Emotions and Work

Neal M Ashkanasy, University of Queensland Business School, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Abstract

Although neglected until the 1990s, the study of emotions in workplace settings is now recognized as a legitimate and
important field of research in industrial and organizational psychology. In this article, I review the field of emotion in the
workplace from five perspectives, corresponding to five discrete levels of analysis: (1) within-person temporal effects,
(2) between-person (personality and attitudes) factors, (3) interpersonal behaviors (perception and communication of
emotion), (4) group level (leadership and teams), and (5) organizational level (culture and climate). Within these
perspectives, I address the importance of affective events theory, deal with positive and negative affect (state vs trait), as well
as emotional intelligence, labor, and contagion. The article concludes with suggestions for future research.

Introduction developed by Ashkanasy (2003a). The model crosses five levels

Emotions may be defined as the experience of a form of
biological response to environmental stimulus, resulting in
physical and psychological changes and subsequent readiness
for action (Frijda, 1986). While early scholars of industrial
and organizational (IO) psychology and organizational
behavior (OB) seemed to recognize the importance of
studying emotional dimensions (Brief and Weiss, 2002),
post-WWII research tended to concentrate on behavioral and
cognitive aspects of work, where emotions and affect were
subsumed under the broader heading of job satisfaction
(Barsade et al., 2003).
This situation began to change, however, following publi-
cation of Hochschild’s (1983) sociological analysis of
emotional labor, which suggested that employees forced to
display emotions at odds with what they truly feel, suffer
burnout and loss of productivity. The concept of emotional
labor sparked increased interest in emotions and soon found
its way into mainstream OB literature (e.g., see Rafaeli and
Sutton, 1989). Subsequent seminal reviews by Pekrun and
Frese (1992) and Ashforth and Humphrey (1995) served to
broaden interest in this field further. Subsequently, publication
in 1996 of Weiss and Cropanzano’s idea of ‘affective events’
provided a useful framework for studying emotions in the
workplace as a dynamic phenomenon. This period marked “the
affective revolution in organizational behavior” (Barsade et al.,
2003: p. 3). The ongoing level of interest in studying emotions
in organizational settings is today reflected in the existence of
an annual book series in this topic, Research on Emotion in
Organizations and an associated biannual conference, the
International Conference on Emotions and Worklife (http://www.
emotionsnet.org). More recently, Ashkanasy and Humphrey
(2011a) provided a comprehensive review of emotions in
organizational settings, which forms an appropriate basis
for this article.
The Multilevel Model of Emotion in Organizations
Ashkanasy and Humphrey (2011a) based their discussion
around an integrated model of emotions in organizations
of analysis and, as such, provides an appropriate framework to
structure this article. At the base of the model, Level 1, are
temporal variations in emotions and behavior, referred to as
‘within-person’ variability. Level 2 refers to between-person
variability, such as personality and emotional intelligence.
Level 3 refers to interpersonal relationships, including percep-
tion and communication of emotion, including emotional
labor. At Level 4, analysis shifts to group phenomena including
team leadership. Finally, at Level 5 of the model, the focus is
on the organization as a whole including emotional culture
and climate.
Level 1: Within-Person
Ashkanasy and Humphrey (2011a) point out that “Level 1 is
best understood in terms of Affective Events Theory (AET:
Weiss and Cropanzano, 1996)” (p. 215) and distinguish
between positive and negative mood effects (Ashton-James
and Ashkanasy, 2005). In this regard, Isen (1987) and
Fredrickson (2001) stress the role of mild positive affect as
a catalyst of creativity and cognitive flexibility. A further
noteworthy aspect of within-person variation is that, under
this perspective, empirical procedures need to take account in
real time of variations in affect and behavior (Fisher, 2008).
Research, for example, can use daily diary data (e.g., see Weiss
et al., 1999) or experience sampling methods (ESM: Larson
and Csikszentmihalyi, 1983; also known as ecological
momentary assessment, Weiss and Beal, 2005), where
measurements are taken several times over a day. For example,
Amabile et al. (2005) found in an ESM-based field study that
(mild) positive affect is related to improved product design
and innovation.
Other evidence tells us that negative affect can also lead to
increased creativity and innovation under particular circum-
stances. For example, To et al. (2012) found ESM data to
suggest that whether positive or negative mood leads increased
creative behavior depends on an interaction of situation and
personality. This finding is consistent with the ‘sadder but
wiser’ hypothesis put forward by Staw and Barsade (1993).
Forgas and George (2001) point out further that employees in

International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2nd edition, Volume 7 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.22037-0 507
508 Emotions and Work
a negative mood are likely to be less susceptible to bias and less
likely to be swayed by persuasion (Forgas and East, 2003).
In workplace settings, where tasks are likely to involve
substantive cognitive processing, Forgas and George (2001)
argue that employees are likely to be subjected to ‘affect infu-
sion’ (Forgas, 1995), whereby their affective states color their
decision making. In demonstration of this effect, Mittal and
Ross (1998) found that risk taking under conditions of
uncertainty is higher for decision makers in a positive rather
than a negative mood. Ashton-James and Ashkanasy (2008)
argue that this is because managers in a positive mood tend to
be more optimistic in their situation appraisals than when they
are in a negative mood, and therefore are more prone to taking
risks. Note, however, that risk taking, especially in today’s
dynamic business environments is not necessarily a bad thing.
For example, risks often need to be taken when the organiza-
tion needs to move quickly to respond to a changed regulatory
or market environment. This effect has subsequently been
demonstrated in field research by Amabile et al. (2005).
Researchers have also employed diary methods and ESM
to unravel some of the enduring mysteries of job satisfaction.
Thus, while job satisfaction has long been thought to be an
affective variable, Weiss et al. (1999) used a daily diary
method to demonstrate that job satisfaction comprises both
affective and cognitive components. Fisher (2002) employed
ESM to show moreover that, once (cognitive) attitudinal
factors are accounted for, affect is in fact unrelated to job
satisfaction. Fisher also demonstrated that affect is related to
affective commitment, helping behavior, and role conflict
over and above the effects of job satisfaction (see also Fuller
et al., 2003). In a more recent ESM study, Fisher et al.
(2013) found that momentary emotions depend on task
appraisal and confidence.
Another widely accepted misconception about job satis-
faction is that it is only weakly related to job performance. For
example, Judge et al. (2001) reported the results of a meta-
analysis of job satisfaction–performance relationship that the
correlation was only 0.30. However, Fisher and Noble (2004),
in an extension of Fisher’s (2002) earlier ESM studies using
programmable watches, found that affect and job satisfaction
and performance were strongly related within-person (corre-
lations in the 0.70 range). Thus the within-person relationship
is considerably stronger than the between-person job satisfac-
tion–job performance.
In summary of Level 1, it seems safe to conclude that AET
and ESM have essentially revolutionized our understanding of
the role emotions play in the workplace. AET has been
consistently supported across numerous diary and ESM studies
(see Weiss and Beal, 2005; for a more extensive review).
Level 2: Between-Person
The dominant variable studied at the between-person (or
individual difference) level of analysis is emotional intelli-
gence, which comprises four basic abilities or ‘branches’:
(1) recognition of emotions, both in self and others; (2) use of
this information in cognitive decision making; (3) under-
standing of the effects of emotions; and (4) using and
managing emotions in behavioral decision making (Mayer and
Salovey, 1997). The construct was popularized by NY Times
journalist Daniel Goleman (1995), however, resulting in
exaggerated claims and led to stringent criticism of emotional
intelligence (e.g., see Locke, 2005). On the other hand,
Ashkanasy and his colleagues (see Ashkanasy and Daus, 2005;
Daus and Ashkanasy, 2005; Jordan et al., 2008) resolutely
defended the validity and utility of emotional intelligence,
claiming that it is a valid individual difference, similar to
cognitive intelligence.
In an effort to clarify the controversy, Ashkanasy and Daus
(2005) identified three approaches to emotional intelligence,
which they referred to as ‘streams.’ Stream 1 is based on the
Mayer–Salovey four-branch model and is measured using an
IQ-style ability measure called the Mayer–Salovey–Caruso
Emotional Intelligence Test (Mayer et al., 2002). Stream 2
research also uses the Mayer–Salovey definition of emotional
intelligence, but is measured using self- or peer-report measures
(Brackett and Mayer, 2003). Stream 3 models of emotional
intelligence do not use the Mayer–Salovey definition, and are
usually measured using self-reports (e.g., Bar-On, 1997).
Ashkanasy and Daus discourage the use of Stream 3 models on
the basis that they are usually overly correlated with person-
ality. Nonetheless, in terms of establishing a relationship
between emotional intelligence and work performance, Joseph
and Newman (2010) and O’Boyle et al. (2011) found in
independent meta-analyses that all three streams of emotional
intelligence demonstrate incremental validity over and above
cognitive ability and personality. More recently, Schlaerth et al.
(2013) reported meta-analytic results supporting a positive
relationship between all streams of emotional intelligence and
skill in conflict resolution.
In summary of the role of emotional intelligence at Level 2
of the Ashkanasy (2003a) model, and despite the controversy,
the emerging consensus is that emotional intelligence is an
important and valid personality characteristic that is positively
associated with work performance.
Level 3: Interpersonal Emotions
This level focuses on how emotions are perceived and
communicated between dyadic interactions. In this regard,
Ekman (1972) found that emotional expression is a basic
human property, independent of race or culture. What is
culture specific, however, is the set of rules people employ
regarding perception and display of emotions. In this instance,
Elfenbein and Ambady (2003) argue that there are strong
intercultural differences. Subsequently, Elfenbein et al. (2007)
coined the term ‘emotional dialect’ and used this idea in
developing the “Integrated Interpersonal Process Framework
for Emotion in Organizations” (Elfenbein, 2007). More
recently, Allen et al. (2014) reported finding cross-cultural
differences in emotional labor (see below).
As Ashkanasy (2003a) stresses, however, most studies of
emotional communication in the context of OB refer to
emotional labor. The term was coined by sociologist
Arlie Hochschild (1983), who observed that service employees
are required as a part of their terms of employment to display
appropriate (positive or negative) emotions to customers or
clients. For example, service providers in the retail, food, travel,

and entertainment industries are expected to display positive
emotional expressions or provide “service with a smile” (Pugh,
2001). Other employees in enforcement industries (e.g.,
police, debt collection) are expected to display negative
emotions.
Hochschild (1983) identified in particular two types of
emotional labor. These comprise surface acting (outward
display of emotion that are at odds with the emotion the actor
feels) and deep acting (where actors try to experience the
emotion). Morris and Feldman (1996) subsequently concep-
tualized surface and deep acting and their effects in terms of
three dimensions: intensity, variety, and duration. In addi-
tional to emotional labor, Ashforth and Humphrey (1993)
recognized that genuine emotions might also be displayed.
Diefendorff and Gosserand (2003) subsequently demon-
strated empirically that genuine emotion is distinct from
emotional labor.
There is also a considerable body of evidence to show that
performing emotional labor can have detrimental health
effects, especially when associated with ‘dissonance’ between
displayed and felt emotions (Van Dijk and Kirk-Brown, 2006).
Moreover, the harmful effects of surface acting appear to be
much stronger than for deep acting (Kammeyer-Mueller et al.,
2013), even carrying over to home life (Wagner et al., 2014),
although Grandey et al. (2012) recently found that the harmful
effects of emotional labor are ameliorated in a “climate of
authenticity” (p. 1).
On the other side of the service encounter, it appears that
deep or genuine emotion is also more effective than surface
acting. For example, Groth et al. (2009) found that, compared
to surface acting, service provider deep acting resulted in
improved customer satisfaction (see also Grandey, 2003).
Level 4: Teams and Leadership
At Level 4 of his model, Ashkanasy (2003a) identified lead-
ership as having a major effect on the moods and feelings of
team members. A similar conclusion was reached by
Humphrey (2002), who argued the mood management may
well be the most critical element of team leadership. This idea
is also supported in empirical findings reported by Seong and
Choi (2014). If this is so, then it would also follow that
a leader’s emotional intelligence may be the key. In this
regard, George (2000) reasoned that emotionally intelligent
leaders engender enthusiasm among team members. This idea
was supported in empirical research by Pescosolido (2002),
who found that effective leaders tended to perform better than
their less effective colleagues when it came to dealing with
workplace events that involved strong emotions, and that this
contributes to development of stronger team harmony
and cohesion.
Although controversial (Antonakis et al., 2009), scholarly
evidence is tending increasingly to support the notion that
emotional intelligence is related to leadership effectiveness.
Thus, in a recent review of 10 years of research into the rela-
tionship of emotional intelligence and leader effectiveness,
Walter et al. (2011) found overwhelming support across
all three ‘streams’ of emotional intelligence identified in
Ashkanasy and Daus (2005).
Emotions and Work 509
In groups and teams, the principal mechanism for
spreading a particular emotional state via emotional contagion
(Hatfield et al., 1992), whereby members of a group are
‘infected’ by others’ emotional states through mimicking other
members’ facial expressions, body language, and vocal tone.
Given the modeling role of leaders, it follows therefore that
contagion should be a major mechanism for leaders to transfer
emotional states to team members. In this regard, Goleman
et al. (2002) argue that the most effective leaders (which they
refer to as ‘primal’ leaders) engender ‘emotional synchroniza-
tion’ or resonance with their followers. In essence, followers
‘tune in’ to their leader and adopt whatever emotional state the
leader is modeling. Empirical support for the role of emotional
contagion in groups comes from a study conducted among
MBA study groups by Barsade (2002), while Sy et al. (2005)
found evidence for leader-to-member contagion. More
recently, Tee et al. (2013) found that the effect can go the other
way: from followers to the leader.
A corollary of this is that, to be effective, leaders need to
manage emotional contagion lest it spirals out of control. In
this regard, Humphrey (2008: p. 1) argues that leaders need to
“lead with emotional labor” (see also Ashkanasy and
Humphrey, 2011b) as a means to regulate their own
emotional feelings. Thus effective leaders engage in genuine
emotional expression or (at least) deep acting to model the
emotions suited to a particular situation; this emotion is then
likely to be picked up by group members (via contagion)
leading to the whole team adopting the (appropriate) emotion
(Sy et al., 2005).
In addition to the direct role of emotion in leader group/
team situations, it seems that emotions also play a key role in
broader models of leadership. Indeed, there is evidence that
a key skill of transformational leaders lies in an ability to help
followers to deal with negative emotional events. For example,
in a study of R&D teams, Pirola-Merlo et al. (2002) found that
leaders could boost performance by helping their followers
deal with everyday frustrations and negative moods. McColl-
Kennedy and Anderson (2002) found similarly that trans-
formational leaders engendered positive emotion leading to
optimism, improved performance, and goal attainment (see
also Tsai et al., 2009).
Finally, it is worth noting that there may also be a potential
‘dark side’ to emotional intelligence in the context of leader-
ship. For example, Kilduff et al. (2010) recently suggested
that emotional intelligence can be used ‘strategically’ to
manipulate others.
Level 5: The Organizational Level
At Level 5 of his five-level model, Ashkanasy (2003a) considers
the role of emotions at the organizational level, and argues the
need for organizational managers to work toward a “healthy
emotional climate” (Ashkanasy and Daus, 2002). In this
regard, Härtel and Ashkanasy (2010) posit that a healthy
climate is characterized by positive emotions, created and then
sustained across the whole organization.
This brings us to the notion of an organizational emotional
climate, defined by de Rivera (1992; see also Yurtsever and de
Rivera, 2010) as “an objective group phenomenon that can be
510 Emotions and Work
palpably sensed – as when one enters a party or a city and feels
an attitude of gaiety or depression, openness or fear” (p. 197).
In this sense, emotional climate represents a particular form of
organizational climate (Schneider et al., 2010), which deals
specifically with the collective mood of organizational
members, and their attitudes toward their peers and leaders, as
well as the organization as a whole. Note that climate there,
although related to organizational culture, is differentiated
from culture in that it is not a function of organizational
members’ beliefs, values, and assumptions (Schein, 2004).
There is, however, some debate as to whether emotional
climate is a team (i.e., Level 4) phenomenon, rather than
something that exists organization wide (Level 5). For example,
Ashkanasy and Nicholson (2003) examined a ‘climate of fear’
into Australian restaurant chains and found that it varied by
subunit within the two organizations. This was in contrast to
measures of organizational culture, which they found to vary
across (but not within) organizations.
In fact, there is evidence that “Level 5 is qualitatively
different from the other levels of the model” (Ashkanasy and
Ashton-James, 2005: p. 221) insofar as this level subsumes
the five lower levels. In this instance, Level 5 emotions are
generated as a result of the accumulation of affective events at
Level 1, employees’ emotional intelligence abilities at Level 2,
which, in turn, impacts their interactions with coworkers,
subordinates, supervisors, and clients at Level 3, also affecting
group emotion and leadership at Level 4. Consistent with this
idea, Dasborough et al. (2009) argue that “a leader’s behavior
to subordinates (Level 4) is reflected in team-member rela-
tionships (Level 3) that in turn reflect on the leader’s perfor-
mance via emotional contagion processes, leading to an
organizational management response to the leader (Level 5)”
(Ashkanasy and Humphrey, 2011a: p. 219). Finally, it should
also be noted that organizational culture is often reflected in
organizational policies. From the perspective of emotions, this
refers to an organization’s policies regarding emotional
displays required by employees (i.e., emotional labor,
see Beyer and Niño, 2001; Diefendorff and Greguras, 2009;
Gosserand and Diefendorff, 2005; Fineman, 2000;
Hochschild, 1983; van Maanen and Kunda, 1989; Rafaeli and
Sutton, 1987, 1989).
Discussion and Conclusions
Although the role of emotion in organizations was neglected
for many years, this state of affairs has changed over the past
20 years, to the point where the study of emotions has become
a priority in IO research. Major published reviews of the field
by leading authors in the field (e.g., Ashforth and Humphrey,
1995; Ashkanasy and Daus, 2002; Brief and Weiss, 2002;
Elfenbein, 2007) suggest that this is an area with “a bright
future” (Ashkanasy and Ashton-James, 2005: p. 221).
In this brief overview of the field, I employed Ashkanasy’s
(2003a) structure that includes five levels: (1) within-person
temporal effects, (2) between-person factors, (3) interper-
sonal behaviors, (4) group and team leadership, and (5) the
organization-wide view. I also stressed the interconnectedness
of the levels, suggesting in Ashkanasy (2003b) that the ‘glue’
facilitating this lies in the biological basis of emotion.
Looking forward to the future of research in this field, four
issues are noteworthy (Gooty et al., 2009). First, there is a need
for scholars to be more consistent in their definitions of basic
terms, especially when it comes to differentiating affect,
emotion, and mood. Second, scholars have generally restricted
their studies to positive and negative affect, rather than
addressing the effects of discrete emotions. For example, anger,
fear, and sadness are all examples of negative affect, but are
associated with different action tendencies (Frijda, 1986).
Third, while studies of within-person effects using diary or ESM
methods are becoming more prevalent, there continues to be
a pressing need for more Level 1 research. Fourth, research on
emotions needs to pay more attention to the role played by the
context in studies of emotion in organizations. In addition to
the foregoing points, Ashkanasy (2009) also call for research in
OB, in general, to make more use of multilevel analysis and to
take into consideration the neurobiological nature of behavior
and emotions.
See also: Authentic Leadership; Behavior Analysis, Applied; Job
Satisfaction; Leader–Member Exchange Theory; Managerial
and Organizational Cognition; Organizational Citizenship
Behavior; Organizational Climate in the Work Setting;
Organizational Commitment; Personality and Values at Work.
Bibliography
Allen, J.A., Diefendorff, J.M., Ma, Y.F., 2014. Differences in emotional labor across
cultures: a comparison of Chinese and US service workers. Journal of Business
and Psychology 29, 21–35.
Amabile, T.M., Barsade, S.G., Mueller, J.S., Staw, B.M., 2005. Affect and creativity at
work. Administrative Science Quarterly 50, 367–403.
Antonakis, J., Ashkanasy, N.M., Dasborough, M.T., 2009. Does leadership need
emotional intelligence? The Leadership Quarterly 20, 247–261.
Ashforth, B.E., Humphrey, R.H., 1993. Emotional labor in service roles: the influence of
identity. Academy of Management Review 18, 88–115.
Ashforth, B.E., Humphrey, R.H., 1995. Emotion in the workplace: a reappraisal. Human
Relations 48, 97–125.
Ashkanasy, N.M., 2003a. Emotions in organizations: a multilevel perspective. In:
Dansereau, F., Yammarino, F.J. (Eds.), Research in Multi-level Issues, vol. 2.
Elsevier Science, Oxford, UK, pp. 9–54.
Ashkanasy, N.M., 2003b. Emotions at multiple levels: an integration. In:
Dansereau, F., Yammarino, F.J. (Eds.), Research in Multi-level Issues, Volume 2:
Multi-level Issues in Organizational Behavior and Strategy. Elsevier Science, Oxford,
UK, pp. 71–81.
Ashkanasy, N.M., 2009. After thirty years: what does the future hold? Journal of
Organizational Behavior 30, 15–20.
Ashkanasy, N.M., Ashton-James, C.E., 2005. Emotion in organizations: a neglected
topic in I/O psychology, but with a bright future. In: Hodgkinson, G.P., Ford, J.K.
(Eds.), International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, vol. 20.
Wiley, Chichester, UK, pp. 221–268.
Ashkanasy, N.M., Daus, C.S., 2002. Emotion in the workplace: the new challenge for
managers. Academy of Management Executive 16 (1), 76–86.
Ashkanasy, N.M., Daus, C.S., 2005. Rumors of the death of emotional intelligence in
organizational behavior are vastly exaggerated. Journal of Organizational Behavior
26, 441–452.
Ashkanasy, N.M., Härtel, C.E.J., 2014. Emotional climate and culture: the good, the
bad, and the ugly. In: Schneider, B., Barbera, K. (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook
of Organizational Culture and Climate. Oxford University Press, New York,
pp. 136–152.
Ashkanasy, N.M., Humphrey, R.H., 2011a. Current research on emotion in organi-
zations. Emotion Review 3, 214–224.
Ashkanasy, N.M., Humphrey, R.H., 2011b. A multi-level view of leadership and
emotions: leading with emotional labor. In: Bryman, A., Collinson, D., Grint, K.,

Jackson, B., Uhl-Bien, M. (Eds.), Sage Handbook of Leadership. Sage Publications,
London, pp. 363–377.
Ashkanasy, N.M., Nicholson, G.J., 2003. Climate of fear in organizational settings:
construct definition, measurement, and a test of theory. Australian Journal of
Psychology 55, 24–29.
Ashton-James, C.E., Ashkanasy, N.M., 2005. What lies beneath? A deconstructive
analysis of affective events theory. In: Ashkanasy, N.M., Zerbe, W.J., Härtel, C.E.J.
(Eds.), Research on Emotion in Organizations, vol. 1. Elsevier/JAI Press, Oxford,
UK, pp. 23–50.
Ashton-James, C.E., Ashkanasy, N.M., 2008. Affective events theory: a strategic
perspective. In: Zerbe, W.J., Härtel, C.E.J., Ashkanasy, N.M. (Eds.), Research on
emotion in organizations, volume 4: emotions, ethics, and decision-making.
Emerald Group Publishing, Bingley, UK, pp. 1–34.
Bar-On, R., 1997. Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i): Technical Manual.
Multi-Health Systems, Toronto, Canada.
Barsade, S.G., 2002. The ripple effect: emotional contagion and its influence on group
behavior. Administrative Science Quarterly 47, 644–675.
Barsade, S.G., Brief, A.P., Spataro, S.E., 2003. The affective revolution in organiza-
tional behavior: the emergence of a paradigm. In: Greenberg, J. (Ed.), Organiza-
tional Behavior: The State of the Science. Lawrence Erlbaum and Associates,
Mahwah, NJ, pp. 3–52.
Barsky, A., Kaplan, S.A., 2007. If you feel bad, it’s unfair: a quantitative synthesis of affect
and organizational justice perceptions. Journal of Applied Psychology 92, 286–295.
Beyer, J., Niño, D., 2001. Culture as a source, expression, and reinforcer of emotions
in organizations. In: Payne, R.L., Cooper, C.L. (Eds.), Emotions at Work: Theory,
Research, and Applications for Management. Wiley, Chichester, UK, pp. 173–197.
Brackett, M.A., Mayer, J.D., 2003. Convergent, discriminant, and incremental validity
of competing measures of emotional intelligence. Personality and Social
Psychology Bulletin 29, 1147–1158.
Brief, A.P., Burke, M.J., George, J.M., Robinson, B.S., Webster, J., 1988. Should
negative affectivity remain an unmeasured variable in the study of job stress?
Journal of Applied Psychology 73, 193–198.
Brief, A.P., Weiss, H.M., 2002. Organizational behavior: affect in the workplace.
Annual Review of Psychology 53, 279–307.
Côté, S., Lopez, P.N., Salovey, P., Miners, C.T.H., 2010. Emotional intelligence and
leadership emergence in small groups. The Leadership Quarterly 21, 496–508.
Dasborough, M.T., Ashkanasy, N.M., Tee, E.E.J., Tse, H.H.M., 2009. What goes
around comes around: how meso-level negative emotional contagion can ultimately
determine organizational attitudes toward leaders. The Leadership Quarterly 20,
571–585.
Daus, C.S., Ashkanasy, N.M., 2005. The case for an ability-based model of emotional
intelligence in organizational behavior. Journal of Organizational Behavior 26,
453–466.
Diefendorff, J.M., Greguras, G.J., 2009. Contextualizing emotional display rules:
examining the roles of targets and discrete emotions in shaping display rule
perceptions. Journal of Management 35, 880–898.
Diefendorff, J.M., Gosserand, R.H., 2003. Understanding the emotional labor process:
a control theory perspective. Journal of Organizational Behavior 24, 945–959.
Ekman, P., 1972. Universals and cultural differences in facial expressions of emotion.
In: Cole, J. (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 1971, vol. 19. University of
Nebraska Press, Lincoln, pp. 207–282.
Elfenbein, H.A., 2007. Emotion in organizations: a review and theoretical integration.
The Academy of Management Annals 1, 315–386.
Elfenbein, H.A., Ambady, N., 2003. Universals and cultural differences in recognizing
emotions. Current Directions in Psychological Science 12, 159–164.
Elfenbein, H.A., Beaupré, M.G., Lévesque, M., Hess, U., 2007. Toward a dialect
theory: cultural differences in the expression and recognition of posed facial
expressions. Emotion 7, 131–146.
Fineman, S. (Ed.), 2000. Emotion in Organizations, second ed. Sage, London.
Fisher, C.D., 2002. Antecedents and consequences of real-time affective reactions at
work. Motivation & Emotion 26, 3–30.
Fisher, C.D., 2008. What if we took within-person performance variability seriously?
Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice 2,
185–189.
Fisher, C.D., Minbashian, A., Beckmann, N., Wood, R.E., 2013. Task appraisals,
emotions, and performance goal orientation. Journal of Applied Psychology 98,
364–373.
Fisher, C.D., Noble, C.S., 2004. A within-person examination of correlates of
performance and emotions while working. Human Performance 17, 145–168.
Forgas, J.P., 1995. Mood and judgment: the affect infusion model (AIM). Psychological
Bulletin 117, 39–66.
Forgas, J.P., East, R., 2003. Affective influences on social judgments and decisions:
implicit and explicit processes. In: Forgas, J.P., Williams, K., Von Hipple, W. (Eds.),
Emotions and Work 511
Social Judgments: Implicit and Explicit Processes. Cambridge University Press, UK,
pp. 198–226.
Forgas, J.P., George, J.M., 2001. Affective influences on judgments and behavior in
organizations: an information processing perspective. Organizational Behavior and
Human Decision Processes 86, 3–34.
Frijda, N.H., 1986. The Emotions. Cambridge University Press, New York.
Fredrickson, B.L., 2001. The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: the
broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist 56, 218–226.
Fuller, J.A., Stanton, J.M., Fisher, G.G., Spitzmüller, C., Russell, S.S., Smith, P.C.,
2003. A lengthy look at the daily grind: time series analysis of events, mood,
stress, and satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology 88, 1019–1033.
George, J.M., 2000. Emotions and leadership: the role of emotional intelligence.
Human Relations 53, 1027–1055.
Goleman, D., 1995. Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More than IQ. Bantam
Books, New York.
Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R., McKee, A., 2002. Primal Leadership: Realizing the Power of
Emotional Intelligence. Harvard Business School Press, Boston.
Gooty, J., Gavin, M., Ashkanasy, N.M., 2009. Emotions research in OB: the challenges
that lie ahead. Journal of Organizational Behavior 30, 833–838.
Gosserand, R.H., Diefendorff, J.M., 2005. Emotional display rules and emotional labor:
the moderating role of commitment. Journal of Applied Psychology 90, 1256–1264.
Grandey, A., 2003. When “the show must go on”: surface and deep acting as
predictors of emotional exhaustion and service delivery. Academy of Management
Journal 46, 86–96.
Grandey, A., Foo, S.C., Groth, M., Goodwin, R.E., 2012. Free to be you and me:
a climate of authenticity alleviates burnout from emotional labor. Journal of
Occupational Health Psychology 17, 1–14.
Groth, M., Hennig-Thurau, T., Walsh, G., 2009. Customer reactions to emotional labor:
the roles of employee acting strategies and customer detection accuracy. Academy
of Management Journal 52, 958–974.
Härtel, C.E.J., Ashkanasy, N.M., 2010. Healthy human cultures as positive work envi-
ronments. In: Ashkanasy, N.M., Wilderom, C.E.P., Peterson, M.F. (Eds.), The Hand-
book of Culture and Climate, second ed. Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp. 85–100.
Hatfield, E., Cacioppo, J., Rapson, R.L., 1992. Emotional contagion. In: Clark, M.S.
(Ed.), Review of Personality and Social Psychology: Emotion and Social Behavior.
Sage Publications, Newbury Park, CA, pp. 151–177.
Hochschild, A.R., 1983. The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling.
University of California Press, Berkeley, CA.
Humphrey, R.H., 2002. The many faces of emotional leadership. The Leadership
Quarterly 13, 493–504.
Humphrey, R.H., 2008. The right way to lead with emotional labor. In: Humphrey, R.H.
(Ed.), Affect and Emotion: New Directions in Management Theory and Research.
Information Age Publishing, Charlotte, NC, pp. 1–17.
Isen, A.M., 1987. Positive affect, cognitive processes and social behavior. In:
Berkowitz, L. (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 20. Academic
Press, San Diego, CA, pp. 203–253.
Jordan, P.J., Ashkanasy, N.M., Daus, C.S., 2008. Emotional intelligence: rhetoric or
reality? In: Cartwright, S., Cooper, C.L. (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Personnel
Psychology. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, pp. 37–58.
Joseph, D.L., Newman, D.A., 2010. Emotional intelligence: an integrative meta-
analysis and cascading model. Journal of Applied Psychology 95, 54–78.
Judge, T.A., Thoresen, C.J., Bono, J.E., Patton, G.K., 2001. The job satisfaction-job
performance relationship: a qualitative and quantitative review. Psychological
Bulletin 127, 376–407.
Kammeyer-Mueller, J.D., Rubenstein, A.L., Long, D.M., Odio, M.A., Buckman, B.R.,
Zhang, Y.W., Halvorsen-Ganepola, M.D.K., 2013. A meta-analytic structural model
of dispositional affectivity and emotional labor. Personnel Psychology 66, 47–90.
Kilduff, M., Chiaburu, D.S., Menges, J.I., 2010. Strategic use of emotional intelligence
in organizational settings: exploring the dark side. Research in Organizational
Behavior 30, 129–152.
Larson, R., Csikszentmihalyi, M., 1983. The experience sampling method. In:
Reis, H.T. (Ed.), Naturalistic Approaches to Studying Social Interaction, New
Directions for Methodology of Social and Behavioral Science, vol. 15. Jossey-Bass,
San Francisco, pp. 41–56.
Locke, E.A., 2005. Why emotional intelligence is an invalid concept. Journal of
Organizational Behavior 26, 425–431.
van Maanen, J., Kunda, G., 1989. “Real feelings”: emotional expression and orga-
nizational culture. Research in Organizational Behavior 11, 43–103.
Mayer, J., Salovey, P., 1997. What is emotional intelligence? In: Salovey, P.,
Sluyter, D. (Eds.), Emotional Development and Emotional Intelligence: Implications
for Educators. Basic Books, New York, pp. 3–31.
Mayer, J.D., Salovey, P., Caruso, D.R., 2002. Mayer–Salovey–Caruso Emotional
Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) Users Manual. MHS Publishers, Toronto, Canada.
512 Emotions and Work
McColl-Kennedy, J.R., Anderson, R.D., 2002. Impact of leadership style and emotions
on subordinate performance. The Leadership Quarterly 13, 545–559.
Mittal, V., Ross, W.T., 1998. The impact of positive and negative affect and issue
framing on issue interpretation and risk taking. Organizational Behavior and Human
Decision Processes 76, 298–324.
Morris, J.A., Feldman, D.C., 1996. The dimensions, antecedents, and consequences
of emotional labor. Academy of Management Review 21, 986–1010.
O’Boyle Jr., E.H., Humphrey, E.H., Pollack, J.M., Hawver, T.H., Story, P.A., 2011. The
relation between emotional intelligence and job performance: a meta-analysis.
Journal of Organizational Behavior 32, 788–818.
Pekrun, R., Frese, M., 1992. Emotion in work and achievement. International Review of
Industrial and Organizational Psychology 7, 153–196.
Pescosolido, A.T., 2002. Emergent leaders as managers of group emotion. Leadership
Quarterly 13, 583–599.
Pirola-Merlo, A., Härtel, C.E.J., Mann, L., Hirst, G., 2002. How leaders influence the
impact of affective events on team climate and performance in R&D teams. The
Leadership Quarterly 13, 561–581.
Pugh, S.D., 2001. Service with a smile: emotional contagion in the service encounter.
Academy of Management Review 44, 1018–1027.
Rafaeli, A., Sutton, R.I., 1987. Expression of emotion as part of the work role.
Academy of Management Review 12, 23–37.
Rafaeli, A., Sutton, R.I., 1989. The expression of emotion in organizational life.
Research in Organizational Behavior 11, 1–42.
de Rivera, J., 1992. Emotional climate: social structure and emotional dynamics.
International Review of Studies of Emotion 2, 197–218.
Schein, E.H., 2004. Organizational Culture and Leadership, third ed. Jossey-Bass,
San Francisco.
Schlaerth, A., Ensari, N., Christian, J., 2013. A meta-analytical review of the rela-
tionship between emotional intelligence and leaders’ constructive conflict
management. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 16, 126–136.
Schneider, B., Ehrhart, M.G., Macey, W.H., 2010. Organizational climate research:
achievements and the road ahead. In: Ashkanasy, N.M., Wilderom, C.E.P.,
Peterson, M.F. (Eds.), The Handbook of Culture and Climate, second ed. Sage,
Thousand Oaks, CA, pp. 29–49.
Seong, J.Y., Choi, J.N., 2014. Effects of group-level fit on group conflict and
performance. The initiating role of leader positive affect. Group & Organization
Management 39, 190–212.
Staw, B.M., Barsade, S.G., 1993. Affect and managerial performance: a test of the
sadder-but-wiser vs happier-and-smarter hypotheses. Administrative Science
Quarterly 38, 304–328.
Sy, T., Côté, S., Saavedra, R., 2005. The contagious leader: the impact of the leader’s
mood on the mood of group members, group affective tone, and group processes.
Journal of Applied Psychology 90, 295–305.
Tee, E.Y.J., Ashkanasy, N.M., Paulsen, N., 2013. The influence of follower mood on
leader mood and task performance: evidence for an affective, follower-centric
perspective of leadership. The Leadership Quarterly 24, 496–515.
To, M.L., Fisher, C.D., Ashkanasy, N.M., Rowe, P.A., 2012. Within-person relation-
ships between mood and creativity. Journal of Applied Psychology 97, 519–612.
Tsai, W., Chen, H., Cheng, J., 2009. Employee positive moods as a mediator linking
transformational leadership and employee work outcomes. The International
Journal of Human Resource Management 20, 206–219.
Van Dijk, P.A., Kirk-Brown, A., 2006. Emotional labor and negative job outcomes: an
evaluation of the mediating role of emotional dissonance. Journal of Management &
Organization 12, 101–115.
Wagner, D.T., Barnes, C.M., Scott, B.A., 2014. Driving it home: how workplace emotional
labor harms employee home life. Personnel Psychology 67, 487–516.
Walter, F., Cole, M.S., Humphrey, R.H., 2011. Leadership and emotional intelligence:
new directions for a controversial topic. The Academy of Management Perspectives
25 (1), 45–59.
Weiss, H.M., Beal, D.J., 2005. Reflections on affective events theory. In:
Ashkanasy, N.M., Zerbe, W.J., Härtel, C.E.J. (Eds.), Research on Emotion in
Organizations, vol. 1. Elsevier/JAI Press, Oxford, UK, pp. 1–22.
Weiss, H.M., Nicholas, J.P., Daus, C.S., 1999. An examination of the joint effects of
affective experiences and job beliefs on job satisfaction and variations in affective
experiences over time. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 78,
1–24.
Yurtsever, G., de Rivera, J., 2010. Measuring the emotional climate of an organization.
Perceptual and Motor Skills 110, 501–516.