, P.L., Mithila Vidyapitha,

Darbhanga - 1958.

Minier WiEliams, p. 470.

Lalita., p. 312.

Paiicatantra, I. 66.

Br. Kal. Su. Bhiisya, 4. 3661,

Jain, J. C,, p. 207, fn,5.

Motichandra, p. 61.

Amara, 2. 6, 113.

AlIotichandra, p. 149.

RV., I. 67. 3.

Gayatri Varma, Kglidgsa ke granth Tatkalina S a m s m , p. 200.

Monicr Williams, p, 581.

ARM, 2. 394.

'dukt2lam gau vigya vifisp ktirpdsikam' Acsraliga, 2. Vastra.

Srl. 368.

NiSitha.,7. 10. 12.

Arth. as., 2. 11.

Ibid,

Jain, J. C., 11. 206 - 7,

Acaranga, I. 7,5, 1., 11, 5. 1. 3.

DivyavadZina, p+316.

Lalita, p. 333,
 200

Motichandra, p. 97.

Ibid.

Agawd, V. S4,Harsacaritsl eka Sarnskma Adhyayana, p. 77

Ibid, pp. 77, 78.

Ibid, p. 78,

Kad.: p. 17.

H q a , p, 202.

Motichandra, p. 147 ( Bhar, ves. bhu)

Antaga* das30, p. 32, quoted by Motichandra, p. 148.

Raghu., 17. 25.

Bha?ft'kavya,3. 34; 10 -1.

Gimgovinda, 1, 4, 6., 2. 6. 3,, 12. 22. I., 12. 23. 3.

Agarwal, V, S,,I-Iarsa Sam, adhy,, p. 76.

Rtu., 1, ,4

Amara, 2. 6. 113.

ARM, 2,394.

Harsa, p, 60.

Ibid, p, 16.

A h , Sgs., 2.11, with the comrnenatary of Ganapathy Sastri.

ARM, 2,217,

kpmatast r a s y a v i k ~ r a ~ k ~ u nduhyate
mm k~rnLZylZ& g a t e

duk dam / Abhi, Cint2maa., 3. 3 33.

~abdaramilkara,3. 213$
 201

Dicy. of Eco. Pro., I. p. 468 - 9.

xcurariga, 2.5. 1. 1.; Mahavagga, 8.9. 14.

Motichandra, p, 145,

Jain, J. C,, P, 206

Quoted, Ibid, fn. 3,

Motichandra, p, 146,

VSyu b.,
8. 89.

Ibid, 80, 4-6,

ARM, 2.391.
A Record of Buddhist Religion as Practiced in India and the Malaya

Archipelago, tr. by Takakusu, Oxford - 1896; p. 54

Ibid, p, 43,

A M , 2.291,

YaSatilaka, p. 132.

Ibid, Sarnskp pka .

Ibid, Uttara, p, 82.

ARM, 2.391,

hid.

Amara, 2 . 3 , 118.

Abhi. cinti3rnqii, 3. 336 - 37.

J, C., Jaina Agarna Sahitya mem Bharatiya Sarns~a,

Jh,

Chaukhamba Vidya Bhavana, Varanasi - 1965.

Arth. as., ed. R, Sarma Shastry, p. 114.

M&vagga, VIII. 13.4, 5.
Takakusu, p. 54.
Amma, 2. 3. 117.
MahAvagga, 8.13.4 - 5 .
Kumra., 8. 2; M$lavikg., 5.7.
Mathura museum, Se. No. 3532.
Byhat. Kal. Su. Bbsya, IV. 4084.
H q a . , Tr. Cowell, p. 261.
h a m , 2. 6. 118.
ARM,2. 392.
Mahiivagga, VIII. 29. 1.
Bhik. moWa, IV. 40.96.
Samayam2itrk.2 ,VIII. 54 - 56.
Atnara, 11. 8. 64.
Agrawal, V. S,, Harsa. Sam. Adhy., Fig. 72.
Motichandra, Bh2r. VeS. Bhtis, p. 161.
Quoted, Ibid, pp. 184, 185.
ARM, 2.397.
Amara, 2. 8. 64.
Agarwal V. S., Harsa. Sam. Adhy., p. 150.
Agarwal, V. S.., Ahicchatra ke khilone, fig. 305, p. 173.
Motichandra, p. 161.

Raghu., 4. 55.
Ibid, Sarhs- tika.
Harsa., p. 206.
Ibid, p. 24.
GdarnbM, p. 215.
%id, p. 216.
Motichandra, Costume Textiles Cosmetics and Coiffure in Ancient and
Mediaeval India, p. 8.
ARM,2. 392.
Mathura Museum, Sec. No. 213.
Notichandra, Costume, Testiles Cosmetics and CoiffUre in Ancient and
Mediaeval. India, p. 161.
, 2. 397.
h a , 2.6. 113, with the commentary of K.+irasv%ni.
Ibid, Sarfi. fiu.
Sabda Rat,, 3. 225.

YaSastilaka, Piirva., p. 7 1.
Notichandra, Coshune, Tediles Gosmetics and Coiffinre in Ancient and
Mediaeval India, p. 161.
Agarwal, V. S., Harsa. Sam. Adhy., p. 154.
ARM, 2.397.

Mbh., ed. ICinjawadekar, Poona - 1929; 11. 5 . 1. 8.

Brhad. Up., II,3. 6.

Arth. ~ 2 sed.
. Shama Sllastxy, p. 89-90.

ARM, 2.396.

YaSas., uttara, p. 200.

Amara, 2.3.116.

Watters, Yuan - T-sang 's travels in Indian, part - I.

YaSas., parva., p. 575.

ARM, 2.396.

AV, XEV. 2. 66-67.

ARhl, 2.396,

Mackay ,C., p. 80.

Marsahall, pl, XCIX - 5,6,8.

RV, VII. 33.

Ibid, I. 114; VI. 5 5 , 1; IX. 67. 11.

Das, Rgvedaic Culture, p. 217.

Social and Religious Life in Gyhyasutras, Bombay - 1939, p. 73.

. , Shama Shastry, p. 18, V. 19.

Arth. ~ % sed

Ibid, p. 20, V. 21.

Manu.,IV. 34-36; Y;?;jjr?a.,

1. 131-33.

Puri, B. N., India in the tirne of PatafijaJi, p. 106.

Raghu, XVI, 43.

Vikrarna., V. 247.

Raghu., I. 42; 111. 28.

Arnara, pp, 423,24; V. 95-97; ed. Ranlanathan, A. A.

Hssa, pp, 30,72, 116, 203 and 243.

Kadarnbm-, ed. Kane, P. V,, p. 28.

Harsa., pp. 35, 47, 94.

Kiidarnbari, ed, Kane, P. V,, p, 13,

Watters, OnYuanChwang, I, p. 148. 151.

Mackay, E., Early Indus Civilization, p. 180,

RV, X. 114.37; VZII, 14. 5.

Das, A. C., Rgvedic Culture, p. 217.

Pataiijali, I. 1. 2; 11. 2. 24.

N2fyaSastra, XXIII, 66.

Rtu,, IV. 15.

Ibid.

Megha., Uttaa, 2,

Raghu,, XIV, 12,

Upadhy%ya,B, S., p. 204,

Megha., Uttara, 30.

Ibid, 96,112; Raghu., VI, 33.

~akuntalii,VIII.21.

Malavika,, 111, 22,

SakuntaEi, VII . 21.

Indian Historical Quarterly, IV, 1929, 303.

K%d,,Kane, P,V,, paras. 131,133.

Cowel, Hasacarita, p. 83
Ibid, p. 72.
Majumdar, History of Bengal, Vo1.1, p. 6 15.
Ojha,O.H.,Madhya Kalina Bhiiratiya Smsw,p.44.
Vaidya., C.V., The History of Mediaval India, I. pp. 92, 93.
ARM, 2.375.
tam dhupGyana knSGnfam... R a p , 17.25; cESyd~a- Sobhifa, Sarin.
pla.
Ibid, 16.50.
Megha, I. 32.
Ibid.
m,2. 375.
Banerjee, IN., The Development og Hindu Iconography.
Arnara, 11. 6. 97.
Raghu, 17. 13.
Agarwal. V. S., R;ijghat ke f i l a u M b eka adhyayana, p. 25 1.
ARM, 2.375.
Sat. Bra., XIII. 8. 4. 7.
AV, XIV. 1.6.
Ibid, IX.6. 11.
As. g.s ~ .III.
, 8. 1.
AV., XIX. 44. 1.
Arth. Sgs., Tr. by S2maS%stri, p. 79.
Suiruta Cikitsgthna, XXIX. 4, Tr,. by Kunja Lal.
IGd, ed. Kale, M. E., Bombay - 1928; p. 34.
Harsa, Tr. by Cowell and Thomas, London - 1897; p. 198.
ARM, 2.388 - 90.
Ibid, 2. 385.
Ibid, 2.386.
Ibid, 2. 387.
Ibid, 2. 390
Ibid, 2. 384.
for the detail descrition of the ornaments mentioned in the Vedic
-
literature, please see Rai Govind Cahnd, Vaidika Kelina Abhusana.
mma. I. 58. 11; MLa71li. 13. 48. 32; 33.
Amara, TI. 9.95.
nbid, 11.9.96.
Ibid, IT. 10. 33.
B u d d h a c ~ t of
a ASvaghosa, 11.37.
Yuan Chwmg, p. 58.
Jain, J. C., pp. 143-44.
P r a W nataka, I. 3.
Agarwal, V. S., E d . S2m. Adhy., p. 8.
Madhyarna V2yoga, I. 42.
Carudatta, I. 1.
Kumara, VI. 6.
K ~ a b k r aI., 18.
~ i vJataka,
i Verse 3. E

Dhammapada Atthakat~,I. p. 384.

Agarwal, V. S., Kgd, Sam. Adhy., p. 110.
Arth. Sas., tr. Gairola.
ARM, 2. 18 19.-
Encyclopeadia Britanica, 20. p. 545.
Jain, J, C., p. 144.
Ibid
~ i bJataka,
i Verse 3. E

~ a Verse 5. ff.
~ a J&ika,

Ibid.
Aganval, V. S. KAd. S%m.Adhy., p. 265.
Arth. s ~ s . Tr.
, By Gairola, p. 265.
ARM, 2.17.
KumBrta, I. 42; III. 53; M.6; PX.24; Agmral, V. S., #ad. Sam.
Adhy., pp. 22,23,27,29,30,34,48,59,66-68,73, 80,97,103, 107,
112, 120, 130, 145, 147, 148, 188, 193, 194,223,225,242,251,
259,294,306.
Aganval, V. S.,T I~I-s;~,
p. 2 1 .
Ibid.
Ibid, p. 44.
Jain, J. C., p. 143.
Agmal, Kad. S2m. Ad~y.,p. 23.
Amara, ed. Rammathan, A. A, p. 440, V.33.
ARM, 3.42.
Jain, J. C., p. 144.
Buddhacarita, 2. 16.92.
Artk Sas., Tr. By Galrola, p. 94.
ARM, 2.21.

Vikrama, 111. 5.
Agarwal, V. S., Harsa, p. 15.
Kum2ra, VI. 42.
Arth. s ~ s .73.
, By Gairola, p. 94.
ARM, 2.21.
Jain, J.C., p. 144.
~ a Before verse. 1.
~ a Jgtaka,

Pratirniin2t&a, V. 5.
Buddhacarita, I. 1. 17.
Arth. S ~ S .Tr.
, Gairola, p. 94.
ARM, 2.20.
Jain, J. C., p. 144.
baa,2. 9. 22.
,2. 20.
Agarwal, V. S., Qd. Sam. Adhy., p. 67.
Arth. h s . , p. 95.
ARM,2. 21.
Arttx. $as., Gabla, p. 94.
ARM, 2.20.
S ~ S U ,7.30;&, 3. 4; A g w a l , V. S., E d . , pp. 66, 101, 111, 148. 150;
Hwa, pp. 15,58.
ARM,2. 15, 16.
Agmal, V. S., Hapa, p. 58.
ARM, 2. 15, 16.
Rgvedic Culture, p. 2 16.

Padmap~%bh@ka of hdraka, 25 (a).

Megha, 11. 2.
R.aghu, IX.29.
Agarwal, V. S ., Harsa, p. 136.
Ibid, p. 83.
ARM,2.397.
Ibid.
Ibid, 2.398.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid, 2.399.
Ibid, 2. 399.
Ibid, 2. 400.
Mackay, E., Further E om at Mohenjodaro, pp. 524-26, 544.
Ibid, pp. 261,273,277,278, 519 and 539.
sat. Bra.,XIV. 2. 1. 8.
Bachofer, Early lndain Sculpture, platttcs 10. fT
Bid.
Bulletin of the Deccan College Reaserch Institute?h n e ; 2. 66. E
ARM, 2.410.
Paqini &tidhy2yi, IV. 3. 65.
Na~yaSasd.ra(Ns) XXIII. 16, 18,23,25,26 etc.

Raghu, VI. 19,80; Kumara, VII. 94; gayV.5. ~ a k .VII.

, 24.
Kum2ra, VIII. 89; Ragh, V11.6; Megha,I. 67.
Trip% R.P., Magha lqta SiSupdavadha M d k ~ v y a I., 6,45,II. 19.
111.7; X.6, XIII.9 etc.
Harsacarita, ed. Fuhrer, A. A., pp. 52, 74; K2darnbari, ed. Kane. P. V.,
para. 133, 171 and 191.
ARM, 2. 409-410.
Ibid, 2. 410.
YGas, pu., p. 465.
For further details on us~is'a,see Dr. Motichadra, Bkrstiya.
veiabhusa,
ARM, 2. 397,98,99.
Marshall, J., Mohenjoho and Ind~nsVally Civilization, I. 44.
=ma, sundara, 10" and 15" sarga.
Panini, IV. 3.65.
Pwi, B. N., hdia in the time of PaMjali, p. 105.
NS,XXXIII. 10, 17, 19,20, 114,etc.
Ibid, XXXII. 23,25,26.
Raghu, III. 19, V.65, VTI. 27; Rtu. 111. 19.
Ug2dhyaya, B. S., Indis in Ulidasa, p. 203.
Harsa, ed. Fuhrer, A. A., p. 14,25,52, 149,190,192,207; Kgd. ed
Kana., P. V.,par. 131, 145, 149, 174, 191, 194.
AIRM,2. 401.
Yas'as., p. 180 & p. 188.
Amara, 2. 6. 103.
Ibid, Sam. fib.
ARM, 2.401.
Dasgupta, A. C., hchn Clay Sculptures, dig. 34. and 37.
Das, Rgvedic Culture, p. 217.
Journal American Oriental Society, 1 3 . 317 h.
RV, V. 19.3.
Ibid, I. 166. 40.
Rama, luskinda, 9' sarga.
RV, VIII. 47. 15; &ma, kiskind2 - 11" sarga, Ayodhya - 32ndsarga,
Sundara - 9' saga
,kth, sns., samaiastri, R., pp. 76-77.

Ibid, XIII.2, 3 1,33.

Updhyaya, B. S., India in Kalidasa, p. 202.
Kad., Kane., P.V., para, 135, 137, 142, 153, 174, 189, 191,204.
S ~ S U . ,X. 16, XVI. 84.
ARM, 2.407,408.
Ibid, 2. 407.
Abhi. cinB., 3. 324,325.
Amara, 2. 3. 103.
Agarwal, V. S., harsa, p. 189, pl. 24, fig. 82.
Ibid, p. 197.
ARM, 2.407.408.
Ibid, 2. 409.
Marshall, J., Mohenjodaro arid Indus Vally Civilization, plates
CXLIV. 7,9, 11.
%id, vol. 2, p. 345.
Macdonnel, A. A, history of Sanskrit literature, p. 164.
JAOS, 13. 137 fn.
Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute, Pune, 2. 85.
PataEijali, MahabGsya, I. 1. 1, 7, 15.
NS, XXIII. 18.
Ibid, XXIII. 34,3 5.
Raghu, VI. 14-53, VI. 73. XIX. 74; Rtu, IV. 3, VI. 7; Vikrana, I. 1,
v.2.
Harsa, ed. Cowel, E. K., & Thomas, F. W., p. 116 -7.
Kad, Kane, P. V., para. 174.
~ i i u111.7.
,
ARM, 2.402.
Amara, 2.6. 107.
Ibid, Sarbskja oka.
Arm, 2,402,403.
Ibid, 2.402.
Maokay, Further Exacavation at Mohenjodaro.
Das, S. K, Economic History of Ancient Inda, p. 52.
sat. Bra., 111. 5. 1. 6, XI. 8. 4. 7.
Rilrna, Sundara, 14th & 15th sarga (kundala), 1st and 1t h (armlets),
15th (Bangles).
Vedic Index, Macdonnel and Keith, Vol.11. 223.
Altekar, A S., Position of Women in Hindu Covilization, p. 334.
Bullelin of the Deccan College Research Institute, 2.87 flE
Panini, IV. 3. 40.

Ftu, I. 4. 6,II. 20,111. 26, IV. 4; Kumiira, I. 37,38.

Harsa, Cowell & Thonlas, p. 23 1.
S~SU,XVIII. 53.

ARM, 2.405.
Amara, 2. 6. 108.
liaSas, purva, p. 8.
ARM, 2.405.
Mackay, Futher Ex., Vol.11, plate. LLYII. 5; &W. 10.
NS, XXTII. 39,40.
Raghu, VIII. 63 (nGpura), XII. 33 ( kirikini ); Rtu, 111. 27
(mwiniSlpma); Malavikii, p. 296 ( caraqalarikara)
Harsa, Cowell and Thomas, p. 202.
ARM, 2.406.
Marshall, J., Mohenjodaro and hdus Civil., Vol. 11. p. 528.

ARM, 2.404.
Ibid.