CICIND

Model Code for

Concrete Chimneys

Part A: The Shell

Second Edition, Revision 1

Revised and reprinted in loose leaf format

August 2001

Copyright CICIND 2001

ISBN 1-902998-13-8

Office of the Secretary

14 The Chestnuts, Beechwood Park, Hemel Hempstead, Herts. HP3 0DZ, UK
Tel: +44 (0)1442 211204 Fax: +44 (0)1442 256155 email: secretary@cicind.org
CICIND Model Code for Concrete Chimneys, 2001 page 1

www.cicind.org
page 2 CICIND Model Code for Concrete Chimneys, 2001

DISCLAIMER

CICIND documents are presented to the best of the knowledge of its members as guides only.CICIND is not,
nor are any of its members, to be held responsible for any failure alleged or proved to be due to adherence to
recommendations, or acceptance of information, published by the association in a Model Code or other
publication or in any other way.
CICIND Model Code for Concrete Chimneys, 2001 page 1

Foreword This document has been prepared by the CICIND

The first edition of the CICIND Model Code for Concrete Committee.This Committee consists of
Concrete Chimneys published in October 1984 N. R. Bierrum, Chairman (UK)
presented the combined views of acknowledged J. Davenport (UK)
international experts in the specialist field of concrete C. Gonzalez-Florez (Spain)
chimneys and represented a valiant attempt to H. van Koten (Netherlands)
combine the best features of the various and A. P. Krichevsky (Ukraine)
disparate national codes . At that time all concrete V. Matej (Czech Republic)
chimney codes were based on elastic theory and the P. Noakowski (Germany)
CICIND Code reflected this to some extent. B. N. Pritchard (UK)
Subsequently both DIN and ACI made progress in V. Rosetnic (Romania)
introducing a more consistent limit state approach R. W. Snook (USA)
making it desirable for CICIND to follow suit. This T. N. Subba Rao (India)
Second Edition is the result. J. L. Wilson (Australia)

This Model Code was accepted by the General

Assembly of the CICIND Association in April 1998.

Table of Contents

0 Introduction............................................................2 7 Actions ................................................................... 8

0.1 General 7.1 Permanent Load
0.2 Commentary 7.2 Wind
0.3 Philosophy 7.2.1 General
7.2.2 Wind Speed
1 Scope ......................................................................3
7.2.2.1 Basic Wind Speed
2 Field of Application...............................................3 7.2.2.2 Representative Wind Speed
7.2.3 Inline Wind Load
3 References ............................................................3 7.2.3.1 Principles
4 Notations and Definitions ...................................3 7.2.3.2 Mean Hourly Wind Load
4.1 General 7.2.3.2.1 Main Formula
4.2 Notations and Subscripts 7.2.3.2.2 Air Density
4.2.1 Notations 7.2.3.2.3 Shape Factor
4.2.2 Subscripts 7.2.3.3 Static Equivalent of the Wind Load
4.2.3 Examples due to Gusts
4.3 Units 7.2.3.3.1 Main Formula
4.4 The Sign Rule 7.2.3.3.2 Gust Factor
7.2.4 Ovalling
5 Basis of Design.....................................................5 7.2.5 Wind Loads on Ladders and other
5.1 Methods Projections
5.1.1 Limit States 7.2.6 Wind Loads during Construction
5.1.2 Design Conditions and Values 7.2.7 Vortex Shedding
5.1.3 Load Combinations 7.3 Seismic Action
5.1.4 Action Effects and Resistances 7.3.1 Design Basis Earthquake
5.2 Partial Safety Factors 7.3.1.1 Typical Design Response Spectrum
5.2.1 General 7.3.2 Elastic Response
5.2.2 Importance Classes 7.3.2.1 Design Basis
5.2.3 Material Properties 7.3.2.2 Vertical Forces
5.2.4 Actions 7.3.3 Seismic Design Actions
5.3 Modelling 7.3.3.1 Importance Factor
5.3.1 General 7.3.3.2 Structural Response Factor
5.3.2 Radial Wind Pressure 7.3.4 Seismic Design and Detaling
6 Material...................................................................6 7.3.4.1 Design Approach
6.1 Concrete 7.3.4.2 General Capacity Design Principles
6.1.1 General 7.3.4.3 Specific Detailing Requirements for
6.1.2 Material Law Capacity Design
6.2 Reinforcement 7.4 Temperature Effects
6.2.1 General 7.5 Explosions
6.2.2 Geometry 7.5.1 External Explosions
6.2.3 Tensile Properties 7.5.2 Internal Explosions
6.2.4 Steel Grades 8 Design Calculations for Ultimate
6.2.5 Ductility Limit State ........................................................11
6.2.6 Material Law 8.1 General
page 2 CICIND Model Code for Concrete Chimneys, 2001

8.2 Horizontal Cross-Sections 8.4.3.3 Bending Moment in Vertical

8.2.1 Definition of the Ultimate Limit State Cross-Sections above and below an
8.2.2 Design Opening
8.2.2.1 Equations 8.5 Local Point Loads
8.2.2.2 Algorithm
9 Design Calculations for the
8.2.3 Thermal Effects
Serviceability Limit State..............................15
8.2.4 Moments of Second Order
9.1 Cracking
8.2.4.1 Material Laws
9.2 Deflections in Serviceability Limit
8.2.4.2 Calculation of the Moments of Second
State
Order
9.2.1 Deflection of the Shell
8.2.4.3 Rotation of the Foundation
9.2.2 Response to Sun Exposure
8.2.4.4 Approximation of the Moments of
9.2.3 Deflections of Support Elements
Second Order
8.2.5 Dimensioning Diagrams 10 Details of Design................................................16
8.3 Vertical Cross-Sections 10.1 Vertical Reinforcement
8.3.1 Wind 10.2 Horizontal Reinforcement
8.3.2 Temperature 10.3 Reinforcement around Openings
8.4 Openings 10.4 Cover to the Reinforcement
8.4.1 General 10.5 Minimum Wall Thickness
8.4.2 Virtual Openings
11 Tolerances ..........................................................17
8.4.3 Dimensioning
8.4.3.1 General
8.4.3.2 Tensile Forces above and below an
Opening
there are still significant differences between
European and North American codes which are not
going to be reconciled by CEN.
0 Introduction This Second Edition is intended to present the current
0.1 General state of the art of the design of reinforced concrete
chimney shells in as simple manner as possible
The International Symposium on Chimney Design given the complexity of the subject, and to make
held in Edinburgh in 1973 highlighted common recommendations on aspects which are not
problem s in existing industrial concrete chimneys. It satisfactorily covered by existing national codes.
also identified significant differences between the
requirements of the various national codes covering CICIND will continue to try to improve the
chimney design. As a result, a committee was understanding of the behaviour of chimneys. Further
founded with the aims of improving the knowledge of revisions of this Model Code will therefore be
chimney design and harmonising the various national published from time to time.
chimney standards. This committee took the name
”Comité International des Cheminées Industrielles"
(CICIND).
Following many years of study, the committee
published in 1982 a report entitled "Proposal for a
Model Code for the Design of Chimneys". This
admirable document contained the committee's 0.2 Commentary
model codes for the design of concrete chimneys and
The Model Code is accompanied by rather extensive
their lining systems. Unfortunately the code was not
commentaries. The Commentaries have the following
acceptable to the Comité Euro-lnternational du Béton
objectives:
(CEB) because it was not based on limit state
analysis . On the other hand the changes resulting a) Justification of the regulations of the Model Code
from a true limit state code were not at the time
b) Simplification of the use of the Model Code
acceptable to many chimney experts, so a
compromise was sought. This was found in the so- c) Understanding of the meaning of the regulations
called ‘gliding material law’ which is at the heart of of the Model Code
the 1984 CICIND code.
d) Documentation of the areas in the Model Code
The subsequent publication of two more consistent where the present knowledge is sparse so that
limit-state codes, namely DIN 1056(1984) and ACI the regulations are possibly or probably not
307-88(1988) left CICIND in an isolated position optimal
which was felt to be untenable. Further investigation
The following items are not objectives of the CICIND
having shown the conservatism of the First Edition to
Commentaries:
be somewhat exaggerated, the Second Edition is
much more in line with current thought. Nevertheless,
CICIND Model Code for Concrete Chimneys, 2001
e) Change of the meaning of certain regulations of
the Model Code where these are falsely
expressed or obviously wrong
f) Definition of the meaning of certain regulations of
the Model Code where these are badly or
ambiguously expressed
g) Expression in a different way of certain
regulations of the Model Code which are badly
formulated so that they could easily be
misinterpreted even by experts.
Since the Commentaries were written simultaneously
with the Model Code, any such deficiencies, wherever
discovered, were immediately corrected. CICIND asks
everybody using or reading the Model Code who
discovers deficiencies of type e) f) or g) still left in
the Model Code to write to CICIND so that the
situation can be improved, either with an amendment
to the Model Code - if the situation is serious - or with
the next revision.
Certain information from the Model Code is repeated
in the Commentaries when this simplifies the
presentation of the ideas.
1 Scope
This Model Code deals with the design of reinforced
concrete industrial chimneys above their foundations.
It does not deal with architectural aspects or those
aspects of reinforced concrete technology which are
not peculiar to chimneys, such as generally accepted
principles of detailing reinforcement or technology of
concrete mix design.
2 Field of Application
The Model Code is valid for all chimneys of circular
cross-section in reinforced concrete, placed in situ.
The Model Code does not deal with prefabricated
chimneys, either of reinforced or prestressed
concrete.
Other aspects of chimney design, construction and
maintenance may be covered by other Model Codes
published by CICIND.
It has been assumed in the drafting of the Model Code
that the design of reinforced concrete chimneys and
their lining systems is entrusted to appropriately
qualified structural or civil engineers for whose
guidance it has been prepared. It has also been
assumed that the execution of the work is carried out
by experienced chimney builders under the direction
of appropriately qualified supervisors.
page 3
0.3 Philosophy
One of the main objectives of any code for
construction is the creation of a model which
sufficiently resembles reality. The model should be
sufficiently "safe, simple, true", and since e.g.
"sufficiently simple" cannot be rationally judged on its
own, the predominant objective of this model is to find
an optimum compromise between the three
properties "safe, simple, true".
The concept "sufficiently safe" was interpreted in the
light of economic and social consequences of
damage. This normally leads to the adoption of a
nominal probability of approximately 10-4 of collapse
for the main structure in a 50 years period. If however
the economic or social consequences of collapse
would be catastrophic it is recommended that this
nominal probability be reduced to 10-5.
CICIND has departed from generally accepted
principles of reinforced concrete design only when
this was necessitated by the specific requirements of
chimneys.
3 References
Because of the rather extensive ”official"
Commentaries to the Model Code, references are not
provided in the Model Code itself. References to
literature which is useful for an improved
understanding of the justification, meaning and
consequences of the application of the Model Code
are given in the Commentaries.
4 Notations and Definitions
4.1 General
The meaning of the various symbols used is
explained extensively in the text of the Model Code.
Normally, wherever a symbol is used in a chapter, its
meaning is defined within that chapter. Certain
repetitions could thus not be avoided. The following
list of symbols defines the use of symbols in a
general way only. For example, the letter σ means
"stresses", and this may mean concrete stresses or
steel stresses. The subscript 'c' means concrete, and
thus σc means concrete stress, but σc may mean
many different concrete stresses, e.g. in horizontal or
vertical cross-sections under various load cases.
Further specifications of the type of stress with further
subscripts and the like are explained in the body of the
Model Code.
4.2 Notations and Subscripts
page 4 CICIND Model Code for Concrete Chimneys, 2001

4.2.1 Notations 4.2.2 Subscripts

The following list shows only the principles by which
Materials
the notations and their meanings are related. The
c for concrete
actual notations are explained in the text of the Model
s for steel
Code after each given formula.
States
Safety factors k characteristic value
γ partial safety factor u ultimate limit value
s serviceability limit value
Material properties
f strength Loading
E modulus of elasticity W from wind in the direction of the wind
ε strain (inline)
σ stress X from wind due to vortex-shedding
(crosswind)
Loading
P from permanent load
P permanent load
T from temperature
W wind
E from earthquake
T temperature
2 from deflection (moment of 2nd order, due
v wind speed
to the action of gravity on the deformed
w wind force per unit height
shape)
Cross-sectional forces C from corbel
M bending moment D design value
N normal force
Kind of Stress
e eccentricity
c compression
Dimensions t tension
h height
Directions
z height above ground level
v vertical
d diameter
h horizontal
t wall thickness
ρ ratio of reinforcement area to gross Locations
concrete area t at the chimney top
c concrete cover b at the chimney base
A area of cross-section
I 2nd moment of area
4.2.3 Examples
Deflections
k curvature Safety factors
ϕ rotation γcu partial factor of safety for concrete, ultimate
y deflection limit state
w crack width Material properties
fck characteristic strength of concrete
Cross-sectional forces
Mw bending moment from wind
Dimensions
ρv ratio of vertical reinforcement

4.3 Units
Generally, the units of the Sl system are used.
Examples:
- m (metre) and mm (millimetre) for dimensions
- MN (MegaNewton) and N (Newton) for forces.
- MPa (MegaPascal) for stresses.
- GPa (GigaPascal) for elastic moduli.
Where other units are used, they are explained in the
text.

4.4 The Sign Rule

CICIND Model Code for Concrete Chimneys, 2001 page 5

Strengths are defined as positive values.

Forces, stresses and strains from compression are
negative.
Forces, stresses and strains from tension are
positive.
page 6 CICIND Model Code for Concrete Chimneys, 2001

5 Basis of Design a) on the first occasion if no exceedance is

5.1 Methods
5.1.1 Limit States
The structural performance of the chimney shell in
whole or part is described with reference to specified
limit states which separate desired states from
undesired states. The limit states are divided into two
categories:
- the ultimate limit states which concern the
maximum load carrying capacity.
acceptable
b) if the duration of the undesirable state is longer
than specified.
5.1.2 Design Conditions and Values
The calculation model for each limit state should
consider a specific set of basic variables representing
physical quantities which characterise actions,
material properties and geometrical quantities.

- the serviceability limit states which concern the
normal use.
The exceedance of a limit state may be reversible or
irreversible. In the irreversible case the damage
associated with the exceedance will remain until the
structure has been repaired. In the reversible case
the damage or malfunction will remain only while the
cause of the exceedance is present.
Given the random nature of variables the purpose of
design calculations is to keep the probability of failure
below an acceptable value. The present Model Code
aims to achieve this by the method of partial factors in
which influences of uncertainties and variabilities
arising from different causes are separated by means
of design values assigned to basic variables.
The design values of actions FD are obtained from

Ultimate limit states include: FD = γf Fr (5.1)

- overturning of the structure.
- attainment of the maximum resistance capacity of
sections.
The exceedance of an ultimate limit state is always
irreversible and the first occurrence causes failure.
For simplicity some states prior to structural collapse
may be considered ultimate limit states.
where Fr are the representative values of actions and
γf are the partial factors for actions. The representative
values of actions are specified with reference to a
prescribed probability of being exceeded.
The design values of material properties fD are
obtained from
fd = η fk / γm (5.2)

Serviceability limit states include:
- local damage including excessive cracking which
may reduce the durability of the structure or affect
the appearance of structural elements.
- unacceptable deformations which affect the
efficacy or appearance of structural or non-
structural elements.
In the cases of permanent local damage the
exceedance of a serviceability limit state is irreversible
and the first occurrence constitutes failure.
In other cases the exceedance of a serviceability limit
state may be reversible but non-compliance occurs:
where fk are the characteristic values of material
properties, γm are the partial factors for materials and
η are supplementary factors.
For concrete and steel the characteristic strengths are
the 5% lower fractiles of the statistical strength
distributions of the supplied materials . The
supplementary factors η account for uncertainties in
the calculation models.
In the general form the design condition should also
include design values of geometrical quantities, a
serviceability limit where appropriate, and a factor by
which the importance of the structure and the
consequences of failure are taken into account.

Table 5.1 Load Combinations and Partial Safety Factors

Ultimate Limit States Serviceability Limit States
horizontal sections vertical
sections
action symbol inline cross- earthquake wind wind earth crack
wind wind quake width
Permanent G 1.0 1.0 1.0 -- 1.0 1.0 --
wind normal W 1.61) 1.23) -- 1.4 1.3 -- --
wind hurricane W 1.82) 1.23) -- 1.6 1.3 -- --
crosswind X -- 1.2 -- -- -- -- --
temp. gas4) Tg 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
temp. ambient 4) Ta 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Earthquake E -- -- 1.45 -- -- 1.0 --
1)
1.8 for importance class 2
2)
2.0 for importance class 2
3)
To be applied to alongwind effects accompanying vortex shedding.
4)
Thermal effects appear in the calculation models as temperature differences between the inner and outer faces of the shell
5)
An importance factor usually greater than unity is incorporated in the design value of the seismic action (see 7.3)
CICIND Model Code for Concrete Chimneys, 2001
Model uncertainties may also have to be represented.
5.1.3 Load Combinations
A load combination is an assemblage of the design
values of a set of different actions considered
simultaneously in the verification for a given limit state.
5.1.4 Action Effects and Resistances
In many cases the basic variables and the factors
which describe the uncertainties in the calculation
models can be separated into groups so that some
groups give action effects S and others give
resistances R.
In the simplest case the ultimate limit state design
condition can be written as
RD ≥ SD (5.3)
where RD and SD are derived from the design values
of the variables introduced in (5.1) and (5.2) above.
For the serviceability limit states the design condition
is of the type
SD ≤ C (5.4)
whereby an action effect is compared to a The factor of safety against overturning due to
serviceability requirement.
5.2 Partial Safety Factors
5.2.1 General
The numerical values of the partial safety factors have
been calibrated using a probabilistic method with the
aim of achieving predictable levels of safety.
See Commentary no. 1 for a discussion of the safety
concept in this model code and the numerical values
of the partial safety factors.
5.2.2 Importance Classes
Two importance classes are recognised. Class 2
comprises those cases where collapse would result
in a large number of deaths or consequential costs
exceeding 100 times the cost of construction. All
others fall into Class 1. The corresponding failure
probabilities in 50 years are 10-5 for Class 2 and 10-4
for Class 1.
The importance class should be specified by the
owner.
5.2.3 Material Properties
The design strength of concrete in compression shall
be
fcu = η fck / γcu (5.5)
with η = 0.85 and γcu = 1.5, where fck is the
characteristic strength of concrete cylinders as
defined in Eurocode 2 or ACI 318.
The design values of other concrete properties such
as tensile strength or modulus of elasticity are given
in the relevant sections of the text.
The design strength of the reinforcement shall be
page 7
fsu = fsk / γsu (5.6)
taking γsu = 1.15 in both compression and tension
It is assumed that if construction tolerances remain
within the limits specified in section 11 the material
factors also account for the variability of geometrical
quantities.
5.2.4 Actions
The actions, symbolically Sd, to be considered in the
investigation of the limit states shall be obtained from
the combinations described in Table 5.1. It is
assumed that the partial safety factors in Table 5.1
also account for modelling uncertainties.
For each limit state the load combinations concerned
are to be found in the corresponding columns in the
table. As an example the actions effect for the ultimate
limit state in horizontal cross-sections is found under
“Inline Wind” to be
Sd = 1.0G + 1.6W + 1.0TG + 1.0TA
In hurricane wind zones 1.6W in this expression is to
be replaced by 1.8W.
unfactored actions shall be not less that 1.5.
The partial safety factor for the design of lining
supports and corbels shall be 1.4
5.3 Modelling
5.3.1 General
The loading patterns and usual proportions of
concrete chimney shells allow beam theory to be
used in analysis. For overall horizontal forces and
gravity the shell is modelled as a cantilever fixed at
foundation level. Local discontinuities such as
openings shall be considered in the evaluation of
sectional properties.
Effects of second order shall be taken into account.
The dynamic characteristics of the chimney may be
determined by an equivalent discrete system. The
number of masses considered shall be sufficient to
ensure stability of the results.
5.3.2 Radial Wind Pressure
The effects of radial wind pressure are analysed for
unit height rings considered independentl y of each
other except in the neighbourhood of openings .
6 Material
6.1 Concrete
6.1.1 General
The characteristic cylinder strength of the concrete
shall be not less than 25 MPa.
page 8 CICIND Model Code for Concrete Chimneys, 2001

6.1.2 Material Law defined on the basis of standard tests are normally
used in the definition of steel qualities.
The stress-strain relationship for determining the
resista nce capacity of cross-sections is given by (6.1).
0≤ε σ=0 6.2.4 Steel Grades
− 0. 002 ≤ ε < 0 σ = 1000ε (1 + 250ε ) fcu The steel grade denotes the value of the specified
− ε cu ≤ ε < − 0 .002 σ = − f cu characteristic yield stress in MPa This Model Code
does not consider reinforcing steel grades in excess
(6.1) of 500.

where fcu is given by (5.5) 6.2.5 Ductility

The ultimate strain for concrete, εcu is defined as Two ductility classes are defined for design purposes.
−0.0030 at the centre of the wall for horizontal sections These are normal (A) and high (S) as follows:
and −0.0035 at the edge for vertical sections.
Class A : (ft / fy)k ≥ 1.08 and e uk ≥ 0.05
−σc Class S : (ft / fy)k ≥ 1.15 and e uk ≥ 0.15

0.002 ε cu
where (ft / fy)k is the minimum characteristic value of
the ratio and εuk is defined in 6.2.3.
In seismic regions high ductility steel should be used
for vertical reinforcement.
f cu
stress

6.2.6 Material Law

The idealised stress-strain relation to be considered
in the determination of the resistance capacity of
sections follows from figure 6.2 .

strain

0 −ε c
Fig. 6.1: Material law for concrete

6.2 Reinforcement
6.2.1 General
The products to be used as reinforcement are steel
bars defined by geometrical, mechanical and
technological properties. These properties are
generally specified by Product Standards and are
usually assured by compliance certification schemes.

6.2.2 Geometry
The geometrical properties are the size and surface
characteristics. The nominal cross-sectional area to
be considered in design is derived from the nominal
diameter of the bar. The difference between actual
and nominal area should not exceed the limiting
values specified in relevant standards. Ribbed high-
for
bond bars satisfying the projecting rib factors should
normally be used for main reinforcement. fsk
for ε< σ = Es ε
6.2.3 Tensile Properties γ su Es
fsk f sk
The characteristic values of for ε≥ σ=
γ su Es γ su
- the yield stress (fsk)

- the tensile strength (ftk)

An average value of 210 GPa may be used for the
- the total elongation at maximum load (εuk) modulus of elasticity of steel, Es.
CICIND Model Code for Concrete Chimneys, 2001
The stress-strain diagram of figure 6.2 is valid for both
tension and compression.
For earthquake analysis the limit strain for steel class
S may be taken as εsu = 0.04 in sections in which there
are no significant openings . Otherwise the limit strain
is εsu = 0.01.
Detailed evaluation of sectional properties such as
may be required for time-history analysis for
earthquake loading or second order analysis shall be
conducted in line with generally accepted laws within
the strain limits set above. Results of relevant tests
may be taken into account where available.
7 Actions
7.1 Permanent Load
Both a maximum and a minimum permanent load
must be determined for the calculation of the limit
states of horizontal sections and foundations. The
maximum permanent load shall include the estimated
weight of all permanent structures and structural
elements, fittings, insulation, dust loads, clinging ash,
present and future coatings, etc.
7.2 Wind
7.2.1 General
The wind load on a chimney depends in the first
instance on the magnitude of the wind speeds in the
area where the chimney is to be erected and their
variation with respect to height. Apart from that, the
wind loads in the direction of the wind will be
influenced by some or all of the following:
a) the local topography
b) the level of turbulence
c) the presence of nearby structures
d) the air density
e) the drag coefficient (shape factor)
f) the natural frequencies of oscillations of the
chimney
g) the amount of structural damping
h) the shapes of the first few modes of vibration
7.2.2 Wind Speed
This section is included primarily for the benefit of
engineers designing chimneys to be constructed in
locations where local codes of practice do not treat
these structures in sufficient detail.
7.2.2.1 Basic Wind Speed
page 9
The determination of the effective wind pressure is
based on the basic wind speed.
The basic wind speed vb appropriate to the location of
the chimney is defined as the mean hourly wind
speed at 10 m above ground level in open flat country
without obstructions having probability 0.02 of being
exceeded in any one year.
The value of the basic wind must be established by
meteorological measurement. An indication of values
of the basic wind speed for various parts of the world
is given in Commentary No. 3.
Where the terrain of the location of the chimney is hilly
or built-up, measurem ents for the determination of vb
should be taken as near as possible at a place which
is flat and open.
7.2.2.2 Representative Wind Speed
This section deals with the influences on the wind
speed due to changes in the terrain elevation or local
obstructions. The influence of mountains around the
chimney site must be determined by local
measurements.
The basis for the determination of the wind loads is
the representative wind speed, which equals the
basic wind speed corrected by three factors which
take into consideration the speed variation over the
height of the chimney, the topography of its
surroundings and the existence of adjacent objects.
These three factors are the height factor k(z), the
topographical factor k t, and the interference factor k j.
The representative wind speed is calculated by the
following expression:
v(z) = v b k(z ) k t k i (7.1)
where
v(z) hourly mean wind speed at level z
z height above ground level (m)
vb basic wind speed
k(z) = k s(z/10)α exposure factor
ks scale factor, equal to 1.0 in open flat country
α terrain factor.
kt topographical factor (see Commentary No. 3)
ki interference factor (see Commentary No. 3)
The terrain factor α should normally be taken as 0.14,
corresponding to open flat country, unless there is no
possibility of all nearby buildings being subsequently
demolished. A different value of α may be used if its
suitability can be proved, in which case k s and the
gust factor G in 7.2.3.3.2 should be modified
accordingly with reference to background literature.
page 10 CICIND Model Code for Concrete Chimneys, 2001

The determination of k t and k i, if these are different The shape factor CD depends on the slenderness of
from 1, is complicated and may require wind tunnel the chimney. For a chimney with circular cross-
tests. Commentary No. 3 contains suggestions for section, CD is given by the following formula:
the determination of these factors.

C D = 0.6 if h/d < 5

7.2.3 Inline Wind Load log10 (h/d)
C D = 0.1 + 0.5 if 5 ≤ h / d < 25 (7.5)
7.2.3.1 Principles log10 (5)
C D = 0.7 if h / d ≥ 25
The wind load w(z) per unit height at height z is
determined by the following expression:

where
w (z ) = w m (z ) + w g (z ) (7.2) h height of the top of the shell above ground
level
where
d chimney diameter at 0.75 h
wm(z) is the mean hourly wind load per unit
height, see formula 7.3

wg (z) is the static equivalent of the wind load 7.2.3.3 Static Equivalent of the Wind Load due
per unit height due to gusts, see 7.2.3.3.1 to Gusts
7.2.3.3.1 Main Formula
The static equivalent of the wind load due to gusts is
assumed to vary linearly with the height. This causes
an increase of the bending moment at high levels in
the chimney compared with the normal gust-loading
method.
7.2.3.2 Mean Hourly Wind Load
The wind load due to gusts can be determined by
7.2.3.2.1 Main Formula
3 (G − 1) z
h
w g (z ) = w m (z) z dz
h ∫0
The mean wind load per unit height is (7.6)
h2
wm (z ) = 0.5ρa v(z )2 CD d(z ) (7.3)
where
where
G gust factor, see 7.2.3.3.2
ρa density of air, see 7.2.3.2.2. h height of the top of the shell above ground
v(z) wind speed at height z, see (7.1) level

CD shape factor, see 7.2.3.2.3. z height above ground level

d(z) outside diameter of the chimney at wm(z) mean hourly wind load per unit height at
height z height z, see 7.2.3.2.

7.2.3.2.2 Air Density 7.2.3.3.2 Gust Factor

The density of air ρ a is to be taken as: The gust factor is

ρ a = 1.25 kg/ m 3 ES
G = 1 + 2gi B + (7.7)
at sea level in temperate climates. Transient ζ
variations in the density due to atmospheric changes where
need not be taken into account.
The air density relevant to a chimney situated at an
altitude of h 1 (m) can be found from the expression: 0.577
g peak factor: g = 2loge νT +
h1 2loge νT
ρ a = 1. 25 - (7.4)
8000
3600 f1
with νT = 1
 Bζ  2
1 + 
 SE 
7.2.3.2.3 Shape Factor 
CICIND Model Code for Concrete Chimneys, 2001 page 11

i turbulence intensity
B background turbulence:
i = 0.311 − 0.089 log10 h This is the subject of further investigation. At the
present time it is recommended that the tip deflection
−0. 88
  h  0.63  due to vortex shedding be calculated by the method of
B = 1 +    ACI 307-95 section 4.2.3. The moments should be
  265   calculated from the deflected shape.

E energy density spectrum

 f  0 .21 7.3 Seismic Action

123  1 h
E=  vb  7.3.1 Design Basis Earthquake
0 .83
  330 f  2  The design basis earthquake is a representative
1 +  1
 h0 .42 

  vb    earthquake associated with a return period of 475
  years (i.e. 10% chance of exceedence in 50 years).
−0. 88
  f 
1.14  7.3.1.1 Typical Design Response Spectrum
S size reduction factor S =  1 + 5. 78 1  h0 .98 
  vb   No single response spectrum can cover all types of
  earthquake in all parts of the world. Reference must
ζ damping expressed as a fraction of critical be made to the codes of practice which apply at the
damping. For the calculation of wind loads in the site of the chimney. An example of a normalised
direction of the wind the value ζ = 0.016 should acceleration response is provided in the commentary.
be used.

f1 natural frequency in Hz of the chimney oscillating 7.3.2 Elastic Response

in its first mode.
7.3.2.1 Design Basis
h height of shell above ground level in m
The elastic response of the chimney is calculated by
vb basic wind speed in m/s, see 7.2.2.1. the response spectrum method using the design
T sample period basis earthquake.

ν effective cycling rate - Assume uncracked properties.

- Use a response spectrum with 5% critical
damping and 50% shape bound probability.
7.2.4 Ovalling
- Include sufficient modes to ensure that at least
The uneven distribution of the wind pressure causes 90% of the chimney's gravity load is accounted
bending moments in vertical cross-sections. These for in the modal analysis.
moments are given in section 8.3.1.
-The maximum response in each mode does
7.2.5 Wind Loads on Ladders and other not occur simultaneously since the modes are not
Projections exactly in phase. Consequently the overall
response of the chimney is found by
Where a chimney is provided with external structures calculating the square root of the sum of
such as projecting flues, platforms, ladders etc. due squares of the modal values.
account must be taken of these in establishing the
wind load on the chimney. A suitable addition to the - The value Ec given by equation 8.3 must be
wind load on the chimney itself will normally suffice on used for the calculation of the frequencies.
the assumption that the external structures will not
alter the wind flow round the chimney.
If an external ladder is relatively large compared to the 7.3.2.2 Vertical Forces
diameter, it may increase the shape factor of the The effect of the vertical seismic forces is generally
whole structure. small and may be ignored, because the peak vertical
responses are at a very high frequency and do not
occur simultaneously with the horizontal
7.2.6 Wind Loads during construction accelerations.

During construction or other temporary condition not

exceeding two years in duration, the wind loads may
be taken as 80% of those calculated in sections 7.2.3
to 7.2.5.
7.2.7 Vortex Shedding
7.3.3 Seismic Design Actions
The seismic design actions are obtained from the
elastic response by multiplying the actions by an
importance factor (γi) and dividing by a structural
response factor (R).
page 12
7.3.3.1 Importance Factor
The importance factor depends on the importance
class of the chimney:
Class 1: γi = 1.0
Class 2: γi = 1.4
7.3.3.2 Structural Response Factor
The structural response factor depends on the level of
seismic detailing:
R = 1.0 No specific seismic detailing
R = 2.0 Seismic detailing in accordance with
Section 7.3.4 (this implies the use of
Capacity Design)
7.3.4 Seismic Design and Detailing
In low seismic regions where the wind loads
predominate, design against wind loads provides
significant overstrength compared to the seismic
actions. In these cases an economical design will be
achieved by designing to resist the actions calculated
from the elastic response with R = 1.0. By contrast, in
high seismic regions it is difficult to develop an
efficient design without consideration of ductility and
the reduction of seismic actions through the
introduction of a structure behaviour or response
factor. Significant economies may be achieved by
following the approach given below.
7.3.4.1 Design Approach
The design approach described below is based on
performance criteria:
(a) design the chimney elastically to resist the
earthquake induced loads considered
reasonable for a serviceability limit state
earthquake event.
(b) design the chimney with sufficient ductility so
that the chimney will survive an extreme
earthquake event without premature failure and
collapse at the structural stability limit state.
7.3.4.2 General Capacity Design Principles
The design of the chimney should be consistent with
the principles of capacity design. The foundation
system and the shell in the vicinity of the openings
should be designed for overstrength in both flexure
and shear so that inelastic flexural behaviour will
develop in the ductile regions of the shell and not near
the base or in the neighbourhood of significant
openings.
CICIND Model Code for Concrete Chimneys, 2001
7.3.4.3 Specific Detailing Requirements for
Capacity Design
a) Deformed reinforcement shall be class 'S', high
ductility steel with a fracture strain in excess of
15%.
b) Maximum spacing of circumferential steel shall
be 10db (where db = vertical steel diameter) to
reduce the possibility of buckling of the vertical
steel under severe cyclic loading.
c) Splice lengths for the vertical reinforcement shall
be 30% greater than the bond lengths of the
bars.
d) The vertical reinforcement should be sufficient to
ensure that the ultimate moment capacity of the
chimney at any cross section in the lower 80% of
the chimney is greater than the nominal cracking
strength. For this condition the tensile strength
of concrete fcte may be assumed to be fcte = 0.6fck0.5
e) In the ductile regions the vertical reinforcement
ratio should nowhere exceed
N
0.024 − 0. 14
π dtfck
7.4 Temperature Effects
The effects of temperature differences between the
inner and outer faces of the concrete shell should be
calculated for the steady state heat flow.
The characteristic value of the flue gas temperature
should be determined from the given operational
conditions and controls.
The characteristic value of the ambient temperature
should be taken as the regional average minimum
temperature for the two coolest months of the year.
The thermal characteristics of all materials in the heat
flow equations shall be decided by reference to the
product specifications.
Temperatures may for simplicity be calculated as for
plane walls.
The design provisions which follow assume that in
normal operating conditions the temperature drop
across the wall will not exceed 60K.
7.5 Explosions
7.5.1 External Explosions
The ability of a chimney to withstand wind and/or
earthquake loads will in most cases ensure sufficient
resistance to explosions and other high velocity
pressure waves with their sources a distance of more
than 100 m from the chimney. The provision of
guidelines on measures to adopt if explosions can
occur in the direct vicinity of a chimney is outside the
scope of this Model Code.
CICIND Model Code for Concrete Chimneys, 2001 page 13

7.5.2 Internal Explosions function of strain according to 6.2

Internal explosions in a chimney can occur due to the ρ reinforcement ratio

presence of soot or explosive gases in the chimney.
Damage is, however, more often caused by
explosions in the installations leading to the chimney.
Protection of the chimney by explosion panels in these
installations may prevent serious damage to the shell
and lining.
t wall thickness (zero in openings)
r radius of the centre-line of the wall
x perpendicular distance from the
centroid of the elemental area to
the diameter perpendicular to the
plane of bending

8 Design Calculations for the Ultimate Limit Equations (8.1.a) and (8.1.b) may be integrated
State numerically assuming that the strain varies linearly
across the section. In the absence of openings the
8.1 General strain at position x is given by

ε = εc + (εt − ε c )(r − x ) / 2r
The resistance capacity of any horizontal or vertical
(8.1.c)
section in the shell calculated as specified herein
shall exceed the corresponding effect of factored where
loads. The loading combinations and loading factors
are given in Table 5.1. εc = maximum compressive strain in the section at
the wall centre
For each loading combination the design condition
(5.3) may be described in bending moment terms only εt = maximum tensile strain in the section at the
as wall centre

Mu ≥ Mmax (8.0)

In the case of inline wind Mmax is given by

Mmax = γ wMw +M2

where M2 is the moment due to deflection in the

ultimate limit state (see section 8.2.4).

8.2 Horizontal Cross-Sections

8.2.1 Definition of the Ultimate Limit State
The resistance capacity of the horizontal cross-section
is reached when either ultimate strain, εcu or εsu , is
reached anywhere in that section.

8.2.2 Design
8.2.2.1 Equations
The ultimate sectional forces are given by
2π
Nu = ∫ (σ c + ρσ s ) t r dφ (8.1.a)
0

2π
Mu = ∫ (σ c + ρσs ) t r x dφ (8.1.b)
0

where 8.2.2.2 Algorithm

Nu ultimate normal force
Mu ultimate bending moment
σc concrete stress at wall centre as a
function of strain according to 6.1
σs steel stress at wall centre as a
function of strain according to 6.2
1. εc and εt are set equal to the limiting values given
in 6.1 and 6.2.
2. The corresponding axial force Nb is computed from
(8.1.a).
3. If -Nb > -Nu then εt is held constant, otherwise εc is
held constant.
page 14 CICIND Model Code for Concrete Chimneys, 2001

4. The depth of the neutral axis is varied by trial and 0. 5 fct

∆ε = (8.4)
error to satisfy (8.1.a). E s ρ v γ cu
5. Mu is computed from (8.1.b)
fct = 0.3fck 0 .66 (8.5)
6. The design variables in equations (8.1) are
adjusted until (8.0) is satisfied. ε 1 = 0. 266∆ε (8.6)

f sk
ε2 = − ∆ε (8.7)
8.2.3 Thermal Effects Es γ su

The action of temperature and loading from 8.2.4.2 Calculation of the Moments of Second
permanent load and wind cannot be directly Order
superposed. The reason is that the moment from
temperature depends on the actual stiffness of the Moments of 2nd order are calculated numerically from
cross-section, which decreases with an increase of deflections of the shell as described in Commentary
the loading. Therefore, loading causes the bending No. 4.
moment from temperature to become smaller.
Provided that the temperature drop in the wall is less
than 60K (see section 7.4) the thermal effects on the
limit strains and on the average stresses may be
disregarded.
In cases where the characteristic temperature drop
exceeds this limit the strain variation across the wall
must be taken into account.

8.2.4 Moments of Second Order

8.2.4.1 Material Laws
For the determination of the moments of 2nd order,
the deflections are needed. For the computation of the
deflections, the average material properties are used
as opposed to the minimum material properties
which are used in the calculation of stresses and
strains.
For the concrete in the compression zone, the
following linear material law shall be used:
Ec
σc = ε (8.2)
γcu

where the modulus of elasticity is

Ec = 9500(fck + 8)
0. 33
(fck in MPa) (8.3)

In the tension zone, the stiffening effect of the concrete

is important.
The effective tensile stress in the reinforcement may
be calculated by the following approximate method.
8.2.4.3 Rotation of the Foundation
Rotation of the fo undation causes moments of 2nd
for 0 < ε < ε1 σ = 106ε order in the shell.
f
( but not exceeding sk ) The rotation Θ of the foundation can be estimated
γ su
from the following formulae:
ε1 < ε < ε2 σ = Es(ε + ∆ε)
- for a shallow circular raft on soil if there is no
f uplift under the characteristic wind load
ε2 < ε < εsu σ = sk
γ su
γ W MW
Θ= 3
(8.8)
1. 5 E t rf
where - for a foundation on end bearing piles
CICIND Model Code for Concrete Chimneys, 2001 page 15

γ W MW
Θ= (8.8)
βp ∑ x p 2 Kp 8.2.5 Dimensioning Diagrams
where In order to simplify the dimensioning of chimneys,
dimensioning diagrams are given in Commentary No.
Mw wind moment acting on the underside of the
6.
foundation
8.3 Vertical Cross-Sections
Et dynamic modulus of elasticity of the soil
8.3.1 Wind
rf the outer radius of the raft
The uneven wind pressure distribution around the
xp distance of a pile from the axis of rotation circumference of a circular cylinder causes bending
Kp spring constant of an end-bearing pile moments acting on vertical cross-sections of the
shell.
1
bp factor for pile interference bp = The characteristic bending moment is given by
d 
1 + 6 p 
 sp  w m (z)
MWh = 0.09k t d(z ) (8.10)
CD
dp pile diameter
where
sp spacing of the piles
k t = 2.2 correction factor to convert the mean
hourly wind load to the corresponding
8.2.4.4 Approximation of the Moments of 2nd 5-sec. wind
Order
wm(z) see formula (7.3)
The moments of 2nd order can be estimated from
d(z) diameter of chimney at level z
equation 8.9 (see Commentary No. 4).
2.4 CD shape factor
85 − 0. 14h h2 N  z  z
M 2 ( z) = γ W M W  1 + 2.4   1− 
100 (E c γ cu ) ⋅ I  h  h  The moment MWh causes tension at both faces of the
shell.
(8.9)
where
8.3.2 Temperature
Mw bending moment from wind at chimney base
The maximum bending moment from the temperature
γw wind load factor for ultimate limit state
difference is calculated by:
h height of chimney
MT = w fct (8.11)
z height of the considered cross-section
where w is the section modulus.
M2(z) moment of 2nd order at height z
The following formula may be used as an
N normal force at the chimney base approximation to the section modulus in the case of
equal reinforcement on each face:
Ec rnodulus of elasticity from equation 8.3
 2
 t − 2c  E s 
γcu = 1.0 (safety factor for concrete) w = 1 / 6 +   ρh t 2 (8.12)
  t  Ecm 
l = π dm t / 8
3
second moment of area of the
uncracked section at the chimney base where
ignoring reinforcement
t wall thickness (m)
dm mean shell diameter at the chimney base c cover to reinforcement
t notional wall thickness at the chimney base
Es modulus of elasticity of steel
(not the actual wall thickness, but rather the
thickness which would be required at the Ecm modulus of elasticity of concrete for mean
chimney base if there were no openings at material properties
the base).
Ecm = 850( fck + 8)
The effect of deflection caused by rotation of the
foundation is not considered in equation 8.9. ρh ratio of one layer of circumferential
reinforcement
The more accurate method of section 8.2.4.2 is
recommended for final design. fct tensile strength of concrete
page 16 CICIND Model Code for Concrete Chimneys, 2001

(8.13) The model of virtual openings will not adequately take

care of the flow of forces around the opening.
Sufficient reinforcement must be provided to satisfy
Additional reinforcement may be needed locally. The
both the following equations
following two cases are particularly important.
Muh > MT (8.14a)

2 .6 + 24 t 8.4.3.2 Tensile Forces in Vertical Cross-

f ct = 0. 45 (0 . 85 − 0 .2 t )(f ck + 8 )0. 66 Sections above and below an Opening
1 . 0 + 40 t
Muh > γ wh Mwh (8.14b) The total tensile force in the horizontal direction above
and below an opening should be taken to be
where Muh is the ultimate moment of resistance of
the section, calculated using the material laws of f f 
Ft = 0.1b t  ck + ρ v sk  (8.15)
sections 6.1 and 6.2 with the appropriate material γ
 cu γ su 
factors.

where
8.4 Openings
b clear width of the opening
8.4.1 General
t wall thickness
The stresses around openings may be calculated
with a finite element method or approximated by the ρv ratio of the vertical reinforcement
method given in 8.4.2.

8.4.3.3 Bending Moment in Vertical

8.4.2 Virtual Openings Cross-Sections above and below an Opening

Parts of chimneys where openings occur do not In the shell above and below an opening the bending
satis fy the basic assumption of Navier in beam theory, moment given by (8.16) should be assumed to
namely that plane sections remain plane. This model produce tension on the inside of the vertical sections
may still be applied for the dimensioning of horizontal over the width of the opening:
cross-sections if the openings are considered to be
tf f 
enlarged as in figure 8.3 and in addition the following m = 0. 002b3  ck + ρ v sk  (8.16)
d  γ cu γ su 
conditions are fulfilled:
a) No virtual opening has a width larger than 1.2 where d is the mean diameter of the shell, other
times the inner radius. variables as in 8.4.3.2

b) For each horizontal section with more than one

opening, the circumferential distance a between any
two adjacent virtual openings with width b1 and b2
must be such that

a ≥ 0. 25(b1 + b2 )

where a, b1, b2 are measured at the mean radius .

c) For the determination of the equilibrium when an

opening is in the compression zone, the vertical
reinforcement ratio existing within a distance of
0.5 b from the edges of the opening shall be
assumed to be 0.005 less than the actual
amount.
In the preparation of the dimensioning diagrams in
Commentary No. 6, half the vertical steel displaced by
the opening has been assumed placed close to the
opening on each side. The reduction in lever arm has
been taken into account.

8.4.3 Dimensioning
8.4.3.1 General
The ovalling moment due to wind acting over the
height of the opening may require additional horizontal
reinforcement above and below the opening.
CICIND Model Code for Concrete Chimneys, 2001 page 17

9 Design Calculations for

Serviceability Limit State
9.1 Cracking
It is not necessary to check the width of horizontal
cracks because the dead weight of the chimney above
the section will tend to close any such cracks.
The horizontal reinforcement must prevent
unacceptable vertical cracks. The crack width must be
limited according to environmental conditions as
indicated in table 9.1, even if a protective coating is
provided.

Table 9.1 Limit of crack width wk depending on

environment

Environmental Characteristic crack

conditions width

aggressive 0.2 mm
normal 0.3 mm

The characteristic crack width determines the bar

diameter and spacing.
The maximum bar diameter is given by equation (9.1)

d s = 0 .4 ⋅10 6 (fck + 8 )0. 66 w k 1. 12 / σ s 2 (9.1)

Figure 8.3: relation of real opening (solid line) to
virtual opening (dashed line) where

ds bar diameter in mm.

8.5 Local Point Loads
fck characteristic strength of concrete.
Loads transmitted to the shell through separate
narrow supports will cause vertical bending and wk characteristic crack width in mm.
torsion moments in the shell. The vertical bending
moment will have its largest values, positive and σs post-cracking steel stress resulting from
bending moment causing cracking.
negative, at the level of the support of:
The ratio ρ 2 required on each face to limit the crack
0.6M
mk = (8.17) width for the chosen bar diameter ds may be found by
rt
assuming σ s ≈ 0.2fct ρ 2 and rewriting (9.1) in the
where form

mk maximum bending moment in the shell per ds

unit length ρ 2 = 0 .2fct 1. 12
(9.2)
0.4 ⋅ 10 ( fck + 8) 0. 66 w k
6
M moment caused by the eccentricity of the
load measured to the centre of the shell The minimum ratio ρ on each face is the greater of ρ 2
r mean radius of the shell and that required to satisfy section 8.3.2.

t shell thickness The maximum spacing is given by

Inner and outer reinforcement should be provided in πds2

s= (9.3)
the vertical and the horizontal directions over a 4000tρ
minimum length and width of the shell of
where s is the distance between bar centres in mm
1. 6 r t (8.18) and t is the shell thickness in metres.

See Commentary No. 5 concerning justification of

formulae (8.17) and (8.18). 9.2 Deflections in Serviceability Limit State
page 18
9.2.1 Deflection of the Shell
Deflection of the shell is only important in connection
with the effect on the lining. The calculated deflections
of the shell in the ultimate limit state may be so large
that the lining would be destroyed before the shell
reached the ultimate limit state. A reduced load factor
for this serviceability limit state is justified because the
probability of reaching the ultimate limit state is
extremely small and collapse of the lining is much
less serious than collapse of the shell,.
Other effects of interactions between the shell and the
lining may be of two kinds:
a) Forces caused by direct contact between shell and
lining. The determination of the clearances
necessary to avoid this is treated in part B of the
CICIND Model Code for Concrete Chimneys.
b) Inertia forces induced in the lining by the motion of
the shell and, consequently, the lining support.
The determination of these forces is treated in
parts B and C of the CICIND Model Code for
Concrete Chimneys.
The deflections may be computed in the same way as
in the determination of the moments of 2nd order in
8.2.4 using the serviceability wind load factor.
9.2.2 Response to Sun Exposure
The top of a chimney will move under sun exposure.
This may affect the setting-out of the chimney during
construction.
The maximum displacement of the top can, for a
cylinder, be estimated from the formula.
h 2 ∆ T αT
ymax = (9.4)
2d
where
∆T difference between the mean temperatures on
the sunny and shady sides of the chimney, the
mean temperatures varying linearly across the
diameter.
α T coefficient of linear thermal expansion of
concrete = 10-5 K-1
d mean d iameter of a cylindrical chimney
The bending moments due to this movement may be
ignored.
9.2.3 Deflections of Support Elements
Deflections of support elements (e.g. supporting
platforms) are particularly important in the case of
brick linings. A lining section constructed of brickwork
is very stiff in respect of vertical deformation of
cross-sections. Undue flexibility of the supporting
structure may cause extremely high local stresses in
the brickwork resulting in large cracks.
CICIND Model Code for Concrete Chimneys, 2001
10 Details of Design
10.1 Vertical Reinforcement
The minimum ratio ρ v of the vertical reinforcement to
the gross cross-sectional area should be not less
than 0.003 for fsk less than 300 MN/m 2 or 0.0025 for fsk
greater than 300 MN/m 2. Over a height of 0.2
diameters or 2.5 m, whichever is greater, below the
top of the shell, this minimum reinforcement should
be increased by 50%.
The reinforcement should be distributed in layers
towards the inner and the outer face with not less than
half the reinforcement in the layer (or layers) towards
the outer face. The diameter of vertical reinforcement
should not be less than 12 mm and the spacing
should not exceed 300 mm. Laps should be
staggered so that not more than half the bars are
spliced at any cross-section.
10.2 Horizontal Reinforcement
Equal layers of horizontal reinforcement should be
provided towards both faces of the shell. The
minimum ratio ρ h of the horizontal reinforcement on
each face to the gross cross-sectional area will
usually be determined by the requirement of section
8.3.2 but should in no case be less than 0.001. The
bar diameter should be not less than 8 mm. Laps
should be staggered so in any three adjacent layers
no splice is within 150 mm of another.
The maximum spacing is determined by the
requirement of section 9.1 but should not exceed the
lesser of the wall thickness or 300 mm or (in seismic
areas) 10 times the diameter of the vertical
reinforcement. If the shell top is not stiffened by a
concrete roof slab this minimum reinforcement ratio
should be doubled over a distance of 0.2 diameters or
2.5 m, whichever is greater, below the top of the shell.
To ensure that cracking due to early thermal
contraction is properly controlled the minimum
horizontal reinforcement ratio should also be doubled
over a height of 2m above the base.
10.3 Reinforcement around Openings
The minimum vertical reinforcement should be 0.0075
in a distance of half the width of the opening on each
side of the opening.
Both horizontal and vertical additional reinforcement at
openings should extend beyond the edge of the
opening by at least half the width of the opening plus
the bond length of the bars.
10.4 Cover to the Reinforcement
CICIND Model Code for Concrete Chimneys, 2001 page 19

The nominal concrete cover to the reinforcement Note 4: Locally the centre point of the shell shall not
should be 40 mm minimum with tolerances of +20 change by more than 25mm per 3m vertically.
mm and -10 mm.

10.5 Minimum Wall Thickness

The wall thickness of cast in situ shells should be not
less than 200 mm.
In the presence of openings the wall thickness should
not be less than 0.04 times the height of the opening
unless properly designed buttresses or other means
of stiffening are provided, in which case the
buttresses are to be ignored when calculating the
moment resistance of the horizontal section.

11 Tolerances
Tolerances in the concrete work are defined in a
statistical way and expressed in terms of

a) the mean inaccuracy m between a specified

dimension Ln and the real dimension L
measured at several points chosen at random
b) the standard deviation S of the measurements.

The values m and S shall not exceed the appropriate

values given in table 11.1.

Table 11.1 Upper limit for absolute value of mean

inaccuracy m and standard deviation S

m (m) S(m)

Wall t < 0.3 m 0.005 0.01

Thickness
t > 0.3 m 0.002 + 0.01 t 0.004 + 0.02 t
(m)

Shell 0.05 + 0.01 d 0.05 + 0.01 d

Diameter(m)

Deviation h < 50 m 0.05 0.05

from
h > 50 m 0.001 h 0.001 h
Vertical
Axis (m)

Note 1: The mean value of the wall thickness at one

level over a 60 degree arc shall be taken to
represent one measurement.
Note 2: This table 11.1 is only valid if the variables
are random. In the event of systematic
inaccuracies, special investigations are
required.
Note 3: The inaccuracies of the vertical axis are
determined from conditions of stresses
produced by these inaccuracies and the
practicability of observing these tolerances.
Architectural considerations may lead to
closer limits for the inaccuracies of the
vertical axis.