Optical Networking: A Tutorial and Outlook

Dr. Thomas B. Fowler

Optical networking is well-established in long-haul and backbone networks. It is rapidly becoming the
technology of choice in metropolitan and local area networks as well, and may penetrate to the home
and office. In this brief tutorial, the advantages of optical networking are reviewed, followed by an
explanation of the basic principles of optical devices. Next, attention is directed to how these devices are
assembled into systems and networks. Finally, the future of optical networks is discussed, in light of
technology and deployment trends. The bandwidth abundance, which is the fruit of optical networks,
portends a rethinking of networks, especially packet networks, as we know them.

What Are Optical Networks and Why
Are They of Such Great Interest
Today?
Optical networks are digital communications
systems that use light waves (including infrared)
as a medium for the transmission or switching of
data. Pure optical or all-optical networks use
light exclusively from end to end. Opto-
electronic networks rely on conventional
electronic equipment to perform some tasks,
usually switching; they require optical-to-
electronic and electronic-to-optical conversion
equipment, which slows their operation relative
to all-optical networks. Optical networks differ
from conventional electronic or “wireline”
networks in their reliance on light waves to carry
data, rather than electron-based transmission in
wires. They differ from conventional wireless
networks in that they operate at much higher
frequencies (hundreds of terahertz), and use
waveguides (in the form of optical fiber) to carry
the data-bearing waves. A comparison of the
three types of networks in typical telecommuni-
cations configurations is presented in Figure 1.
Optical networks are of great interest today for
the following five reasons.
• Cost-effective bandwidth. Above a
certain threshold (constantly being driven
down due to manufacturing economies and
technological development), the price per
unit of bandwidth is lower, and, in some
cases, dramatically lower. For very high
bandwidths (~Gbit/second and higher) and
even relatively short distances (~100 m),
optical fiber is usually the only practical
choice.
• Noise isolation. Optical fibers are not
affected by electrical noise-producing
sources. They can be used in environments
where adequate shielding of electrical cables
would be difficult or impossible. Only in
environments with high levels of
radioactivity is there a potential problem.
• Greater security. Since optical fiber
does not emit electromagnetic radiation
which can be intercepted, optical fiber is
much more secure than many other types of
wiring, such as category 5 untwisted pair
used for Ethernet applications. Tapping
optical fiber is also much more difficult than
tapping most electrical wires.
• Smaller physical presence. A single
optical fiber cable with a diameter of less
than 6 mm can replace a bulky cable with
hundreds of wires. This is critical in
applications where space is at a premium,
such as ships and aircraft; but is also
important in retrofitting buildings and
rewiring cities, where space in conduits may
also be very limited.
• Ready upgrade path. Although there
are constant improvements to fiber optic
cable itself, in most cases increased
bandwidth can be had simply by installing
new optical multiplexing equipment.

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2 0 0 0 THE TELECOMMUNICATIONS REVIEW

 Optical Optical
Fiber Fiber
Modulator Amplifier Decoder

Optional Optical
Connector
Amplifier
Light
Input Signal Detector Output Signal
Source

Electricity Light Wavelength Electricity

λ = 800-1600 nm

Modulator Amplifier Decoder

Input Signal Transmitter Receiver Detector Output Signal

Electricity Electromagnetic Radiation Electricity

Frequency = 100 Kz to 30 GHz

T1, T45 cable T1, T45 cable

CSU/DSU CSU/DSU

Optional
Input Signal Output Signal
Repeater

Electricity

Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of Optical (Top), Wireless (Middle), and Wireline (Bottom) Networks

Coupled with these five reasons for the great improves reliability and reduces
interest in optical networks are five drivers maintenance stores and costs.
which are forcing service providers and users to • Shorter service contracts. The rapid
deploy optical networking technology at a rate of technology development implies
furious pace. faster depreciation and more rapid
replacement of equipment with newer
• Huge and insatiable demand for technology. Shorter equipment life can
bandwidth. No one seems to be able to get translate into shorter service contracts, with
enough bandwidth. Applications at all accompanying lower risks to users, since
levels constantly demand more. Even in the service providers do not have to recover
home environment, VHS-quality video on plant and equipment costs over long periods
demand, and soon high-definition TV (e.g., decades).
quality video, will drive fiber to the curb • Promise of rapid provisioning.
(FTTC) and fiber to the home (FTTH). Although not yet realized, widespread
• Commoditization of optical network deployment of optical networks will mean
components. Standardization and mass an era of bandwidth abundance, in which
production of components enable more new service can be deployed with a few
powerful and economical networks to be keystrokes at a computer terminal rather
built. Plug-and-play compatibility means than after months of laying cable.
that users are not locked into proprietary
equipment from vendors who may go out of Such is the current situation and the drivers for
business. This greatly reduces the risks of optical networking. In this brief tutorial, we will
deploying optical technology. bring the reader to a basic level of understanding
• Reduced number of components. of optical networks, so that he can pursue the
Higher bandwidth per fiber, plus subject in more specialized venues. We will
development of more and better all-optical proceed by examining optical networks at three
components, means network simplification levels: physical principles, optical networking
and equipment consolidation. This devices fabricated based on physical principles,
and construction of optical networks based on

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THE TELECOMMUNICATIONS REVIEW 2 0 0 0

devices currently available. We will also explore
the future of optical networking given current
trends in prices, deployment, and technology.
Fundamentals of Optical Networking
Physical Principles
Optical networking is based ultimately on three
physical principles:
• Total internal reflection of light, which
allows light to traverse great distances in
suitable media with minimal attenuation
• The ability to generate appropriate light
(lasers and light-emitting diodes [LEDs])
• The direct relationship between the
frequency of a carrier and its capacity to
transmit data
The superiority of optical networks for data
transmission stems directly from these
principles, which are discussed below. The
invention of optical amplifiers has made long
distance optical telecommunications systems a
reality. These amplifiers and their principles are
also discussed in this section. Finally, the “Holy
Grail” of optical networking, all-optical
switches, are considered. Though not yet
available with the required performance,
development of these devices continues at a
furious pace.
Total Internal Reflection
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To understand this critical aspect of optical
networks, it is necessary to review briefly the
basic physics of light. When light enters a
medium such as glass from free space, it slows
down. The ratio of its speed in free space (c) to
its speed in the new medium is known as the
index of refraction and is designated by n. For
optical glass, n ≈ 1.5. When a ray of light enters
the new medium at an angle, it is bent, in
accordance with Snell’s Law, as illustrated in
Figure 2a:
ni sin ϑi = nr sin ϑr
where i designates the incident ray, and r the
refracted ray, as shown, and n r > ni .
If light is traveling in the opposite direction, it
follows the same path, but is bent away from the
vertical, as shown in Figure 2b. Of most interest
is what happens when the incident angle in this
second case increases. This is shown in
Figure 3. When the critical angle θ cr is reached,
as in Figure 3 (a), no light leaves the incident
medium, and beyond the critical angle, all of the
light is reflected back into the incident medium,
so that the boundary between the two media
becomes, as it were, a perfect mirror. This is the
phenomenon of total internal reflection.
This phenomenon of total internal reflection can
be harnessed to do useful work by proper
shaping of the medium. In particular, if we can
ensure that the ray always hits the boundary at an
THE TELECOMMUNICATIONS REVIEW
 θi θi
Incident
medium, ni Refraction
refraction
Incident ray medium, nr
Refracted ray

Refraction
refraction Incident
medium, nr Refracted ray medium, ni
Incident ray
θr θr

Figure 2a. Snell’s Law For Light Figure 2b. Snell’s Law For Light
Entering A Denser Medium Entering A Less Dense Medium

θr=90o

Refraction
refraction Refraction
refraction
medium, nr < ni medium, nr < ni
Refracted ray

Reflected ray

Incident θi
medium, ni
Incident Incident ray
Incident ray medium, ni
θcr
c
r

(a) Critical Angle for Refraction (b) Total Internal Reflection,θ > θcr
i

Figure 3. Critical Angle and Total Internal Reflection

angle greater than the critical angle, it will never
leave the incident medium and will propagate by
total internal reflection indefinitely, as shown in
Figure 4. This requires that the medium be
roughly cylindrical in shape, and have a very
small diameter. Such a medium, known as a
“waveguide,” can be bent, provided that the
bends are not so tight as to violate the critical
angle requirement. Manufactured commercially,
this medium is known as “optical fiber.”
reflection. Other layers are for physical
protection of the fiber, and to prevent it from
being bent at sharp angles. Of course, since
glass is a physical material, the traveling light
wave is subject to a variety of problems,
including dispersion and absorption, which
ultimately limit the fiber’s length. However,
with current technology, optical fiber cable can
go as far as several thousand kilometers without
requiring amplification or regeneration.

A typical optical fiber, as currently manufac-
tured, is shown in Figure 5. Note that the inner
carrier of glass is surrounded by another layer of
glass of lower refractive index, called the
“cladding,” in order to create the total internal
There are two types of fiber manufactured:
multimode and single mode. In single mode
fiber, the glass core is made so small (8-10
microns) that it is on the order of a wavelength of
light. In this case, light is confined to travel in

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THE TELECOMMUNICATIONS REVIEW 2 0 0 0

only one path, called a “Mode,” down the center
of the core. This permits the longest distance,
but is also the most expensive type of fiber.
Multimode fiber has a larger core diameter (~50-
60 microns) and, thus, allows light to travel
along many different paths. It is cheaper to
manufacture, but the existence of multiple light
paths ultimately leads to dispersion and limits the
useful distance of the fiber. Special
manufacturing techniques, such as graded
refraction index glass, are now used to create
fibers with more desirable dispersion and other
characteristics.
Sources of Light
In order to use light to transmit data, it is
necessary to have light sources that are suitable
for the purpose. Coherent sources maximize
transmission capacity, which means they must be
of continuous sine-wave shape, as are conven-
tional radio waves, of a single frequency. In
addition, the frequency of the data pulses must
be less than the frequency of the light waves.
And, finally, it must be possible to turn the light
source on and off rapidly (modulation). Non-
coherent light, when modulated, can yield
erroneous results on the receiving end, unless
averaged over a suitable time period (which
limits the speed of data transmission). Note that
the frequency of light commonly used in optical
networking, 1300 nm, is on the order of 23
terahertz; hence, it is not currently the limiting
factor in the performance of such networks.

Source: Eugene Hecht, Physics, Pacific Grove, CA: 1996, p. 953

Figure 4. Optical Signals Traversing Optical Fiber

Glass
Secondary Buffer to 900 mm
Cladding

Glass Primary
Cladding Buffer

Source: Optical Cable Corporation

Figure 5. Typical Optical Fiber

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2 0 0 0 THE TELECOMMUNICATIONS REVIEW

Lasers and LEDs are used to generate the light hundreds of gigabits per second. The types of
for optical networks. LEDs are not coherent and, solid-state lasers in common use are summarized
thus, are suitable only for lower performance in Table 1. [2]
applications with maximum speeds of about
300 Mbps. [1] They cannot be used with single- Relationship Between Carrier Frequency and
mode fiber. LEDs can, however, be switched on Data-Carrying Capacity
and off at the required speeds for multimode
fiber; other incoherent light sources, such as This well-known relationship was originally
tungsten filaments and florescent bulbs, can only worked out by Claude Shannon: [3]
be turned on and off very slowly—typically less
than one cycle per second, and are therefore C = W log 2 (1 + S / N )
useless for data transmission purposes.
where W is the channel bandwidth, and S/N is
The lasers in common use are, like LEDs, solid- the signal-to-noise ratio at the receiver. Since W
state devices. Lasers handle speeds now in the
= fhigh – flow, for a given percentage
difference
Type Characteristics Uses
Fabry-Perot (FP) Mode-hopping, chirp, wide Lower-performance systems,
spectral width multimode fiber
Distributed FeedBack (DFB) Some chirp Single-mode fiber, WDM
Distributed Bragg Reflector (DBR) Narrow spectral width, can be Single-mode fiber, WDM
tuned
Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting High output power (~1 mw); High-performance replacement
Lasers (VCSEL) high modulation bandwidth for LEDs
(~2.4 GHz), stable, up to 500 m;
multimode; 850 or 980 nm

Table 1. Characteristics of Lasers for Optical Communications [2]

between high and low frequencies, say 1 percent,
the formula becomes
f high log 2 (1 + S / N )
C=
100
indicating that higher frequencies can bear more
information. The basic idea can easily be
understood by referring to Figure 6 (a), which
shows a coherent (continuous) light wave being
modulated to carry data. Each pulse of data is
represented by several light wave cycles, and can
be detected easily on the receiving end. Contrast
this with Figure 6 (b), where an attempt is made
—still with coherent light—to transmit data
faster than the frequency of the light wave. The
problem is that a pulse may correspond to a low
point in the light wave, so that a detector on the
far end cannot determine if a 1 or a 0 has been
transmitted. Because of their extremely high
carrier frequencies, optical systems can handle
far higher data rates than conventional systems
(~20 Terabits per second versus ~100 Gigabits
per second).
Optical Networking Devices
The primary components needed to build optical
networks are optical amplifiers (repeaters),
optical multiplexes, and optical switches. They
are discussed in this section together with the
current standard for optical transmission,
Synchronous Optical Network (SONET).

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THE TELECOMMUNICATIONS REVIEW 2 0 0 0


(a) Lower Than Carrier Frequency
Figure 6. Attempt to Transmit Information at Rate
Optical Amplifiers
Digital transmission systems using standard
twisted-pair or coaxial cable suffer from pulse
smearing over long distances. [4] On account of
this problem, devices known as “repeaters” are
installed, which detect, regenerate, and amplify
the transmitted signal. Optical systems suffer
from a similar problem, one that, however, has a
different origin from the RC integration of
conventional cables. [5] If electronic repeaters
are used to solve it, then the optical signal must
be converted back to electrical form, detected,
and retransmitted optically. This type of
Optical/Electronic/Optical (OEO) device is
undesirable for many reasons, most notably cost
and the speed penalty it entails. In the late 1980s
the first all-optical amplifiers were developed,
using rare-earth doped single mode fibers as the
amplifying element. Most commonly employed
is erbium, and so these amplifiers are often
called Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifiers (EDFA).
The operation of these amplifiers is illustrated
schematically in Figure 7. The input signal to be
amplified is mixed with a pump or power laser.
The erbium in the erbium-doped fiber has state
transitions, which cause emission of photons
coherently with the incoming signal. Gains as
high as 1000 (30 dB) are possible with this
method, and even 25 dB is possible on an
amplifier fabricated on a printed circuit card.
Such amplifiers do not need to understand the
digital coding scheme employed, will operate at
27
2 0 0 0
Error:
0 transmitted
1 received Error:
1 transmitted
0 received
(b) Higher Than Carrier Frequency
almost any speed, introduce only picoseconds of
delay, and can amplify many different wave-
lengths simultaneously. [6] It is, indeed, this
latter characteristic that has made widespread
deployment of Wave Division Multiplexing
(WDM) networks (discussed below) possible.
Other types of optical amplifiers are available,
but less widely used than the EDFAs because of
inferior characteristics. Among these are plastic
fiber amplifiers, semiconductor optical/laser
amplifiers (SOAs/SLAs), and Raman effect
amplifiers.
Optical Transmission Equipment and SONET
SONET was designed originally for the internal
operation of telephone company networks.
Strictly speaking, SONET is not an optical
networking technology, but rather an electronic-
based system that utilizes optical links. [7]
SONET employs fixed-length frames of 810
bytes, transmitted every 125 µ sec. [8] It was
intended to carry 64 kbps data streams in an
optimal manner. SONET was designed from the
ground up to be extremely reliable, as this is a
prime requirement of the telephony industry.
Equipment to support it is widely available, and
despite some disadvantages associated with its
overhead and its roots in the telephony industry,
it is commonly used for transport by the Internet
community. The basic SONET bandwidth is
51.84 Mbps, and is referred to as OC-1. With
THE TELECOMMUNICATIONS REVIEW
 Light WDM 10 m of
Coupler
Input Erbium
Doped Fiber
Pump
Laser
Feedback
Power Control
Source: Dutton, Understanding Optical Communications, p. 200
Figure 7. Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier
time-division multiplexing, it can handle 672
64 kbps (DS-0) channels, or 28 DS-1 channels, or
1 DS-3 channel. Multiple OC-1 streams can
themselves be multiplexed on a byte basis, and
this leads to higher SONET speed designations,
with OC-3 (155.52 Mbps) and OC-12 (622.01
Mbps) in common use. Currently OC-192
(9953 Mbps) is the highest speed available
commercially.
Optical Multiplexers
Multiplexers are devices which allow multiple
data streams to use the transmission capacity of a
given link simultaneously. Their purpose is to
improve the utilization of relatively expensive
channels in a cost-effective way by using
relatively inexpensive electronic or optical
equipment on either end. For optical networks,
the two most commonly employed multiplexing
techniques are Optical Time Division Multi-
plexing (OTDM) and WDM.
OTDM uses optical processing to combine feeds
from several lower-speed optical links. These
are combined using the traditional techniques of
time division multiplexing, which call for
transmitting each of the low-speed feeds for a
short period of time over the high-speed link. It
is of interest primarily because the speed of the
fastest optical networks is an order of magnitude
or more faster than the fastest electronic
networks, making electronic-based multiplexing
impossible at these speeds.
28
THE TELECOMMUNICATIONS REVIEW
TAP Isolator
Amplified
Light Output
Filter And
Detector
WDM takes advantage of the fact that different
wavelengths of light (colors) can be transmitted
over a single fiber simultaneously. The light
sources of different wavelengths can be
combined with splitters (used in reverse) or Y-
junctions. At the receiving end, the problem is
more difficult, but the principle is the same as
using a prism to separate the wavelengths
(frequencies) in white light. Commonly, some
type of diffraction grating is used, which bends
light as a function of its wavelength. Combining
a few wavelengths is relatively straightforward
and equipment has been commercially available
since 1996; this is sometimes referred to as
Simple or Sparse Wave Division Multiplexing.
At present, effort is concentrated on putting large
numbers of wavelengths onto a single fiber, and
this is referred to as Dense Wave Division
Multiplexing (DWDM). The state-of-the-art
now is 32-80 λ ’s or wavelengths; it is expected
that upwards of 1000 may eventually become
possible within ten years. This will permit many
terabits per second of data to be transmitted over
a single fiber.
Optical Switches
Creation of all-optical switches is the key to
building all-optical networks. Optical switches
do exist and are commercial products at present,
but they do not yet have the switching speed or
2 0 0 0
ability to handle as many streams of input as
conventional all-electronic switches.
Switches are generally made up of three types of
components: simple one-input, two output units;
crossconnects; and micromirrors. From these,
large switch fabrics can be constructed. Solid-
state versions of all three can be fabricated. The
first is usually termed a Digital Optical Switch
(DOS). It is constructed by using a splitter or
Y-coupler, with an electrode added which can
impose an electric field on the light-carrying
material, such as lithium niobate (LiNiO3), which
has the property that its refractive index changes
when subjected to an electric field. Depending
on the direction of the field, one or the other
output path is selected. This type of switching
element is used to construct crossbar type of
switches. The second type of element, the
crossconnect, has two inputs and two outputs.
Optical versions can be fabricated using several
techniques, one of which relies on resonant
couplers and electrodes. When no voltage is
applied to the electrodes, light travels from input
ports to output ports based on the device
configuration. When voltage is applied to the
electrodes, the refractive index of the wave-
guides changes and light from both inputs
switches to the other output. The crossconnects
result in considerable simplification of the
switching fabric as far fewer components are
required. The third method for making optical
switching elements relies on the old-fashioned
mirror, though with a very high-tech twist. The
mirrors are very small, fabricated from silicon,
and capable of flipping up and down rapidly.
These micromirrors are, in a certain sense,
electromechanical devices; but the mirror and its
hinge is entirely fabricated from the same silicon
slab. There is no assembly of components.
Furthermore, many mirrors can be fabricated on
a single slab. Units made from these micro-
mirrors can switch on the order of 50 msec. A
six by six inch square can hold 1152 mirrors with
current technology, and each can be positioned to
an accuracy of better than one millionth of a
degree. On a commercially available switch by
Xros Corporation, two of these units are
combined to make an 1152 by 1152 all-optical
switch. Light from any input is switched to any
output by being bounced off of two mirrors.
It should be noted that while 50 msec is fairly
fast, at current line speeds of 1 GHz Ethernet, or
OC192 optical fiber (10 GHz), it corresponds to
roughly 500,000 to 5 million packets. Obvi-
29
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ously, switching individual packets is not going
to be very practical! This suggests that the
current switching paradigm may require
substantial change to that of switching packet
streams or wavelengths instead of individual
packets.
Other Components
Other types of components are needed to
construct optical networking systems, of course.
• Detectors. Used to convert optical
signals to electrical signals. Commonly
used are PIN diodes (good out to about 10
GHz, after which their efficiency falls off;
serviceable to about 50 GHz), and avalanche
photo-diodes (APDs). At extremely high
speeds, traveling-wave photodetectors (all
solid state) and resonant cavity
photodetectors are used.
• Filters. Primarily used in WDM
systems to allow selection of particular
wavelengths.
Diffraction gratings are probably the most
important type of filter in use today.
• Diffraction gratings. Refract or reflect
light by an angle, which is a function of the
wavelength of the incident beam. Used for
splitting or combining signals (of different
wavelengths) in WDM systems.
• Couplers and splitters. Used to insert
light into a fiber or extract it. Since most
couplers are symmetric, they can function
either to merge two beams or split off one
beam. If only a small percentage of the light
is extracted (~1 percent), the coupler is
called a “tap,” functioning in a manner
similar to taps used on Ethernet lines.
• Lenses and prisms. Used for purposes
similar to those of conventional optics.
Lenses are employed to focus (couple) light
from a laser or LED into a fiber.
Details about the fabrication of these devices are
beyond the scope of this tutorial, but can be
found in any book on optical networking.
Construction of Optical Networks
At present, a typical optical network for a carrier
can be constructed using readily-available
THE TELECOMMUNICATIONS REVIEW
technologies and equipment. As shown in
Figure 8, services (e.g., T1, T3, OC3) are
multiplexed together and put over a SONET link.
end user
SONET D D
services
W W
D D
end user SONET
M M
services
Source: Sycamore Networks, NGN99
Figure 8. Simplified Carrier Optical Transmission Link
Optical Networking Technologies
In order to actually construct optical communi-
cations systems, more is needed than the raw
components. It is necessary to define both
transport and switching methods. To do this,
several communications layers must be defined,
starting with the physical layer, that is, a
protocol needs to be defined. [9] There are two
methods for increasing the carrying capacity of
optical fiber (WDM and OTDM, discussed
above), and five technologies to implement the
high-speed capabilities of optical networks. For
each of the five, one or more specific protocol
layers have been defined by appropriate
standards bodies, usually the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) or
the International Telecommunications Union
(ITU). These technologies comprise SONET
(discussed above), Gigabit Ethernet, Fiber
Channel, IBM’s Enterprise System Connection
(ESCON), and Fiber Distributed Data Interface
(FDDI). More recently, there have been
proposals to put Internet Protocol (IP) packets
directly on a physical optical link (IP over
photons), though commercial products are not
yet available.
SONET is the tried-and-true optical network
warrior. It was the first widely deployed optical
network technology, though despite its name it is
not and was never intended to be an optical
network by itself. As discussed above, it is an
THE TELECOMMUNICATIONS REVIEW
Several such links are themselves multiplexed
optically, and sent over an optical fiber. At the
receiving end, the process is reversed.
λ
1 end user
SONET
services
end user
SONET
λ
n
services
electronic network technology that utilizes
optical links. Moreover, it is a transport
technology, not a switching technology. It is
optimized to guarantee extremely reliable
transport of constant bit rate 64 kbps channels or
combinations of them, either between two points,
or in a ring configuration. The primary users of
SONET are public carriers, though the
technology can be employed for large private
users as well. Because of its worldwide
standards, the ready availability of equipment,
and its long track record, SONET is the “gold
standard” for connecting devices such as routers.
Gigabit Ethernet is currently the fastest
implementation of the venerable Ethernet
technology. It requires opto-electronic
conversions, but does allow Local Area
Networks (LANs) to take advantage of the high
speed and low cost of optical components.
Gigabit Ethernet utilizes single-mode fiber and a
wavelength of 1310 nm for distances up to 2 km,
and multi-mode fiber at 850 nm for distances up
to 200 m.
Fiber Channel is an application of optical fiber
for interconnection of computers and peripheral
devices at relatively low speeds (i.e., low
compared to possible speeds on optical
networks) using standardized components. It
employs lasers or LEDs on single or multi-mode
fiber, and can achieve data rates of up to
100 Mbps, over distances of up to 10 km.
30
2 0 0 0
However, the multi-mode fiber media can only
reach up to about 2 km.
ESCON is an architecture intended for
connecting processors and peripherals, rather
than as a general-purpose communications
architecture. It is an electro-optical system,
which uses optical fiber to connect “stations”
(computers or peripherals) to others through an
electronic space-division switch. Maximum data
rate (as a communications device) is 160 Mbps
over single-mode fiber.
FDDI was originally proposed as a standard for
input/output (I/O) channels using optical fiber,
but is now more commonly considered as a
token-ring LAN technology that utilizes two
countercirculating rings for increased reliability.
The ring may be up to 200 km in total length,
though stations can only be 2 km apart. A
maximum of 500 stations is supported. Current
standards allow a maximum data rate of
100 Mbps. Multi-mode fiber is more commonly
employed than single-mode fiber, though in
practice, FDDI more often runs over copper
wires. [10]
Table 2 summarizes optical network
technologies and typical applications for them.
Optical Networking Applications
Optical network architecture and topology varies
as a function of the use envisioned for the
network. Typical applications follow.
• Large telecommunications provider
core network, including trunk connections
for DS0 channels, up to the ability to
connect customer routers operating at OC3
or OC12 rates.
• Internet core, where data rates
(currently OC192) double every four
months.

Teleco
Small
m Local
Larg Local or
Provide Interne IS Corporat Underse or
e Distributio Hom
r Core t Core P e MAN a Cables Interna
LAN n e
Networ l Comm
LAN
k
WDM       
OTDM   
SONET      
Gigabit
Ethernet
With  
Optical
Medium
Fiber
  
Channel
ESCON 
FDDI  

Table 2. Optical Network Technologies and Major Applications

• Internet Service Provider (ISP), with
need for high-speed connections to many
customer’s routers.
• Corporate Metropolitan Area Network
(MAN), with need for high-speed
connections over a relatively large area.
• Undersea cables, where priority is on
maximizing data rate over each fiber.
• Large LAN, where high data rates are a
priority (e.g., Gigabit Ethernet).
• Local distribution networks (e.g., fiber
to the curb or home), where delivery of
video or data at 1-2 Mbps is desired, but
costs must be kept low.
• Small or home office LAN, where high
speed is needed, for example to do video
editing, but distances are short.

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2 0 0 0 THE TELECOMMUNICATIONS REVIEW

 • Local or internal device
communications. Very short distances but
very high speed needed.
To distinguish them from conventional networks,
optical networks are sometimes referred to as
“lightwave networks.” The architecture of such
a network is shown in Figure 9. More detailed
protocol stacks have been devised for such
networks, as illustrated in Figure 10.
Before discussing the various types of networks,
it is appropriate to review the stages in the
development of optical networks, and map them
to the network types. [11]
Stage 1. Single Channel Link. One or more
optical fibers, each transmitting a single
wavelength, point-to-point only, no taps or
insertions. These were the earliest optical
applications, dating from early 1980.
Stage 2. WDM Links. Point-to-point links with
multiple wavelengths per fiber, but no optical
processing other than optical amplifiers. Produc-
tion systems in 1997. Offer capability of
enormous bandwidth for backbone applications.
Stage 3. Simple Optical Networks. Same as
Stage 2, with addition of simple optical
processing, such as add/drop multiplexers for the
wavelengths, enabling multi-node configura-
tions. Production systems in 1997.
Stage 4. Wavelength Routed Optical Networks.
In such networks, signals traverse multiple
nodes, and are routed at each node based on
wavelength—i.e., λ 's are routed (rather than
packets). Paths through such networks
correspond very roughly to Permanent Virtual
Circuits (PVCs), as they are not modified
frequently (usually months or longer). Such
networks are relatively static. The primary
application is again in backbone or Internet core
networks.
Stage 5. Optically Switched Networks. This is
the dynamic version of wavelength routed
networks. Here optical switches such as those
described above can dynamically route λ 's, with
switching times on the order of 50 msec or less.
Thus network paths can be set up and torn down
relatively quickly. Such networks would be

SERVICE SERVICE SERVICE

End-to-End Electro-optic
End-to-End Electro -opticLightpath
LightpathNetworking
Networking

LIGHTPATH
ADAPTATION
ADAPTATION LAYER
LAYER Network
Management
and Control
Wavelength Networking

WAVE

Transport and Switching of WDM Signals

FIBER

Source: Richard Barry, Optical Networking Technologies, Presented at Next Generation Networks
Conference, 1999

Figure 9. Architecture of Lightwave Network

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THE TELECOMMUNICATIONS REVIEW 2 0 0 0

 Client
Client A Client B
Layer

Client A Lightpath
Client/Network Client B
Interface Interface Interface

Lightpath Electrical Link Link

Electrical Electrical
Layer Term. Regen Term.

Segment Segment
Wavelength Optical Segment
Optical Optical Optical
Layer Add/Drop Add/Drop Add/Drop Add/Drop

Span Span Span Span

Fiber Optical Optical Optical Optical Optical
Layer Amplifier Amplifier Amplifier Amplifier Amplifier

Node 1 Node 2 Node 3 Node 4 Node 5

Lightpath Wavelength Fiber Lightpath Lightpath
Layer NE Layer NE Layer NE Layer NE Layer NE

Source: Richard Barry, Optical Networking Technologies, Presented at Next Generation Networks
Conference, 1999

Figure 10. Optical Network Protocol Stack

suitable for local applications, where switching is Internet-connected machines, current electronic
essential. Such networks should be installed in switching and dissemination will continue to be
late 2000 or early 2001. the method of choice.

Stage 6. Optical Packet Switching. Such
networks, if they are ever built, would switch
individual packets using all-optical hardware.
This type of network is a drop-in replacement for
current networks, and may never be economical,
given the decreasing prices for bandwidth due to
the proliferation of fiber-based systems. As will
be discussed later, growing bandwidth needs and
expectations may entail that in the future, for
many applications, packets will contain too little
information to be switched individually (maxi-
mum payload of an Ethernet frame is 1500
bytes); it will only make sense to switch streams
of packets. For low-bandwidth devices, such as
palm-top computers, wireless phones, and
The stages are summarized in Table 3.
Optical Networking Trends
A few graphs tell the story well. Optical
networking will continue to expand as a result of
the drivers discussed above. The current band-
width trendline is illustrated in Figure 11. The
current cost trendline is shown in Figure 12. As
devices and systems become standardized, and
costs continue to drop, optical networks will take
over more and more telecommunications
activities, moving from long-haul links steadily
downward toward LANs and in FTTH and FTTC
applications.

Telecom Local
Larg Local
Provider Interne IS Corporate Undersea or
e Distributio
Core t Core P MAN Cables Interna
LAN n
Network l Comm
Stage 1.    
Single
Channel

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2 0 0 0 THE TELECOMMUNICATIONS REVIEW

 Link
Stage 2.
WDM   
Links
Stage 3.
Simple
   
Optical
Networks
Stage 4.
Wavelength
Routed     
Optical
Networks
Stage 5.
Optically
    
Switched
Networks
Stage 6.
Optical

Packet
Switching

Table 3. Optical Networks and Major Applications

3.5

OC-192, 320λ
3
Fiber Capacity (Tbps)

2.5

SONET ERA WDM ERA

2

OC-192, 160λ
1.5

1
OC-192, 80λ

0.5 OC-192, 32λ

135 Mbps 1.7 Gbps
565 Mbps OC-48
0
1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002

Year

Source: Nortel Networks

Figure 11. Optical Network Bandwidth Trendline

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THE TELECOMMUNICATIONS REVIEW 2 0 0 0

 100%
6 GHz Digital Radio
80%
Cost Relative to 1980
405 MB/s
60%
40%
20%
0%
1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002
Source: Qtera Networks/NGN99
Figure 12. Digital Transmission Cost Trends, 1980-2001
Intelligent Optical Networking: The
Next Phase of Optical Networks
With major technology innovations, the
emergence of radically new technology permits a
complete rethinking of how to carry out basic
functions, and even what those basic functions
should be. This is the case with optical
networking as well, where speed and scalability
encourage us to design networks differently.
Intelligent optical networking represents one way
of rethinking communications in an era of
abundant and cheap bandwidth, as opposed to an
era of expensive and scarce bandwidth—that in
which the current telephone and broadcast media
evolved. One possible evolution scenario is
shown in Figure 13.
There is a natural tendency to do “drop in
replacement” of optical components for existing
copper components. But this does not take into
account the unique characteristics of optical
networks, and does limit such networks in
certain ways because they are then constrained
by some of the same limitations as copper
networks. A better approach is to rethink
networking and design optical networks from the
2 0
565 MB/s
810 MB/s
1.2 GB/s
1.8 GB/s
2.4 GB/s
10 GB/s
WDM 10 GB/s
PPN 10 GB/s
Year
PPN=Purely Photonic Networks
ground up. This is especially important because
the extremely high data rates of optical networks
make switching of individual packets uneco-
nomical and essentially impossible anyway, at
least with current technology. Rather, optical
networks are optimized for switching of data
streams. Full use of such networks will almost
certainly require rethinking and redesign of end-
user equipment as well; but that is not such a
great challenge given the relatively short life of
most such equipment (<5 years).
Taking this reasoning one step further, note that
for many applications (such as VCR-quality or
HDTV-quality video and Web browsing) it does
not make much sense to switch individual
packets because of their small payload. Rather,
it makes more sense to think of switching
lightpaths. Under this scenario, each user will
have a dedicated λ (wavelength), which is
switched through the network for the duration of
the connection (some frequency conversion will
probably be necessary because of the limited
number of wavelengths). Of course, that would
require rebuilding the Internet with a large
number of optical switches, but the numbers are
not beyond the bounds of feasibility over, say a
35
0 0 THE TELECOMMUNICATIONS REVIEW
ten year period, as the following back-of-the- need to be switched, with each passing through 5
envelope calculation suggests: if an optical switches, that corresponds to 500,000 switches in
switch can switch 1,000 λ ’s, and 100,000,000 the network. If, as is likely in the future, optical

Early-Mid ’90s Late ’90s – Early ’00s Early ’00s

LINEAR RINGS MESHES

400 GHz
Early ‘90s
200 GHz
Mid ‘90s
100 GHz
Late ’90s
Fixed Add/Drops
Late ’90s
Configurable Add/Drops
Early ’00s
Configurable Switches
Early ’00s
Wavelength Changers
?

Source: Sycamore Networks/NGN99

Figure 13. Evolution of Optical Networks

switches with the capability to handle 10,000
light beams emerge, the number will drop to
50,000. Larger switches, of course, would mean
that even fewer need be deployed. This would
correspond to an aggregate bandwidth on the
order of 108 x 1010 = 1018 bps or 106 Tbps. Given
that data traffic in the United States is currently
on the order of 1 Tbps, and the core of the
Internet is doubling every three months, in seven
years that corresponds to 20 doublings or about a
factor of 106, which is consistent with the
foregoing estimate.
If IPv6 becomes a standard, there is expected to
be a great proliferation of low-bandwidth
Internet-connected applications, such as wireless
palm-top computers, cellular phones, and
automobiles, as well as convenience devices
connected by wireline (such as soda machines).
For these cases, the current all-electronic
individual packet-switched system will continue
to dominate, though the backbone portion of the
transmission will be over optical fiber. A high-
level view of this mixed optical/electronic
architecture is shown in Figure 14.
The motivations for development of the intel-
ligent optical networking concept are fourfold:
• Reduced costs and increased
efficiencies. It is cheaper to switch waves
than to switch packets, because a wave, once
switched, can carry a virtually unlimited
number of packets with no further switching
effort. Moreover, all optical networks
reduce or eliminate costly and inefficient
OEO conversions, needed for packet
switching. Finally, intelligent optical
networks will all for consolidation of
equipment and simplified network
architecture.
• Flexibility and management.
Bandwidth abundance means “just in time”
point-and-click service provisioning,
without the need to lay new electrical cables
through expensive and hard-to-access rights-
of-way. Traffic engineering is also easy at
lowest (wave) level, since connections tend
to be made for long periods of time, relative
to switching of individual packets.

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THE TELECOMMUNICATIONS REVIEW 2 0 0 0

 ISP Backbone ISP
Video
Video Video
source
source To other λ1 Stream
pipes From other
pipes
All Optical
Web
Web Web
Switch Switched λs
server
server λ All Optical Surfing
1
Switch
D D
Web
Web Hifi
W W
server
server
D D λk Audio
M M Demux And
Web
Web Optical-
server
server λ Electronic
n
Muxing And Conversion
Web
Web Electronic- Wireless
Wireless
server
server Optical Distribution
Distribution
Conversion Conventional Switched
Other Router Packets
Web- Wireline
Enabled Optical link
Distribution
Device Electrical link

Figure 14. Two-Tiered Optical/Electrical Internet to Service All Demand Categories

• New revenue opportunities. These arise
from the fast provisioning of service, so that
a service can be offered for a short time, if
needed, say for a few days—something that
is not practical in today’s environment.
There will also be new service opportunities,
e.g., buy a wavelength from point A to point
B.
• Network robustness. There is a stable
evolutionary path to all-optical networking,
since it is easy to implement new tech-
nologies. The all-optical networks facilitate
movement to mesh networks, and away from
ring networks, which makes network
expansion much easier. Finally, the all-
optical networks readily provide for backup
(protection) bandwidth.
Typical network architectures for optical net-
works and their interconnection are illustrated
in Figure 15. In these networks, technology and
economics will fuel the move to “bandwidth
commoditization” because of the huge amount of
bandwidth becoming available, the demand for
rapid provisioning, and the availability of
technology, which makes such provisioning
possible. This will likely lead to a single
marketplace for buyers of bandwidth, with
standard contracts available, as in GSA schedule,
where buyers can specify quality of service,
duration of contract, and other service details.
Transactions will be concluded in a few minutes
by telephone or over Internet, with no month-
long waits for installation.
When will this future arrive? Exact dates are
impossible to predict, but with current trends, we
should see a significant portion of the intelligent
optical network within five years, and most of it
within ten years.

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2 0 0 0 THE TELECOMMUNICATIONS REVIEW

 Long
Distance MESH
Backbone OC-48/192/768 COLLAPSED
RING

Collection and
Metro, Distribution
Central Network
Interoffice Office
RINGS
Feeder
Network
Business OC-3/12/48
Access and Access Ring
Enterprise
Collection and
Distribution
Gigabit LAN Network
TREE

ESCON, FDDI,
ESCON, FDDI, Fiber
FibreChannel,
Channel, Gigabit
Gigabit Ethernet
Ethernet

Source: Richard Barry, Optical Networking Technologies, presented at Next Generation Networks
Conference, 1999

Figure 15. Optical Networks And Their Interconnection

References and Notes 5. Ordinary electrical cables, of whatever

type, have both resistance and capacitance.
1. Dutton, H.R., Understanding Optical Because of this, they form what is known as
Communications, Upper Saddle River, NJ, an “RC circuit,” which “integrates” or
Prentice Hall PTR, p. 116, 1998. smears signals. The longer the cable, the
more serious the problem. The degree of
2. New types of lasers, such as the smearing depends on the type of cable and
Quantum Dot (QD) semiconductor laser, are its characteristics.
under development, but are not yet 6. Dutton, p. 221.
commercially available (see “Quantum 7. Dutton, p. 484ff.
Dots: A New Generation of Semiconductor
Lasers?” in LEOS Newsletter, June 2000. 8. Bellamy, John, Digital Telephony,
Second Edition, Wiley, pp. 403-426, 1991.
3. Schwartz, M., Information
Transmission, Modulation, and Noise,
Second Edition, New York: McGraw Hill,
p. 609, 1970.
4. This caused the failure of the first
telegraph line from London to Paris. Being
effectively a digital system, the capacitance
of the cable used effectively integrated the
pulses, smearing them so that they were
undecipherable at the receiving end.

38

THE TELECOMMUNICATIONS REVIEW 2 0 0 0

 9. For further information on this subject,
see any of the many available books on
networking in general or IP networks in
particular. A useful reference is Data
Networks, by Bertsekas and Gallager,
Prentice Hall, 1987.
10. Dutton, p. 442ff.
11. Dutton, p. 573f.

A B O U T T H E A U T H O R
Dr. Thomas B. Fowler is a Principal Engineer in
Mitretek’s Center for Telecommunications and Advanced
Technology. He joined Mitretek in 1973 and has worked
on computer-aided education systems, air traffic control,
information systems, and telecommunications systems.
He is currently involved in planning the next generation
of government telecommunications and forecasting
telecommunications trends and usage patterns. He also
teaches mathematics and physics courses at Christendom
College and does independent research on the appli-
cation of systems concepts to problems in engineering,
public policy, and biology. He has a B.A. in Philosophy
and a B.S. in Electrical Engineering from the University
of Maryland, an M.S. in Electrical Engineering from
Columbia University, and an Sc.D. in Systems and
Control Theory from George Washington University.
E-mail: tfowler@mitretek.org

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2 0 0 0 THE TELECOMMUNICATIONS REVIEW