This document discusses a study examining why early women sociologists are not well known, despite available research about their contributions. The researchers hypothesized that one reason may be a lack of exposure to these women's works in graduate theory courses. To assess this, they analyzed 40 graduate program theory syllabi and found that Marx, Weber, and Durkheim still dominate, while only 17% included writings by women. This suggests early women sociologists have begun diffusing into the field but have not been fully integrated into the classical canon taught to future instructors.
This document discusses a study examining why early women sociologists are not well known, despite available research about their contributions. The researchers hypothesized that one reason may be a lack of exposure to these women's works in graduate theory courses. To assess this, they analyzed 40 graduate program theory syllabi and found that Marx, Weber, and Durkheim still dominate, while only 17% included writings by women. This suggests early women sociologists have begun diffusing into the field but have not been fully integrated into the classical canon taught to future instructors.
This document discusses a study examining why early women sociologists are not well known, despite available research about their contributions. The researchers hypothesized that one reason may be a lack of exposure to these women's works in graduate theory courses. To assess this, they analyzed 40 graduate program theory syllabi and found that Marx, Weber, and Durkheim still dominate, while only 17% included writings by women. This suggests early women sociologists have begun diffusing into the field but have not been fully integrated into the classical canon taught to future instructors.
THE INTEGRATION OF EARLY WOMEN SOCIOLOGISTS IN CLASSICAL THEORY COURSES*
In recent years, early women sociologists such as Harriet Martineau, Ida B.
Wells, and Jane Addams have begun to appear in some introductory text- books and theory books. Usually, they appear in a box, as a sidebar, or as selected “others.” So why do we not know more about these women? Our research seeks to answer this question. Given the availability of books by and about these women, we hypothesized that one explanation might lie in the training of theory instructors. If graduate students were not exposed to the work of early women sociologists, then it seemed unlikely they would incorpo- rate them into their own teaching, research, and analyses. To assess this the- ory, we collected theory syllabi from 40 graduate schools. Since we were most interested in early women sociologists, we focused our analysis on “classical” theory syllabi. Our findings indicate that Marx, Weber, and Durk- heim still dominate classical theory syllabi. The writings of women were as- signed on 17 percent of the syllabi in our sample. We believe this indicates a weak but visible indication that the diffusion of their work has begun.
JAN E. THOMAS ANNIS KUKULAN
Kenyon College Kenyon College
ALEXANDER DEFINES a classic as a work includes an analysis that reflects a privi-
that is given privileged status, establishes leged, white, male perspective (1997). Her some “fundamental criteria in the field” and view has been echoed by many others who helps integrate the discipline (1987:12). would like to see the canon be a more inclu- Brady et al. (2001) add that the classics are sive representation of the voices and ideas important because they establish who the of those previously ignored. These include most influential thinkers are in the field and the voices of women, people of color, and imply a “shared set of assumptions and au- other oppressed groups. thors that are the core of the discipline” (p. Some scholars have specifically argued 268). These individuals are often thought to for the need to include early women soci- compose the “canon” in sociology. ologists as part of the discipline’s founda- Who and what constitutes the canon has tional core, part of our “classical” tradition been hotly debated in sociology as well as (Deegan 1991; Lengermann and Neibrugge- other disciplines. Sprague suggests that the Brantley 1998; McDonald 1994, 1998). In canon sociologists have inherited is “the contrast to this call to become more diverse, product of a particular subgroup’s perspec- other sociologists have advocated for a dis- tive on society” (1998:24) and offers a very ciplinary “core” and believe that a move to limited analysis of the social world, which a more diverse canon fragments and weak- ens the discipline (Alexander 1987; R. *Please address all correspondence to Jan E. Collins 1997; Horowitz 1993; Huber 1995; Thomas, Department of Sociology, Kenyon Turner and Turner 1990). Our research College, Gambier, OH 43022; e-mail: thomasj@kenyon.edu. looks at the impact of these debates on the Editor’s note: The reviewers were, in substance of classical theory courses. In alphabetical order, Julie Cannon, Mary Jo particular, we were interested in whether Deegan, and Terri LeMoyne. women are being included in theory
Downloaded from tso.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on May 8, 2016
WOMEN IN CLASSICAL THEORY 253 courses, thus broadening the canon and Source Book (1991), Lengermann and Nie- making it more inclusive, or if there is a brugge-Brantley’s textbook The Women disciplinary core of more traditional voices Founders (1998), and Lynn McDonald’s still in place. Women Founders of the Social Sciences These questions grew out of a course we (1994). Several primary and secondary both participated in on the inclusion of sources are available on specific women women in sociology. In the fall of 2001, we such as Harriett Martineau (Hill and participated in an upper-division, under- Hoecker-Drysdale 2001; Hoecker-Drysdale graduate seminar exploring the works of 1992; Martineau 1995), Jane Addams women sociologists. The course was taught (Deegan 1988; Elshtain 2002), and Char- at a small, private liberal arts school with a lotte Perkins Gilman (Gilman 1989, 1997, strong theoretical orientation. The 16 stu- 1998a, 1998b). Collections of the writings dents enrolled (including Kukulan) were of two African-American women, Anna primarily junior and senior sociology ma- Julia Cooper (1998) and Ida B. Wells jors. Most students had already taken or (1997), have also been published. In addi- were taking the required courses in classical tion, many articles have also been published and contemporary theory. The instructor about these women, their exclusion from (Thomas) assigned a variety of primary and the classical theory canon, and the impor- secondary texts to assess the works of tance of their contributions. Some of these women such as Harriett Martineau, Beatrice women are even present today in sociologi- Potter Webb, Marianne Weber, Ida B. cal theory books (Adams and Sydie 2001; Wells, Anna Julia Cooper, Jane Addams, Lemert 1993; Ritzer 1999; Zeitlin 2001). the women of the Chicago School, Charlotte Since a lack of resources was not a logical Perkins Gilman, Rose Hum Lee, and Helen explanation for the absence of knowledge Hughes. We ended the semester with stu- about early women sociologists, we hy- dents presenting research papers on the pothesized that another possible explanation work of contemporary women sociologists. might lie in the training of theory instruc- The purpose of the course was to uncover tors.1 Are graduate students—the future the contributions made by women to the generation of theory instructors—being discipline of sociology, to consider the dif- taught about the “founding mothers” of ferences and similarities between the writ- sociology? If these women are not part of ing and theories of women sociologists and the core curriculum then graduate students male theorists writing at about the same might be left with the impression that their time, and to assess the contemporary sig- work was not significant in the development nificance of their work. One question came of the discipline. In order for women to up repeatedly: “Why haven’t we heard appear on theory syllabi in undergraduate about these women before?” This question level courses, instructors must be exposed became the focus of our research. to their work during their graduate training. A lack of research and writing by and The more that sociologists come in contact about early women sociologists seemed like a logical reason why students of sociology 1 There are certainly other possible explana- might not have heard about any of the early tions as well. Time constraints are probably one women founders of the discipline. How- of the most significant. Time constraints during ever, in the last decade works by early the semester force instructors to chose only a women sociologists and books about their selected group of readings. If textbooks do not include women sociologists, then additional time contributions to the discipline have become for supplemental readings is required. These are widely available. Important collections of- often the readings first to be cut if time begins fering excerpts and analyses of early women to run short during the semester, thus reinforc- sociologists include: Mary Jo Deegan’s ing the belief that these authors are not as im- Women in Sociology: A Bio-Bibliographic portant.
Downloaded from tso.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on May 8, 2016
254 TEACHING SOCIOLOGY with the ideas and writing of early women courses, graduate students are socialized sociologists, the more likely it is that they into the main ideas and perspectives of the will become integrated into the discipline. discipline (Brady et al. 2001). Specific This idea follows from the concept of course requirements vary across institu- diffusion. Diffusion is a process through tions, but some training in sociological the- which cultural knowledge and practices can ory is a critical component of the socializa- be transmitted (Johnson 2000:89). Diffusion tion process. Students learn about specific may be used to explain how cultural prac- theorists and read specific texts that provide tices from one ethnic group are spread to the foundation for their own research, the dominant culture or it can help us un- analysis, and teaching. Through this proc- derstand the widespread acceptance of tech- ess, the central ideas, or the core, of the nology in our society. Diffusion of new discipline are transmitted. ideas, practices, and technologies has in- In the past, graduate programs typically creased rapidly with the growing ease of offered courses in classical and contempo- interaction between various groups. In soci- rary theory. Classical theory generally be- ology, the knowledge and practices of the gan with Comte or, in some cases, Aristotle discipline are transmitted primarily through and Plato and ended around 1920. Contem- graduate schools, publications, and confer- porary theory typically focused on signifi- ences. In this research we will focus on a cant works beginning with the post-war particular aspect of graduate school, specifi- years. Today, graduate theory courses are cally the classical theory course, to see if much more varied. The most recent edition there is evidence of the diffusion process in of the ASA Resource Book for Teaching regards to the work of early women sociolo- Sociological Theory (2001) illustrates how gists. diverse theory syllabi have become. The syllabi in this set are primarily for under- THE GRADUATE graduate theory courses and are organized THEORY CURRICULUM into modern and postmodern approaches. The modern approach is based on an as- Graduate schools of sociology are the train- sumption that sociological theory grows out ing ground for future sociologists, thus we of Enlightenment thought and a desire to focused our attention there. The graduate understand modernity. In this view, social school curriculum is designed to provide scientists are objective researchers who seek students with a comprehensive foundation in to uncover the “truth” (LeMoyne 2001:7). sociological theory and methods and to pre- The postmodern approach to sociological pare them to engage in scholarly research theory reflects a belief that “knowledge is and teaching. The content of the curriculum always bound by both moral and ideological is crucial for understanding the past, pre- considerations” (LeMoyne 2001:78). This sent, and future of the discipline. It is also lens emphasizes an analysis of the stand- important in terms of providing the founda- point of theorists and the deconstruction of tion for what future generations of profes- texts to uncover hierarchies of knowledge sors teach their students about the disci- and power (LeMoyne 2001). Regardless of pline’s central ideas and perspectives. approach, ASA Resource Book editor Terri Dowd (1991) argues that the graduate cur- LeMoyne notes a surprising consistency riculum serves as a canon for graduate stu- between the theorists and theories that are dents; required courses, exams, and the taught. While there is considerable variation dissertation serve as “sacred texts.” The in how the theorists and their works are curriculum “specifies, although not always analyzed, most courses consider the work of explicitly, an authoritative, approved list of Marx, Weber, and Durkheim. The amount courses, authors, works and ideas” (p. of time spent on this “holy trinity” (Sprague 317). Through required and elective 1997:89) varies considerably, with those
Downloaded from tso.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on May 8, 2016
WOMEN IN CLASSICAL THEORY 255 instructors teaching from a postmodern per- sociological theory. In regards to classical spective spending the least time on these theory, he found “a strong consensus” on theorists. content. Marx, Weber, and Durkheim were far and away the most cited theorists, ac- Continuity and Change counting for almost 56 percent of all cita- What is taught as the classics or the canon tions. While Markovsky (2002:5) found a of the discipline is important in terms of the “strong consensus with respect to the key socialization and scholarly development of figures seen as responsible for laying the new Ph.D.s. The classroom according to discipline’s historical foundation” there was Gorak is the “universally acknowledged site no real consensus on the significance of of perpetuating the canon” (1991:2). other theorists, and there were no women in Through course work, students learn about the group of key figures. These findings theorists and perspectives, which help them held across cohorts of junior and senior understand the discipline in a particular sociologists, suggesting that instructors way. The importance of these theorists and adopted the canon they were taught. In perspectives is reaffirmed through the sub- other words, we teach what we are taught. stance of qualifying exams, published re- As many schools increasingly emphasize the search, academic discourse, and their ap- importance of research, faculty members pearance in introductory and theory text- are even more likely to teach what they are books. taught rather than take additional time to There has been very little research on research and develop a different approach to what theorists and theories are being taught teaching theory. in graduate programs in sociology. Brady In the 1984 edition of the ASA syllabi set et al. (2001) examined the structure and for social theory, only 6 out of 29 course substance of qualifying exams in graduate syllabi presented or included some type of schools. In terms of the substance of ex- recognition or attention to feminist theory ams, the researchers measured exam topics (Alway 1995:217). This included all types (theory and methods were the most com- of theory courses, not just those focused on mon) and recommended reading lists. The classical theory. The 2001 edition reflects early sociologists that appeared on the most the continuing importance of Marx, Weber, theory reading lists were Marx, Weber, and Durkheim in theory courses but shows Durkheim, and Simmel. Comte and Mead a greater recognition of women’s contribu- were also mentioned on several reading tions to sociology. However, most of the lists. Other early theorists appearing more assigned works by women appear in courses than once included Aristotle, Adam Smith, emphasizing postmodern or contemporary Rousseau, Hobbes, Tocqueville, and Toen- theory rather than the classical courses. We nies (Brady et al. 2001). Brady et al. (2001) look at whether or not these findings are an concluded that there appears to be only a accurate reflection of the diffusion of “small ‘core’ of common expertise” that is women sociologists in graduate level classi- required across programs (p. 282). cal theory courses. Barry Markovsky (2002) has also con- ducted work on graduate training in theory. METHODS As part of a larger project on developing sociological theories, he interviewed soci- In order to assess what theorists are being ologists who taught required theory courses taught to graduate students, we focused on in the top 50 graduate schools. He asked theory course syllabi from the top 65 sociol- instructors a series of questions regarding ogy graduate programs. These schools were their own theory training, how they cur- determined using the 2001 US News and rently teach their theory courses, and what World Report rankings (www.usnews.com) they viewed as the “essential readings” in and were crosschecked with the Princeton
Downloaded from tso.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on May 8, 2016
256 TEACHING SOCIOLOGY Review rankings to verify that the top group Most syllabi in this category covered pri- of schools was the same. Our concern was marily classical theorists and readings— not with the exact ranking of each school typically Marx, Weber, Durkheim, and but instead with obtaining a reliable list of selected other theorists. Some classical syl- schools whose faculty and students were labi included theorists up through the most likely to be influencing future genera- 1940s, but most ended at or before Mead. tions of sociology instructors. A few syllabi ended the semester with some We first viewed each school’s Department contemporary readings. These syllabi were of Sociology website. All 65 schools had still considered classical if more than 75 websites, although the extent of information percent of the semester was devoted to theo- available on these sites varied dramatically. rists pre-1920 or if the course title was Some schools provided the necessary syllabi “classical theory.” There were 46 syllabi in online, available for downloading, while this group.2 other schools had only profiles of profes- The contemporary designation was gener- sors. In these cases, contact was made ally made by course title. Of the 38 syllabi through e-mail with professors who taught in this category all but six contained the core theory classes. When the correct the- words contemporary and theory in the ory professor could not be determined from course title. If contemporary was not in the the website, an e-mail was sent to a profes- title, we read the descriptions of the course, sor that had primary research interest in topics to be covered, and the required read- theory. The e-mail requested current syllabi ing list. Contemporary theory courses gen- for any theory classes required for graduate erally covered a variety of theorists and level students. A small number of programs were often organized around schools of did not require theory classes. In those thought such as structuralism, post- cases, a selection of syllabi for theory modernism, and feminist theory. Merton, courses was sent. In a few cases, when no Parsons, Bourdieu, Foucault, Dorothy response was received from the school, a Smith, and Patricia Hill Collins were fre- graduate student listed on the school’s web- quently mentioned on these syllabi. Goff- site was contacted who provided the rele- man and Freud bridged the classical and vant material. In total, we collected 108 contemporary categories. These categories syllabi for graduate level theory courses were fairly equivalent to the modern and from 40 different schools. postmodern designations used by LeMoyne (2001) in the ASA syllabi set. Syllabus Classification The seven syllabi in the combined cate- In our initial review, we attempted to clas- gory tended to cover multiple theorists from sify the syllabi as primarily focusing on a variety of time periods. The focus in these classical or contemporary theory. Although courses seemed to be a more general over- most syllabi fell into these two categories, view or survey of sociological theory and we found this framework too limiting given ideas. Within this category was a subgroup the wide diversity of theorists and topics. of syllabi that seemed to be designed around With further analysis, we found that most a “classical in a contemporary context” theory classes could be classified into five theme. These courses surveyed a variety of groups: classical, contemporary, combined, theorists, however the classical theorists theory construction, and special topics. were juxtaposed with contemporary sociolo- Classical and contemporary syllabi high- gists. Therefore, a classical theorist was lighted the main theorists within a fairly general time period. A syllabus was classi- 2 These 46 syllabi were from 40 different fied as classical if it was either titled schools. Some schools had more than one per- “classical social theory” or primarily cov- son teaching these courses, so each instructor ered theorists writing before the 1920s. sent a syllabus.
Downloaded from tso.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on May 8, 2016
WOMEN IN CLASSICAL THEORY 257 paired with a more contemporary theorist was calculated by looking at each week’s who had either developed the earlier per- required readings and estimating the propor- son’s theory or applied classical theory to a tion of the week devoted to an individual contemporary situation. An example of a theorist. Using this system, a 2 represents course title that fell within this subgroup two full weeks devoted to a particular theo- was “Imagining the Contemporary: Founda- rist, while a .5 means just half of one week tions of Social Theory.” The required read- (50% of the reading for that week). ings for this course included Marx, Weber, Over 50 sociologists were taught in Durkheim, Giddens, Foucault, and Fanon. graduate level classical theory courses from A small number of syllabi (four) focused the 46 syllabi we received. Given this large on theory construction and emphasized the number of sociologists, we eliminated any theory of theory or how theory was devel- theorist who was covered on fewer than two oped generally by sociologists rather than syllabi or whose primary work began after by specific sociologists or theories. These 1940. The exceptions to these exclusions theory classes examined issues such as the were women. Any female theorist men- definition of sociological theory, the strate- tioned on these syllabi was kept, regardless gies that sociologists use to construct the- of the number of syllabi covering that theo- ory, the role of theory explanation, and rist or the amount of time spent covering theory analysis. Most of the syllabi in this the theorist.3 This process was in accor- category listed Cohen’s Developing Socio- dance with our primary concern of learning logical Knowledge (1989) as a text and sup- whether women were being included in plemented this work with various articles classical social theory. and book chapters. In addition to the theorists covered, two Finally, 13 syllabi were designed around other pieces of data were also recorded. We special theoretical topics. Some schools noted the year each course was taught so offered a very wide variety of theory that we could observe any trends in theo- courses from which students could choose. rists covered in recent years. Generally, We received topical syllabi in areas such as however, the syllabi received were taught feminist theory, social psychology, and so- either during the 2000-2001 or 2001-2002 cial organization. Depending on the topic, school year. Many of the instructors con- readings were drawn from early sociologists tinually taught classical theory, but we had or concentrated solely on contemporary no way of measuring the changes in their theorists. For our analysis, we focused only courses over time. We also recorded the sex on the 46 syllabi in the classical theory cate- of the instructors to see if female instructors gory. were more likely to include women sociolo- gists in their courses. Quantification of Theorists—Breadth and Depth INCLUSION AND COVERAGE Our main interest was on the actual theo- OF CLASSICAL THEORISTS rists being taught to graduate students rather than the specific writings or perspectives of At the broadest level, our findings suggest these theorists. We first did a simple count that theory is very much alive and well in of how many syllabi each theorist appeared graduate training programs in sociology. on. This count gave us a broad, overall We were struck by the tremendous variety measure of whom was considered signifi- 3 Occasionally one of these women would be cant in the development of the discipline covered on a syllabus designated as contempo- (breadth). In order to assess the depth of rary or combined. These were not included in their significance, we also devised a tabula- our analysis. Only those appearing on syllabi tion process looking at the amount of time designated as classical were counted since that allotted for the study of each person. This was the period we were most interested in.
Downloaded from tso.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on May 8, 2016
258 TEACHING SOCIOLOGY of theory courses currently available to Table 1. Inclusion of Theorists graduate students. While many courses are broad overviews of sociological theory, Theorist Syllabi Average Included Weeks Spent others offer an in-depth look at a more nar- on (N=46) Discussing row theoretical area such as contemporary Marxist theory, Post-Parsonian theorists, or Max Weber 46 2.58 social interaction and group processes. E. Durkeim 45 2.41 Some departments divide their core theory courses according to time periods (for ex- K. Marx 42 2.55 ample, 1850 to 1920, 1920 to 1970, 1970 to current), some use a more traditional divi- G. Simmel 20 1.45 sion with classical and contemporary G.H. Mead 16 1.00 courses, and others have a “cafeteria” ap- proach with a variety of topical courses S. Freud 8 1.00 from which students can choose. In the 46 classical syllabi we collected, A. Comte 7 .44 the “holy trinity” of Marx, Weber, and Durkheim still seemed firmly in place (see A. Smith 6 .93 Table 1). However, very few classical the- H. Spencer 6 .72 ory courses only looked at the work of these three theorists. Mead and Simmel were A. Tocqueville 5 1.30 often included in these courses, though sig- nificantly less time was devoted to either of G. Hegel 5 .56 them. In the first week or two of classes, E. Goffman 5 .81 Comte, Tocqueville, and Adam Smith were the names most likely to appear on syllabi W.E.B. DuBois 4 1.88 that did not start with one of the three major theorists, though none of these sociologists C.H. Cooley 3 .50 appeared frequently. R.K. Merton 3 .36 The amount of time spent on each theorist gave us an idea of how significant they H. Arendt 2 .75 were in the view of the instructor (depth). We found four main groupings of theorists H. Martineau 2 .63 based on how much time was dedicated to C.P. Gilman 1 2.50 studying their work. Marx, Weber, and Durkheim composed the first cluster. We- Marianne We- 1 .50 ber was included on all of the 46 syllabi, ber with students spending an average of 2.58 I.B. Wells 1 .25 weeks on him. Durkheim and Marx were close behind, appearing on 45 and 42 syl- A.J. Cooper 1 .50 labi respectively. An average of 2.55 weeks was spent on Marx and 2.41 weeks on 1.45 weeks was spent discussing him, while Durkheim. Thus, while Durkheim appeared an average of 1.0 week was spent on Mead. on more syllabi, those schools that included Again, this represents a considerable de- Marx devoted slightly more time to him. cline in the breadth and depth of coverage Of secondary importance were Simmel as compared to Marx, Weber, and Durk- and Mead, who were covered on 20 and 16 heim. syllabi respectively. This indicates that they Freud, Comte, Smith, and Spencer com- appeared on less than half of the classical posed a third cluster, constituting an even theory syllabi in our sample. For the smaller proportion of syllabi and average schools that included Simmel, an average of weeks of coverage. Freud appeared on eight
Downloaded from tso.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on May 8, 2016
WOMEN IN CLASSICAL THEORY 259 syllabi and Smith on six with approximately and Niebrugge-Brantley’s textbook The one week spent discussing their work. On Women Founders: Sociology and Social average, less than a week was spent on Theory was on the required reading list. In Comte and Spencer. When compared to the one of these syllabi, The Women Founders previous groups, the breadth and depth of was on the required reading list, but the coverage for these theorists was quite mini- instructor did not assign any of the read- mal. Table 1 also includes Goffman and ings. The book was used as the basis for a Merton even though their work was primar- writing assignment. Students were asked to ily produced after 1940. They appeared on prepare term papers based on the writings five and three syllabi, respectively, and of one of the women theorists covered. The seemed to be a bridge to the contemporary other syllabus using The Women Founders theorists. provided a more integrated approach. The We include the female social theorists in a instructor assigned the introductory chapter fourth cluster for comparative purposes. as part of the overview of the course. He Work by or about early women sociologists also assigned the chapter on Martineau in appeared on only eight syllabi. Hannah Ar- conjunction with the study of Durkheim’s endt appeared on two syllabi, with an aver- work on structuralism and the chapter on age of .75 weeks devoted to her work. The Marianne Weber during the examination of writings of Harriet Martineau were assigned Max Weber’s work. on two syllabi. Marianne Weber, Anna Just one reading about or by early women Julia Cooper, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, sociologists was assigned on five syllabi. and Ida B. Wells were each mentioned on Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s book Women one syllabus. Martineau, Weber, Cooper, and Economics was assigned at the end of and Wells were all discussed in about one the semester in one classical theory course. half week or less. Gilman had considerably No specific weekly or class topics were more time spent on her work (2.5 weeks), outlined on the syllabus, but the course be- but this was all on one syllabus. gan with Marx, Weber, and Durkheim and ended with DuBois’s The Souls of Black Sex of the Instructor Folks and Gilman’s Women and Economics. There did not appear to be any connection Three and a half weeks were spent covering between the sex of the instructor and the DuBois, two and a half weeks were spent inclusion of women in classical theory covering Gilman, one and a half weeks on courses. Men (37 of 46) taught 80 percent Marx, two and a half weeks on Weber, and of the classical theory courses. Of the eight four and a half weeks were spent on cover- syllabi that included something by or about ing Durkheim. The added attention to the early women sociologists, seven of the pro- work of DuBois and Gilman seems situated fessors were male while only one professor in the expressed purpose of this classical was female. These trends held true for the theory course to examine how theorists have contemporary theory courses as well. Male “defined and described society within their instructors taught 31 courses, women in- own social contexts” (from syllabus). structors taught 6 courses, and 1 class was In addition to the previously mentioned team-taught by a male and female. course that paired Martineau’s work with Durkheim’s, Martineau’s (1989) How to THE DIFFUSION OF WOMEN Observe Morals and Manner was also as- INTO CLASSICAL THEORY signed in one other course. It appeared as though one week was spent devoted to this The presence of women sociologists in work, with attention focused on its contri- graduate level theory courses was minimal; butions in regards to “daily life, observa- however, eight classical theory syllabi in- tion, induction, and gender” (from sylla- cluded some reading on or by early women bus). sociologists. In two syllabi, Lengermann Deegan’s (1981) article “Early Women
Downloaded from tso.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on May 8, 2016
260 TEACHING SOCIOLOGY Sociologists and the American Sociological Durkheim, and Weber. The second section, Society” was assigned on one other course “classical perspectives on stratification,” syllabus. The Deegan article was used for contained several readings by Cooper and the second week of class as part of an intro- Wells in addition to selections from Marx, duction to the historical background and DuBois, and others. The syllabus provided philosophy of sociology along with the first a useful model for including the early several pages of Coser’s (1977) Masters of women founders in particular topical areas. Sociological Thought. Having this reading Our findings verify that there does seem as one of the first readings of the course to be an elite core of classical theorists brings women’s contributions to the fore- (Marx, Weber, and Durkheim), yet there is front. However, no further readings by the a wide range of other theorists also thought women Deegan mentions were assigned. to be important in the development of the The 10th week of class included two contem- discipline. By and large, early women soci- porary women theorists commenting on ologists are still not included in this group. Marx and Weber. While there is much debate in the discipline Finally, readings from the work of Han- about the importance of the core, our re- nah Arendt appeared on two syllabi. In both search confirms other studies that indicate cases, Arendt was the last assigned reading that there is agreement on the significant of the semester. Both syllabi preceded Ar- contributions of Marx, Weber, and Durk- endt with Simmel and Goffman, thus ex- heim (Brady et al. 2001; Markovsky 2002). tending the classical period into the 1950s. The question now seems to be how many Another approach to including women other significant contributors should be in- sociologists demonstrated how women could cluded in the classical canon. be included in a particular substantive sec- The perspective of the instructor and how tion of the course. The description for this the course fits within the context of the the- particular classical theory course stated: ory curriculum are likely to be important determinants in deciding which theorists and This course is designed to give a rigorous and perspectives will be covered. Though we critical introduction to the roots of sociological were unable to test this hypothesis directly, theory. The purpose of this course is to give we believe that the perspective of the in- you some insight into how sociology evolved structor is likely to have been heavily influ- as a discipline and how the major thinkers enced by his or her own theory training. If dealt with such issues as stratification, alien- graduate students do not learn about early ation, and the movement of history. women sociologists during their training, they are unlikely to include them in theory The required readings included works by courses they teach. Our research suggests Marx (Marx-Engles Reader), Weber that, by and large, graduate students are (Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capital- still not being taught about the early women ism), and Durkheim (Division of Labor). sociologists. This is also consistent with However, this instructor also required A Markovsky’s (2002) research on the read- Voice from the South, a collection of writ- ings that theory instructors view as most ings by Anna Julia Cooper, “Lynch Law in important. America” by Ida B. Wells, and On Sociol- It is also possible that even when graduate ogy and the Black Community by W.E.B. students read the works of early women DuBois. sociologists they still do not view them as The semester was divided into five main particularly influential thinkers. Reading an topical areas. In each section a variety of excerpt or doing a writing assignment out- perspectives was presented. For example, in side the framework of class discussion is the first two weeks, a section entitled “the not likely to give students the impression proper objective of sociology,” readings that the theorist has a privileged status included selections from DuBois, Marx, within the discipline. Even though women
Downloaded from tso.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on May 8, 2016
WOMEN IN CLASSICAL THEORY 261 like Gilman, Weber, Martineau, and Webb review of those syllabi showed that there is were very astute observers of gender strati- a greater inclusion of women theorists and fication, their work is not credited with es- feminist theory in these courses than in clas- tablishing some “fundamental criteria in the sical theory courses. However, the level of field” (Alexander 1987), thus they are not inclusion was not as great as we anticipated. part of the elite group of classical theorists. Of the 38 syllabi we classified as contempo- If this is what graduate students are taught rary theory, all but 7 included readings by (directly or indirectly), then it should not be at least a few contemporary women sociolo- surprising that the diffusion of the ideas of gists, and many included a section on femi- early women sociologists has been slow. It nist theory. However, 10 syllabi (26%) de- is most likely that those who have incorpo- voted one week or less to these discussions rated women have not drawn on their train- and readings. We were also surprised that ing in theory but have had to search out only about 20 percent of contemporary the- these works on their own. ory instructors were women. Men still seem We view the presence of eight syllabi to dominate the teaching of sociological (17%) that include women as a weak but theory even though more and more Ph.D.s visible indicator that the diffusion of their in sociology are being awarded to women. ideas and works has begun. Some instruc- The most recent theory syllabi set com- tors are beginning to recognize the place of piled by ASA had a better representation of early women sociologists in the discipline''s women instructors but did not focus on history and are creating a place for them on graduate level courses. In total, 19 syllabi the syllabus. We focused our attention on (classical and contemporary) were included graduate level syllabi since these courses in the 2001 edition, and women taught 11 of would provide the perspective of the canon the classes. Women taught all five of the for future generations of sociologists. The classical theory courses listed, and four of undergraduate theory syllabi found in the these included the work of early women ASA teaching guide for sociological theory sociologists. suggest that there is more evidence of diffu- This disparity represented a significant sion at this level. Perhaps instructors have change from the previous (1997) edition. In educated themselves about these women, or the 1997 edition, edited by Richard they may have attended graduate programs Moodey, 15 syllabi were highlighted to not included in our sample. Change may be illustrate major topics covered in theory more likely to come from the bottom up, courses (classical and contemporary). Four beginning with more junior theory instruc- of these 15 syllabi described theory courses tors teaching at the undergraduate level. As taught by women. In the two courses that these undergraduates progress to graduate focused more on classical theory, one in- school they may begin to ask, “Where are cluded the work of Martineau and Harriet the women?” Taylor Mill as a main topic. The other We did anticipate that there would be a course had a topical area entitled, “Bringing much greater presence of women in contem- the Experiences of Women to the Center.” porary theory courses, both as instructors Of course, these syllabi are selected spe- and as theorists covered on the syllabi. The cifically by each editor to illustrate various impact of feminist thought on the discipline aspects of teaching sociological theory. since the 1970s has been significant, though While they represent a biased sample, they many would argue that there has been tre- do suggest that women are teaching theory mendous resistance within the discipline to and that the work of women sociologists is placing gender at the center of sociological becoming more visible in the theory inquiry (Alway 1995; Chafetz 1997; Stanley courses. However, most of the courses in 1992; Stacey and Thorne 1985; Ward and these syllabi sets are designed for under- Grant 1985). Though contemporary theory graduates. Women may be more likely to was not the focus of our research, a brief teach undergraduate theory courses rather
Downloaded from tso.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on May 8, 2016
262 TEACHING SOCIOLOGY than the graduate theory courses that were women into the classical curriculum. the focus of our study. As suggested earlier, the presence of early women sociologists REFERENCES may be more likely to appear first at this level. Many people, especially new instruc- Adams, Bert N. and R.A. Sydie. 2001. Socio- tors, use the ASA teaching guides to aid logical Theory. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine them in the development of courses. The Forge Press. Alexander, Jeffrey C. 1987. “The Centrality of presence of women in these syllabi sets is the Classics.” Pp. 11-57 in Social Theory To- thus important in terms of what they suggest day, edited by Anthony Giddens and Jonathan should be included in classical theory H. Turner. Stanford, CA: Stanford University courses and in encouraging new instructors Press. to “think outside the box.” Alway, Joan. 1995. “The Trouble with Gender: As more sociologists and graduate stu- Tales of the Still-Missing Feminist Revolution dents come into contact with the work of in Sociological Theory.” Sociological Theory women such as Harriet Martineau, Ida B. 13:209-28. Wells, Beatrice Webb, Marianne Weber, Brady, David, Carol Hostetter, Melissa A. Milkie, and Bernice A. Pescosolido. 2001. and the many other women who were pro- “The Structure and Substance of Preparing viding astute sociological analysis in the Sociologists: The Nature of Qualifying Exami- early years of the discipline, we would an- nations in Graduate Education.” Teaching ticipate the continued diffusion of their Sociology 29:265-85. ideas into the discipline. Graduate theory Chafetz, Janet Saltzman. 1997. “Feminist The- courses are an important part of this proc- ory and Sociology: Underutilized Contribu- ess. The presence of these women and their tions for Mainstream Theory.” Annual Review work in sociological theory books, courses, of Sociology 23:97-120. conferences, presentations, and journals Cohen, Bernard P. 1989. Developing Sociologi- cal Knowledge. 2d ed. Chicago, IL: Nelson- will bring sociologists into more frequent Hall. contact with their ideas and thus hasten the Collins, Patricia Hill. 1990. Black Feminist diffusion process. As the diffusion of mate- Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the rial culturally enriches a society, the diffu- Politics of Empowerment. Boston, MA: Unwin sion of new ideas will enrich our sociologi- Hyman. cal culture. Connell, R.W. 1997. Why is Classical Theory The traditional canon in sociology has Classical?” American Journal of Sociology limited our understanding of how the disci- 102:1511-57. Cooper, Anna Julia. 1998. The Voice of Anna pline has developed. This limited view has Julia Cooper. Lanham, MD: Rowman and prevented us from having a more complete Littlefield. picture of the social world during the devel- Coser, Lewis. 1977. Masters of Sociological opment of the discipline. The incorporation Thought. 2d ed. New York: Harcourt Brace of women’s analysis can provide us with the Jovanocich. opportunity to do better sociology. Their Deegan, Mary Jo. 1981. “Early Women Sociolo- work offers new perspectives and expands gists and the American Sociological Society.” our depth of understanding on issues such The American Sociologist 16:14-24. as politics, the economy, and family life. _____. 1988. Jane Addams and the Men of the Chicago School. New Brunswick, NJ: Trans- As Lucal (2002:5) has pointed out, “we action. have no idea what sociology might have _____. 1991. Women in Sociology: A Bio- looked like if the work of the women foun- Bibliographical Sourcebook. New York: ders had been taken seriously.” We can Greenwood begin to legitimize their work by giving it Dowd, James J. 1991. “Revising the Canon: the same privileged status we have given the Graduate Training in the Two Sociologies.” work of their contemporaries rather than Teaching Sociology 19:308-21. relegating them to a textbook box. It is time DuBois, W.E.B. 1980. On Sociology and the to move outside the box and integrate Black Community. Chicago, IL: University of
Downloaded from tso.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on May 8, 2016
WOMEN IN CLASSICAL THEORY 263 12 Chicago Press Marx, Karl. 1978. The Marx-Engels Reader. 2d _____. [1903] 1996. The Souls of Black Folks. ed. Edited by Robert C. Tucker. New York: New York: Penguin. W.W. Norton. Durkheim, Emile. 1997. The Division of Labor McDonald, Lynn. 1994. Women Founders of the in Society. New York: Free Press. Social Sciences. Ottawa, Canada: Carleton Elshtain, Jean Bethke. 2002. The Jane Addams University Press. Reader. New York: Basic. _____. 1998. “Classical Social Theory with the Gilman, Charlotte Perkins. 1989. The Yellow Women Founders Included.” Pp. 112-41 in Wallpaper and Other Writings. New York: Reclaiming the Sociological Classics: The Bantam. State of the Scholarship, edited by Charles _____. 1997. With Her in Our Land. Westport, Camic. Malden, MA: Blackwell. CT: Praeger. Moodey, Richard W., ed. 1997. ASA Resource _____. 1998a. Herland. Mineola, NY: Dover. Book for Teaching Sociological Theory. 3d ed. _____. 1998b. Women and Economics. Mineola, Washington, DC: ASA. NY: Dover. Ritzer, George. 1999. Classical Social Theory. Gorak, Jan. 1991. The Making of the Modern New York: McGraw Hill. Canon: Genesis and Crisis of a Literary Idea. Sprague, Joey. 1997. “Holy Men and Big Guns: Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Athlone. The Can[n]on in Social Theory.” Gender & Hill, Michael and Susan Hoecker-Drysdale. Society 11:88-107. 2001. Harriet Martineau: Theoretical & Meth- _____. 1998. “(Re)Making Sociology: Breaking odological Perspectives. New York: the Bonds of our Discipline.” Contemporary Routledge. Sociology 27:24-8. Hoecker-Drysdale, Susan. 1992. Harriet Marti- Stacey, Judith and Barrie Thorne. 1985. “The neau: First Woman Sociologist. Oxford, Eng- Missing Revolution in Sociology.” Social land: Berg. Problems 32:301-16. Horowitz, Irving Louis. 1993. The Decomposi- Stanley, Liz. 1992. “The Impact of Feminism on tion of Sociology. New Brunswick, NJ: Trans- Sociology in the Last 20 Years.” Pp. 254-69 action. in The Knowledge Explosion: Generations of Huber, Joan. 1995. “Institutional Perspectives Feminist Scholarship, edited by Cheris on Sociology.” American Journal of Sociology Kramarae and Dale Spender. New York: 101:194-216. Teachers College Press. Johnson, Allan. 2000. Blackwell Dictionary of Turner, Stephen, and Jonathan Turner. 1990. Sociology. Malden, MA: Blackwell. The Impossible Science. Newbury Park, CA: LeMoyne, Terri, ed. 2001. ASA Resource Book Sage. for Teaching Sociological Theory. 4th ed. Ward, Kathryn B. and Linda Grant. 1985. “The Washington, DC: ASA. Feminist Critique and a Decade of Research in Lemert, Charles, ed. 1993. Social Theory: The Sociology Journals.” The Sociological Quar- Multicultural & Classic Readings. Boulder, terly 26:139-57. CO: Westview. Weber, Max. 2001. The Protestant Ethic and the Lengermann, Patricia Madoo and Jill Niebrugge- Spirit of Capitalism. 2d ed. New York: Brantley, eds. 1998. The Women Founders: Routledge. Sociology and Social Theory, 1830-1930: A Wells, Ida B. 1997. Southern Horrors and Other Text-Reader. New York: McGraw-Hill. Writings. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin’s. Lucal, Betsy. 2002. “Out of the Ghetto of His- Zeitlin, Irving M. 2001. Ideology and the tory: Taking Early Women Sociologists to the Development of Sociological Theory. Upper Next Level of Inclusion.” Presented at the Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. annual meeting of the American Sociological Association, August 16, Chicago, IL. Jan E. Thomas is an assistant professor of sociol- Markovsky, Barry. 2002. “Theory and Methods ogy at Kenyon College. In addition to her class on in Graduate Education of Sociologists.” Pre- women sociologists she also teaches courses on social sented at the annual meeting of the American movements, health and illness, institutions and ine- Sociological Association, August 17, Chicago, qualities, and research methods. Her research is pri- IL. marily in the area of women’s health. Martineau, Harriett [1838] 1989. How to Ob- serve Morals and Manners. Edited by Michael Annis Kukulan graduated from Kenyon College in Hill. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction. 2002 with a Bachelor’s degree in sociology.
Downloaded from tso.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on May 8, 2016