Applied Energy 88 (2011) 559–567

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) combustion:

Implementation and effects on pollutants in direct injection diesel engines
Suyin Gan a,⇑, Hoon Kiat Ng b, Kar Mun Pang b
a
Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, The University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus, Jalan Broga, 43500 Semenyih, Selangor, Malaysia
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus, Jalan Broga, 43500 Semenyih, Selangor, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) combustion is a combustion concept which offers
Received 9 June 2010 simultaneous reductions in both NOx and soot emissions from internal combustion engines. In light of
Received in revised form 7 September 2010 increasingly stringent diesel emissions limits, research efforts have been invested into HCCI combustion
Accepted 7 September 2010
as an alternative to conventional diesel combustion. This paper reviews the implementation of HCCI com-
Available online 6 October 2010
bustion in direct injection diesel engines using early, multiple and late injection strategies. Governing fac-
tors in HCCI operations such as injector characteristics, injection pressure, piston bowl geometry,
Keywords:
compression ratio, intake charge temperature, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) and supercharging or tur-
HCCI
PCCI
bocharging are discussed in this review. The effects of design and operating parameters on HCCI diesel
Combustion emissions, particularly NOx and soot, are also investigated. For each of these parameters, the theories
Diesel engine are discussed in conjunction with comparative evaluation of studies reported in the specialised literature.
NOx Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Soot

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
2. Fundamentals of HCCI combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
2.1. Formation of NOx and soot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
2.2. Chemistry of HCCI diesel combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
3. Implementation of HCCI combustion in DI diesel engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
3.1. Injection timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
3.1.1. Early injection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
3.1.2. Multiple injections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
3.1.3. Late injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
3.2. Injector characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
3.3. Injection pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
3.4. Piston bowl geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
3.5. Compression ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
3.6. Intake charge temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
3.7. EGR. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
3.8. Supercharging/turbocharging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
4. Effects of design and operating parameters on HCCI diesel emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
4.1. Compression ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
4.2. Injection pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
4.3. Intake charge temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
4.4. Internal and external EGR. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
4.5. Swirl ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
5. Concluding remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566

⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +60 3 89248162; fax: +60 3 89248017.

E-mail address: suyin.gan@nottingham.edu.my (S. Gan).

0306-2619/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.09.005
560 S. Gan et al. / Applied Energy 88 (2011) 559–567

Nomenclature

AFR air fuel ratio IMEP Indicated Mean Effective Pressure

ATDC After Top Dead Centre LTR Low temperature reactions
BTDC Before Top Dead Centre MK Modulated Kinetics
BMEP Brake Mean Effective Pressure MULDIC MULtiple stage Diesel Combustion
CFD computational fluid dynamics NADI™ Narrow Angle Direct Injection
CFR Cooperative Fuels Research NOx nitric oxides and nitrogen dioxides
CO carbon monoxide NTC negative temperature coefficient
CR common rail NVO negative valve overlap
DI direct injection PCCI Premixed Charge Compression Ignition
EGR exhaust gas recirculation PCI Premixed Compression-Ignited
HC hydrocarbons PM particulate matter
HCCI Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition PREDIC PREmixed lean Diesel Combustion
HCLI Homogeneous Charge Late Injection SOC start of combustion
HiMICS Homogeneous charge intelligent Multiple Injection SOI start of injection
Combustion System TDC Top Dead Centre
HPLI Highly Premixed Late Injection UNIBUS Uniform Bulky Combustion System
HSDI High-Speed Direct Injection VGT variable geometry turbocharger
HTR high temperature reactions VOCs volatile organic compounds
ID ignition delay VVT variable valve timing
IEGR Internal Exhaust Gas Recirculation

1. Introduction adverse health and environmental impacts [4,5]. In the presence

Gasoline and diesel engines power the majority of ground
transportation today. Although similar in the fact that both are
reciprocating piston engines, differences between the two exist
in the form of power efficiency, fuel economy and emissions as
can be seen in Table 1. As the operation of gasoline engines is con-
strained to stoichiometric condition, throttling is therefore neces-
sary to provide the correct air quantity for the combustion
process. Compression ratio meanwhile has to be limited to approx-
imately 10:1 in order to avoid the knocking phenomena. The com-
bination of these operational limits effectively means that gasoline
operation is restricted to a low part load efficiency, which trans-
lates to higher fuel consumption. In contrast, diesel engines are
superior in terms of power efficiency and fuel economy. The three
main operational features of diesel engines which result in these
attributes are high compression ratio of 18:1, fuel lean operation
and the absence of throttling losses. Due to the superior power effi-
ciency and fuel economy of diesel engines, the market share of die-
sel-powered vehicles is rising, especially in Europe. In countries
such as Austria, Spain, France and Italy, the market share of diesel
cars has already exceeded 50% [1].
In terms of emissions, diesel engines typically produce lower
carbon monoxide (CO) and unburned or partially burned hydrocar-
bons (HC) compared to gasoline engine [2,3]. However, NOx which
comprises of nitric oxides and nitrogen dioxides as well as partic-
ulate matter (PM) or soot are significant pollutants from diesel
engines which require proper control strategies as they pose
of sunlight, NOx reacts with volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
to produce ground-level ozone or smog which is harmful to lung
tissues and causes damaged vegetation and reduced crop yields.
PM, alone or in combination with other air pollutants, causes respi-
ratory and cardiovascular problems. Furthermore, there is evidence
that PM acts as carriers of carcinogenic compounds and is poten-
tially a cancer-causing agent. Environmental impacts of NOx and
PM include acid rain, climate change, water and soil quality dete-
rioration and visibility impairment.
Considering the impacts brought on by NOx and PM, emissions
legislations for diesel-powered vehicles are becoming increasingly
stringent. In Europe, for instance, EURO V for passenger cars which
is expected to be enforced in 2010 sees substantial reductions for
NOx and PM (28% and 80% respectively) compared to the current
EURO IV [6]. In order to cope with future emissions legislation
requirements, research efforts are now focussed on in-cylinder
combustion and emissions reduction as an alternative to costly
after-treatment devices. One of the most important advancements
to reduce NOx and soot emissions simultaneously while maintain-
ing fuel consumption and engine performance in diesel engines is
Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) combustion.
HCCI combustion combines the best features of gasoline and diesel
engines to produce diesel-like power efficiency while maintaining
gasoline-like soot free emissions within certain operating limits
[7,8]. This paper aims to review the implementation of HCCI com-
bustion in direct injection (DI) diesel engines and investigate the
effects of design and operating parameters on pollutant emissions,
particularly NOx and soot.

Table 1
Comparison between gasoline and diesel engines. 2. Fundamentals of HCCI combustion
Basis of comparison Gasoline Diesel
2.1. Formation of NOx and soot
Fuel economy Acceptable Superior
Maximum power efficiency 30% 40%
Throttling loss
pa
xb An overview of the formation of NOx and soot is firstly neces-
p p
NOx emissions sary in order to appreciate the fundamentals of HCCI combustion.
p
Soot emissions x
p
The regions of formation of NOx and soot have been conceptualised
HC emissions x in an equivalence ratio–temperature (U–T) map as shown in Fig. 1
p
CO emissions x
[9]. NOx formation occurs at low equivalence ratios and high adia-
a p
– An operational issue. batic, equilibrium flame temperatures. By lowering the flame tem-
b
x – Not an operational issue. perature to a level less than 2200 K, suppression of NOx formation
 S. Gan et al. / Applied Energy 88 (2011) 559–567
Fig. 1. Equivalence ratio versus temperature map (Adapted from [9]).
can be achieved. Soot formation, on the other hand, occurs in re-
gions of high equivalence ratios or fuel rich mixtures and moderate
temperatures. Net soot emission which is a balance between for-
mation and oxidation can be reduced either by increasing mixing
or increasing oxidation. In conventional diesel engines, a represen-
tative fuel element would follow a path leading to both formation
of both NOx and soot emissions. Strategies to reduce NOx formation
during standard diesel operation normally lead to a penalty in soot
emissions and vice versa.
As both NOx and soot emissions are strong functions of temper-
ature and equivalence ratio, the most direct approach to reducing
these emissions simultaneously is to carefully control the flame
temperature and equivalence ratio. In line with this approach,
the main purposes of HCCI combustion are to concurrently lower
the flame temperature and allow sufficient air and fuel mixing to
increase homogeneity of charge. From a conceptual point of view,
if a thoroughly homogeneous in-cylinder mixture is formed, the
pressure and temperature rise during the compression stroke will
result in simultaneous autoignition across the whole cylinder. Lo-
cal temperatures are maintained at low levels with the absence
of a high temperature flame front and NOx formation is thus
avoided [10]. Soot formation is also avoided due to the homoge-
nised lean mixture which lowers local equivalence ratios [11].
2.2. Chemistry of HCCI diesel combustion
The HCCI diesel combustion process involves a two-stage heat
release. Low temperature reactions (LTR) account for the first stage
of heat release, while high temperature reactions (HTR) are respon-
sible for the second stage. Approximately 7–10% of the energy is
released during the first stage, and the remaining energy is re-
leased during the second stage [12]. During LTR, hydrogen atom
is abstracted from the hydrocarbon fuel molecule, forming a
hydrocarbon radical. The hydrocarbon radical reacts with oxygen
to form an alkylperoxy radical. An isomerisation step follows in
which the alkylperoxy radical is converted into a hydroperoxy al-
kyl radical. It undergoes a second oxygen molecule addition reac-
tion to form an oxohydroperoxide radical which can further
isomerise and decompose into ketohydroperoxide species and
OH radicals. Following the LTR stage, a time delay exists prior to
the HTR known as the ‘‘negative temperature coefficient (NTC) re-
gime” [13]. Here, the alkylperoxy radicals decompose back into ini-
561
tial reactants, favouring olefins and hydroperoxyl radicals
formation. The overall reaction rate decreases though the in-cylin-
der temperature increases. In the HTR regime, hydrogen–oxygen
branching reactions are rate-controlling. The heat release here is
mainly contributed by the oxidation process of carbon monoxide
to carbon dioxide.
Detailed chemical kinetics mechanisms have been coupled with
various types of models describing HCCI diesel combustion. The
range of models includes zero-dimensional single-zone [14,15],
multi-zone [16–18] and multi-dimensional computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) models [19], all of which have been extensively re-
viewed by Yao et al. [20].
3. Implementation of HCCI combustion in DI diesel engines
Considering that homogeneity of charge is the key feature of
HCCI combustion, the fuel injection process, particularly the injec-
tion timing is crucial to the development of HCCI combustion. The
following discusses how HCCI combustion is implemented in both
commercial and research DI diesel engines using various injection
timing strategies. Other governing factors in the development of
stable HCCI operation such as injector characteristics, injection
pressure, piston bowl geometry, compression ratio, intake charge
temperature, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) and supercharging
or turbocharging are also reviewed.
3.1. Injection timing
Since charge homogeneity is necessary for HCCI combustion,
port fuel injection would appear initially to be the obvious way
to generate a homogeneous mixture by allowing sufficient mixing
time. However, due to the high boiling point range of diesel fuel
which leads to poor vaporisation at typical diesel intake manifold
temperatures, it is not feasible to deliver diesel fuel via port injec-
tion [21]. Smoke and HC emissions increase as the non-evaporated
liquid fuel adheres to the walls of the intake system and combus-
tion chamber [22]. Although increasing the intake gas temperature
can alleviate to a certain extent the problem of poor vaporisation,
engine efficiency is lowered [23]. Thus, direct injection into the
combustion chamber is used for current diesel engines to eliminate
the need to raise intake temperature to counter the vaporisation
problem encountered in port injected systems. To achieve the re-
quired degree of air fuel mixture homogeneity necessary for HCCI
combustion, injection timing is of paramount importance since the
length of mixing time of air and fuel is dependent on when the fuel
is injected into the combustion chamber. Here, HCCI operations
can be broadly classified into three categories: early injection, mul-
tiple injections and late injection.
3.1.1. Early injection
In conventional HCCI combustion, fuel is injected early in the
compression stroke, which allows sufficient mixing time for the
formation of a homogeneous mixture. Takeda et al. [24] described
one of the earliest implementation of this strategy in the PREmixed
lean Diesel Combustion (PREDIC) mode operated on a DI four-cycle
naturally aspirated single-cylinder engine. Using two side injectors
and one centre injector, different injector configurations were
tested in combination with varying injection timings and excess
air ratios, k. For fixed excess air ratios, the ranges of operational
injection timings were limited to misfiring (too early) and knock-
ing (too late). For instance, at k = 2.7, injection timing had to be be-
tween approximately 80° Before Top Dead Centre (BTDC) to
60°BTDC. NOx emissions were significantly lower under PREDIC
operation compared to conventional diesel combustion, with
values reaching as low as 1/10 of the minimum concentrations
562 S. Gan et al. / Applied Energy 88 (2011) 559–567
emitted by standard diesel operation. However, this was accompa-
nied by increased HC and CO concentrations due to over-leaning of
the air fuel mixture. The shortcomings of the PREDIC combustion
system included limited partial load operation and lack of ignition
timing control [25].
The Premixed Compression-Ignited (PCI) combustion system
developed by Mitsubishi Motors Corporation is another example
of early injection strategy to form a premixed lean mixture prior
to self-ignition [26]. With early injection in the range of 75–
40°BTDC and an equivalence ratio of 0.38, comparison tests be-
tween a conventional hole nozzle and an impinged-spray nozzle
were carried out on a DI, four-stroke, single-cylinder diesel engine.
With the former, spray penetration was found to be significant
with fuel adhering to the combustion chamber wall. Compared to
conventional diesel combustion, NOx emissions reduced to a very
low level but both HC and smoke emissions increased. Using an
impinged-spray nozzle allowed high fuel dispersion and low spray
penetration which resulted in low emissions of both NOx and
smoke. The PCI system still produced relatively high HC emissions
and inferior fuel consumption in contrast to conventional combus-
tion. Suggested counter-measures include the use of an oxidation
catalyst and optimising the compression ratio. Likewise to PREDIC,
PCI combustion was limited to partial load conditions. Under high
load conditions, the formation of a lean, premixed air fuel mixture
was not possible due to the larger amount of injected fuel leading
to insufficient mixing with air and knocking.
3.1.2. Multiple injections
Multiple injections strategies have been developed subse-
quently to single early injection strategy for diesel combustion in
HCCI mode. The systems featuring multiple injections include the
MULtiple stage Diesel Combustion (MULDIC) [27] and Homoge-
neous charge intelligent Multiple Injection Combustion System
(HiMICS) [28,29]. In the former, following an early injection at
150°BTDC, a second injection occurs within the range of 2°BTDC
to 30° After Top Dead Centre (ATDC) as can be seen in Fig. 2. The
first stage of combustion is premixed lean combustion which low-
ers NOx emissions, while the second stage is diffusion combustion
which occurs under high temperature and low oxygen conditions.
This enabled the MULDIC operating range to be extended to higher
Fig. 2. Injection pattern of MULDIC [27].
Fig. 3. Injection pattern of HiMICS (Adapted from [28]).
load conditions, with substantial reduction in NOx emission at
higher load conditions, compared to the PREDIC system. Fig. 3
shows the injection pattern of the HiMICS. In the HiMICS, a combi-
nation of a very advanced preliminary injection followed by a main
injection around Top Dead Centre (TDC) and a late stage injection
at approximately 30°ATDC to reduce smoke is carried out. Com-
pared to standard injection and pilot injection cases, trade-off rela-
tions worsen between NOx and fuel consumption as well as NOx
and smoke in the region of ordinary injection timing. In the region
of excessively retarded timing, these trade-off relations can be im-
proved for HiMICS due to the ultra low NOx emission. Nevertheless,
drawbacks of this combustion system included high levels of HC
and CO emissions, premature ignition and inadequate homogeni-
sation of the premixture.
More recently, Toyota Motor Corporation developed a new
combustion technology known as the Uniform Bulky Combustion
System (UNIBUS) which applies a double injection technique as
shown in Fig. 4 on a common rail injection system [30]. This
technology was implemented in a new 3-l, four-cylinder DI diesel
engine (1 KD-FTV) in August 2000. An early injection is imple-
mented for the creation of a homogeneous mixture through fuel
diffusion and fuel conversion to lower hydrocarbons (LTR). A late
injection is used to trigger combustion of all fuel, including the par-
tially combusted fuel from the first injection and the premixed fuel
of the second injection. Optimisation experiments with first injec-
tion timing and quantity showed that the early injection needs to
be between 54°BTDC and 36°BTDC with 5 mm3/st of fuel. The late
injection consisting of 25 mm3/st of fuel is fixed at approximately
3°ATDC. Low NOx as well as smoke emissions were obtained for
this combustion system. The UNIBUS system is restricted to low
loads and speeds with conventional diesel combustion used for
high loads and speeds as illustrated in Fig. 5.
A new HCCI technology for DI diesel engines, known as the
MULINBUMP, which combined premixed combustion and lean dif-
fusion combustion through multi-pulse fuel injection and the
BUMP chamber has been proposed by Su et al. [31]. By carefully
controlling the injection pulse parameters such as the start of pulse
injection, injection-pulse number, injection period of each pulse
and the dwell time between the injection pulses, spray penetration
is limited. Hence, the fuel will not impinge on the cylinder liner
and mixing rate of each fuel parcel is enhanced. The main injection
pulse is set at approximately TDC. Fig. 6 shows the schematic of the
Fig. 4. Combustion strategy of UNIBUS [30].
 S. Gan et al. / Applied Energy 88 (2011) 559–567
Fig. 5. Operation map of UNIBUS [30].
Fig. 6. Multi-pulse injection of MULINBUMP [31].
multi-pulse injection. Using a specially designed BUMP combus-
tion chamber with bump rings, a flash mixing technology is made
possible. The fuel injected in the main injection combusts at a
much higher air/fuel mixing rate than in a conventional DI diesel
engine thus enabling lean diffusion combustion. This HCCI diesel
combustion is extremely sensitive to the injection mode with
many ways to reach near zero NOx and smoke emissions but the
injection mode must be careful modulated for higher power output
[32].
3.1.3. Late injection
With late injection timing starting just before TDC till later
crank angles, gas temperature and density decrease because of pis-
ton expansion which leads to longer ignition delay (ID) and an im-
proved mixture formation. The in-cylinder conditions become
favourable for HCCI combustion. Additionally, if high levels of
EGR are utilised, the peak heat release rate decreases leading to
lower NOx formation. ID is also prolonged, allowing adequate time
for improved air fuel mixing, which reduces net soot production.
The Modulated Kinetics (MK) combustion system developed by
Nissan Motor Corporation falls under this category of late injection
timing. The first generation of MK combustion system was success-
fully implemented in a four-valve-per-cylinder DI diesel engine
(YD25) that was introduced into the Japanese market in June
1998 [33,34]. The three fundamental operational features of this
first generation system are large amount of EGR, retarded injection
563
timing and high swirl ratio. Large amount of EGR which reduces
oxygen concentration from 21% to 15% is utilised as the main ap-
proach to suppressing NOx formation through low temperature
combustion. Start of injection (SOI), meanwhile, is retarded from
7°BTDC to 3°ATDC to allow thorough mixing of fuel and air prior
to ignition to reduce smoke emission. Under this combustion
mode, both NOx and smoke levels reduced dramatically with a pen-
alty on HC emissions. A high swirl ratio of 3–5 is introduced to sup-
press smoke and counter HC emissions by further improving
mixing of in-cylinder charge. Another key advantage of the MK
combustion system is the reduction of diesel combustion noise
[35]. As can be seen in Fig. 7, the region of application of the first
generation MK combustion system is limited to low load. As the
operation enters higher load region, fuel input and temperature
of the EGR gas are increased leading to longer injection duration
and shortened ID. The combination of these two effects prohibits
the complete delivery of the desired amount of fuel before com-
bustion commences. Hence, in the second generation of MK en-
gines, injection duration is shortened by using a larger nozzle
hole with high injection pressure and ID is extended by cooling
the EGR gas and reducing the compression ratio.
The Homogeneous Charge Late Injection (HCLI) and the Highly
Premixed Late Injection (HPLI) are the latest HCCI diesel combus-
tion concepts featuring late injection timing [36]. In HCLI, the
injection is carried out at approximately 40°BTDC and a rapid
homogenisation occurs. For HPLI, SOI is after TDC to ensure that
the ID is sufficient for mixture formation and homogenisation be-
fore combustion. Fig. 8 shows that the operational regions of HCLI
and HPLI are restricted to low load and medium load conditions
respectively. Conventional DI diesel combustion is used for high
load conditions.
3.2. Injector characteristics
In order to create the homogeneous mixture necessary for HCCI
combustion, the fuel injection system should ideally generate
sprays which have low penetration, uniform and wide dispersion,
and a high injection rate. Experimental observations in PCI engines
have shown that injectors with impinging spray nozzles are more
suited for this than conventional injectors [21,26]. Larger impinge-
ment angle increases the spray angle and decreases the penetra-
tion resulting in a more uniform fuel concentration within the
spray. The angle is limited by the nozzle geometry, with 60° being
typically employed in PCI combustion systems. Harada et al. [37]
demonstrated the use of a swirling-flow pintle-type injection
nozzle in creating a more uniform mixture and avoiding spray
collision with the in-cylinder liner. Comparisons between a typical
pintle-type, a pintle-type with two swirl grooves above the nozzle
Fig. 7. Combustion region of MK [34].
564 S. Gan et al. / Applied Energy 88 (2011) 559–567
Fig. 8. HCLI and HPLI combustion concepts according to load range [36].
seat and a pintle-type with a throttle below the nozzle seat showed
that the one with swirl grooves can reduce fuel adhesion to the cyl-
inder liner and dilution of lubricating oil [38].
Nozzles with narrow spray cone angles are design features of
some HCCI diesel combustion systems. A narrow spray cone angle
of less than 100° was utilised in conjunction with an early injection
strategy in the Narrow Angle Direct Injection (NADI™) engine to
promote mixing of air and fuel and to limit fuel wall impingement
[39]. Similarly, fuel injection angle was reduced from 156°, typical
of conventional diesel engine, to 60° on a single-cylinder DI diesel
engine to reduce wall wetting and avoid an out of bowl injection at
early injection timing [40].
Additionally, to promote mixing of air and fuel, the nozzle hole
diameter can be reduced. It has been demonstrated that the re-
quired mixing period, defined as the time necessary for mixture
of equivalence ratios of 2.0 or greater to disappear, decreased by
approximately 25–50% when the hole diameter was reduced to
25% and 40% of the conventional nozzle hole diameter at injection
pressures ranging from 40 MPa to 140 MPa [41].
3.3. Injection pressure
Increased fuel injection pressure can promote better mixing of
the in-cylinder charge especially when used in combination with
smaller nozzle orifice [41]. At high fuel injection pressure, injection
speed increases leading to a high rate of air entrainment and mix-
ing which results in favourable spray structure and better combus-
tion [29]. Furthermore, investigations on a pressurised vessel with
optical access and common rail (CR) fuel injection system indicated
that leaner sprays which are important for PCI combustion are pro-
duced when fuel injection pressure is increased [21].
3.4. Piston bowl geometry
In the case of early injection, piston bowl geometry is often
adapted to enable the development of HCCI combustion. Flat and
shallow dish types combustion chambers have been developed
specifically for HCCI diesel engines [25,42]. A shallow dish type
can reduce the formation of fuel wall-film on the surface of the pis-
ton bowl wall leading to lesser soot, HC and CO emissions com-
pared to a standard re-entrant bowl as well as improve Indicated
Mean Effective Pressure (IMEP) and combustion stability [43].
The BUMP combustion chamber combined with multi-pulse fuel
injection has been demonstrated to work successfully for HCCI die-
sel combustion [31,32]. In recent works, computer modelling and
simulation is utilised to generate the optimum piston bowl geom-
etry for better combustion and emissions characteristics [44,45].
3.5. Compression ratio
By lowering the compression ratio, ID is prolonged which al-
lows complete injection of all fuel prior to ignition, a prerequisite
for premixed combustion and a reduction in the gas temperature
of the combustion field at TDC of the compression stroke. Reducing
compression ratio from 18:1 to 16:1 was part of the strategy used
in the second generation of MK diesel engines to extend low tem-
perature, premixed combustion to higher load conditions [33]. It
has been demonstrated by Ryan and Callahan [46] that knock in
HCCI diesel combustion can be prevented by reducing the com-
pression ratio. When compression ratio is reduced, the accompa-
nying reduction in temperature rise of the end gas prevents
explosive self ignition from occurring.
Peng et al. [47] conducted experiments on a four-stroke, single-
cylinder, variable compression ratio engine using n-heptane which
verified the effects of compression ratio on HCCI combustion. The
results showed that the possibility of knocking decreased, with
the knock limit pulled to lower air fuel ratio (AFR) region (richer
mixture) when compression ratio was reduced from 18:1 to 12:1.
The maximum IMEP attainable on this engine thus increased from
2.7 bar to 3.5 bar.
3.6. Intake charge temperature
Intake charge temperature has been demonstrated to affect the
IMEP produced under HCCI combustion mode [47]. Experimental
findings indicated that regardless of the EGR rate, lowering the in-
take charge temperature increased the IMEP due to the increase of
the in-cylinder charge mass. When the temperature was decreased
from 105 °C to 30 °C, the maximum IMEP increased from 2.7 bar to
3.7 bar.
3.7. EGR
For early injection HCCI diesel combustion, EGR is used as a
means of diluting the gas mixture in HCCI diesel engine thereby
retarding the ignition timing. In a Premixed Charge Compression
Ignition (PCCI) combustion system described by Kanda et al. [42],
a large amount of EGR (54%) is introduced to retard the ignition
timing toward TDC and improve the IMEP. In another PCI combus-
tion system, it has been shown that high EGR rates up to 68% are
used to effectively control the start of combustion (SOC) [44]. High
EGR rates can also be used to counter combustion noise by control-
ling the start of combustion [48]. However, the drawbacks of such
high rates of EGR include problems with transient response and
temperature-stability characteristics [26]. Therefore, for early
injection HCCI combustion, EGR should be combined with some
other combustion control technology such as modification of fuel
properties or adoption of some other chemical approach. In the
case of late injection such as the MK combustion system, EGR is
typically utilised as a NOx reduction measure with typical levels
of approximately 40% [36]. NOx is reduced because of the lowering
of flame temperature due to charge dilution and higher heat capac-
ity of the cylinder charge when EGR is introduced [49].
3.8. Supercharging/turbocharging
Supercharging or turbocharging is used in HCCI operation to ex-
tend the operating load range [50–52]. This is particularly relevant
in HCCI operations whereby reasonably high EGR rates are typi-
cally employed to control combustion and limit NOx formation.
The resulting dilution limits the amount of fuel that can be added
for a fixed charge mass leading to a loss in engine power. To coun-
ter this for a given engine size, more mass needs to be forced
through the engine via supercharging or turbocharging. In the
 S. Gan et al. / Applied Energy 88 (2011) 559–567
PREDIC system described earlier, the output limit was approxi-
mately half that of conventional diesel combustion [38]. By super-
charging to 86 kPa and increasing the fuel quantity at a lowered
compression ratio of 12.5, the power output could be increased
to nearly the full load of conventional, naturally aspirated diesel
combustion. Similarly, in the PCI combustion system, a boost pres-
sure of 80 kPa produced an output which was comparable to that
of the full load of conventional, naturally aspirated diesel combus-
tion [26]. Tests with n-heptane in a Cooperative Fuels Research
(CFR) engine operated in HCCI mode showed that raising the intake
pressure from approximately 117.5 kPa to 152.5 kPa resulted in a
directly proportional increase in IMEP when all influential param-
eters such as compression ratio, intake charge temperature, EGR
rate and U were kept constant [53]. In another study, turbocharg-
ing on a six-cylinder diesel engine achieved high loads of up to
16 bar Brake Mean Effective Pressure (BMEP) with ultra low spe-
cific NOx emissions (0.1 g/kW h) [54]. This compares to 21 bar
BMEP for the same engine under standard diesel operation.
Evaluation of boosting strategies for HCCI applications have
been carried out by Olsson et al. [55]. The dilution required to limit
NOx necessitates the use of much more boost compared to conven-
tional engines for the same load. When high boost is required, tur-
bocharger efficiency was shown to be very important for HCCI in
order to reduce pumping losses. For high load applications, two-
stage turbocharging with inter-cooling is recommended. Better
control of the turbocharger such as using variable geometry turbo-
charger (VGT) avoids unnecessary pumping work through ‘over
boost’.
4. Effects of design and operating parameters on HCCI diesel
emissions
In comparison to the development of stable HCCI diesel com-
bustion, research works on emissions reduction from HCCI engines
particularly wide parametric studies are still limited [56]. This sec-
tion aims to investigate the effects of design and operating param-
eters on HCCI diesel emissions, particularly NOx and soot, which
are discussed in the open literature.
4.1. Compression ratio
Experiments carried out on a PCCI engine demonstrated that
under premixed combustion, NOx emissions were only mildly re-
duced when compression ratio was reduced from 18.4:1 to
16.0:1 within the SOI timing range of 5°BTDC to 3°ATDC [57]. Soot
emissions, unlike NOx, were reduced more markedly when com-
pression ratio reduced. The reductions in NOx and soot emissions
can be explained by the retardation in ID which leads to a reduc-
tion in the gas temperature at TDC of the compression stroke and
more complete mixing of air and fuel mixture.
4.2. Injection pressure
The effect of injection pressure on HCCI emissions has been
studied by Wåhlin et al. [58] in a four-stroke, 2-l single-cylinder
PCI engine. Using early injection timing between 70°BTDC and
50°BTDC, when injection pressure was raised from 500 bar to
1500 bar, NOx and smoke emissions decreased. In contrast, CO
and HC emissions increased with increasing injection pressure.
The simultaneous reductions in NOx and soot emissions when
injection pressure was increased from 700 bar to 1500 bar have
also been observed by Yun et al. [59] for injection timings in the
range of 34–24°BTDC. Shimazaki et al. [60] attributed these ob-
served trends to a higher turbulent mixing rate leading to leaner
mixtures at increased injection pressures.
565
In another low temperature, late injection parametric study on
a High-Speed Direct Injection (HSDI) diesel engine, injection pres-
sure was varied from 600 to 1200 bar at 3 and 6 bar load conditions
respectively using a swirl ratio of 3.77 [61]. Similar to the previous
findings by Wåhlin et al. [58], at IMEP of 3 bar, increasing injection
pressure monotonically reduced peak soot luminosity. This was
suggested to be the result of enhanced early mixture formation.
Soot oxidation rates, as inferred from the relative decay rates of
the integrated luminosity, increased modestly with increasing
injection pressure. However, at IMEP of 6 bar, no conclusive trends
could be made for both soot luminosity and oxidation rate.
4.3. Intake charge temperature
Intake charge temperature affects the combustion and forma-
tion of emissions via two distinct pathways. When temperature
is lowered, ID is extended leading to enhanced air/fuel premixing.
Additionally, the adiabatic flame temperature of a fuel parcel
which has mixed to a particular equivalence ratio is decreased. This
means that fuel element is steered away from the NOx–soot forma-
tion region on the U–T map. Lü et al. [62] showed that increasing
intake charge temperature from 31 °C to 54 °C increased NOx emis-
sions linearly from approximately 10 ppm to 50 ppm when n-hep-
tane fuel was combusted at fixed fuel delivery rate, engine speed
and 30% EGR. This is in agreement with another HCCI work where-
by NOx increased when inlet air temperature increased from 35 °C
to 80 °C [38]. Both unburned HC and CO were observed to be unaf-
fected by intake temperature [62].
Experiments conducted on a HSDI diesel engine revealed that
peak soot luminosity were markedly reduced when intake temper-
ature decreased from 110 °C to 30 °C under a load condition of
3 bar IMEP [61]. This was attributed to both lower soot tempera-
tures and reduced soot formation. Nonetheless, in-cylinder soot
luminosity was clearly observed even at 30 °C which indicated that
complete eradication of soot formation was difficult with typical
fuel injection system parameters.
4.4. Internal and external EGR
Conventionally, EGR can be categorised into internal and exter-
nal EGR. Internal EGR (IEGR) is controlled by varying the negative
valve overlap (NVO) period using variable valve timing (VVT),
while external EGR is achieved by channelling part of the exhaust
stream into the intake manifold [63]. Compared to cooled external
EGR, IEGR involves lower initial cost and easier set up in vehicles
and exhibits improved engine cold start and warmup performance
[64].
Shi et al. [65] conducted a comprehensive study of the effects of
both types of EGR on HCCI emissions on a single-cylinder, four-
stroke, four-valve, water-cooled and naturally aspirated diesel
engine. It was observed that as NVO was increased, SOC was ad-
vanced and combustion rate increased under the same load and
engine speed. This was due to more high-temperature residual
gas being trapped in the cylinder and higher in-cylinder tempera-
ture. Accordingly, NOx emission increased at large NVO and the ef-
fect was more pronounced at higher load. In contrast, smoke
emission decreased considerably when NVO increased due to the
higher in-cylinder residual gas temperature which promotes fuel
evaporation and more homogeneous gas mixture. However, this
was not applicable at higher load since the higher charge temper-
ature for the promotion of soot oxidation was insufficient to offset
the increase in soot formation due to the increasing fraction of fuel
rich gas mixture.
The same study revealed that cooled external EGR had no signif-
icant effect on NOx emissions at small fuel quantity per cycle
(0.054 and 0.058 g/cycle). When fuel quantity per cycle was
566 S. Gan et al. / Applied Energy 88 (2011) 559–567
relatively large (0.062 g/cycle), as the engine approached knock
combustion NOx emission was higher without EGR compared to
an EGR rate of 50%. Hence increasing EGR under this condition
was beneficial in terms of reduced NOx formation and avoiding
knock. These observations were similar to conventional diesel
engine. Negligible changes to smoke emission were detected with
increased EGR rate, unlike conventional diesel engine where smoke
increased rapidly with increased EGR rate. Cooled EGR can there-
fore be used as a mitigation measure for NOx emission without
causing adverse effects on smoke emission.
It has been demonstrated that the effects of EGR on emissions
during HCCI combustion is tied closely to injection timing
[66,67]. Experiments performed on a four-cylinder 1.7-l diesel en-
gine showed that when EGR rate increased from 42% to 45%, NOx
reduced within the late injection timing range from 18°BTDC to
9°BTDC. However, within this range, for earlier injection timings,
the reduction in NOx was accompanied by increased soot – the
classic soot-NOx trade-off exhibited here. Only at retarded injection
timings (9°BTDC), and at high enough EGR rates (44–45%), soot
emission was lowered. These findings are similar to another low
temperature combustion work carried out by Kook et al. [68] on
a single-cylinder optical diesel engine. It was found that at fixed
injection timing within the range of 30.25–7.75°BTDC, increasing
EGR from 0% to 65% decreased NOx emissions. This was caused
by the decrease in the adiabatic flame temperature because of
the additional heat capacity of diluent charge at fixed SOI. At mod-
erate to high EGR rates, retarding injection sufficiently resulted in
decrease in soot emissions.
The penalty of using such high EGR rates is increased HC and CO
emissions due to slow oxidation at lower flame temperatures
[59,68]. Additionally, in the long-term, excessive EGR can degrade
engine durability and performance due to increased piston-cylin-
der wearing, as EGR contains abrasive and corrosive components
such as sulphur oxide [69,70].
4.5. Swirl ratio
The effects of swirl ratio on emissions from premixed low tem-
perature diesel combustion have been studied on a HSDI diesel en-
gine at fixed operating conditions of 1500 rpm and 3 bar IMEP for
an injection timing range of 34–2°BTDC [59]. As swirl ratio was in-
creased from 1.0 to 4.0, significant reduction in soot emissions was
achieved especially for advanced injection timing. This indicated
that increasing swirl ratio favours the reduction of local rich re-
gions within the in-cylinder charge. It was also shown that swirl
ratio had negligible influence on both NOx and CO emissions.
Similarly, Choi et al. [61] observed that increasing swirl ratio
from 1.44 to 7.12 monotonically decreased peak soot luminosity
at a low load of 3 bar IMEP. At higher load of 6 bar IMEP, interme-
diate swirl ratios of 3.77 and 4.94 produced the highest levels of
soot luminosity but the decay was very rapid compared to the rel-
atively slow decay at low and high swirl ratios. It was suggested
that an optimum swirl ratio exists at 6 bar load whereby the soot
oxidation rate was maximised.
5. Concluding remarks
HCCI is a combustion concept which has developed over the
years in response to the need for lower NOx and soot emissions
from DI diesel engines. The earliest HCCI combustion systems
introduced in the late 1990s relied on early fuel injection strategies
to create the necessary homogeneous mixture by injecting early in
the compression stroke. Subsequently, multiple injection strategies
have been developed in order to extend the operating load range
and improve HCCI emissions. Late injection strategies have also
been utilised to produce HCCI diesel combustion using high EGR
and high swirl to extend ID and promote rapid mixing in the com-
bustion chamber. Further developments in HCCI diesel engines in-
clude changes to injector design and injection pressure, piston
bowl geometry, compression ratio, intake charge temperature
and supercharging or turbocharging.
Although much advancement has been achieved in this re-
search field over the last decade, large scale adoption of HCCI diesel
engines in commercial vehicles is currently not possible. The main
challenges facing HCCI diesel engines are its limited operational
range, lack of direct control of combustion phasing and increased
HC and CO emissions as reported in some applications. The feasi-
bility of a full HCCI diesel engine was demonstrated in a single-cyl-
inder heavy duty Caterpillar engine which attained 20 bar BMEP
[71] but the extension of full load HCCI application to light duty
engines remains unclear. Hence, for future long term development
of HCCI diesel combustion systems, the key issues will be more
flexible injection strategies and EGR control for better mixture for-
mation and control as well as high boost to extend the upper load
limits. With projected increasing flexibility in both engine hard-
ware and control system in the long term, the development of a full
HCCI diesel engine is possible.
In the short to medium term however, a dual engine system
combining conventional diesel combustion for full load conditions
and HCCI combustion for medium and low loads remains the most
practical implementation in diesel engines. The major drawback of
the dual operating mode for car manufacturers is the costs and
complexity associated with the development of an engine control
management system capable of responding to different operating
conditions. Nevertheless, progress has been made within the HCCI
automotive field to overcome this as evident by the commercial
applications of the UNIBUS by Toyota Motor Corporation and the
MK combustion system by Nissan Motor Corporation. In the United
States, General Motors Company has prioritised HCCI technology
and is anticipating the introduction of HCCI diesel engines to the
market by 2012 [72]. In conclusion, whilst HCCI remains a realistic
alternative to existing engine combustion technologies to improve
emissions, it should continue to have long term viability as an en-
ergy source for both light-duty and heavy-duty diesel vehicles.
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