Register Journal Iain Salatiga Vol 9 No 1 Year 2015

REGISTER
LANGUAGE AND LANGUAGE TEACHING JOURNALS
Vol. 9, No. 1, June 2016 P-ISSN :1979-8903 E-ISSN: 2503-040X
Editor in Chief
Faizal Risdianto
Editors
Ruwandi
Setia Rini
Hanung Triyoko
Rr. Dewi Wahyu Mustikasari
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REGISTER
LANGUAGE AND LANGUAGE TEACHING JOURNALS
Vol. 9, No. 1, June 2016 P-ISSN :1979-8903 E-ISSN: 2503-040X
TABLE OF CONTENT
Speaker-Dependent Based Speech Recognition

Lilik Untari ,SF. Luthfie Arguby Purnomo, Nur Asiyah, Muhammad
Zainal Muttaqien ………………………………………………………….1
.
Indonesian and English Lexical Metaphoric Expressions Used In Online
Competition News Text
Siti Tarwiyah ………..………………………..…………………………. 13
Code-Mixing and Code Switching in The Process of Learning

Diyah Atiek Mustikawati …………….………………………………… 24
Overview English as a Second Language for Young Learners

Setia Rini ………………………………...……………………………….. 52
The Analysis of Grammatical and Textual Equivalence Used in the

Translation of Paolini„s Novel of “Inheritance” into Indonesian
Badi’atul Azmina………………………………….…………………... 60
Deixis Analysis of the Good Dinosaur the Movie

Nur Kholis …………………………………………..…………………….74
Discourse Analysis of a Song Lyric Entitled "We Will Not Go Down”

Faizal Risdianto……………………..………………………………… 90
Index…………………………………………….……………………….106
REGISTER Journal-IAIN Salatiga
Vol. 9, No. 1, 2016
Speaker-Dependent Based Speech Recognition
Lilik Untari1 SF. Luthfie Arguby Purnomo2 Nur Asiyah3 Muhammad Zainal
Muttaqien4
IAIN Surakarta
sastrainggrisiainska1@gmail.com
Abstract
This is the first part of the two parts of a qualitative focused R&D research aimed at
designing an application to assist students with visual impairment (VI) in learning English
writing and reading skills. The designed application was a speaker-dependent based speech
recognition. Conducting alpha and beta testings, it was revealed that MAKTUM, the name of
the application, exposed weaknesses on the selection of Ogden‘s Basic English as the
linguistic resources for the application and on the recording complexities. On the other hand,
MAKTUM displayed strengths in individualized pronunciation and simple interfaces to
operate.
Key Words: MAKTUM, Speech Recognition, Visual Impairment
Abstrak
Penelitian pengembangan dengan fokus pada aspek kualitatif ini adalah penelitian tahap
pertama dari dua tahap penelitian yang bertujuan untuk menghasilkan sebuah aplikasi
berbasis speech recognition untuk membantu mahasiswa tunanetra dalam mempelajari
bahasa Inggris khususnya keahlian menulis dan membaca. Setelah melakukan alpha dan beta
testing, terungkap bahwa MAKTUM memiliki kelemahan pada pemilihan Basic English oleh
1
Teaching staff in English Letters Department IAIN Surakarta
2
3
4
They can be reached at sastrainggrisiainska1@gmail.com
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Ogden dan kompleksitas perekaman individual. Sementara itu kelebihan MAKTUM terlihat
pada sistem pelafalan personal yang dimilikinya dan menu antar muka yang mudah
dioperasikan.
Kata kunci: MAKTUM, Speech Recognition, Mahasiswa Tunanetra.
Introduction
The absence of linguistics based learning aid for visually impaired (VI) students is
one of the basic problems universities face and the same problem occurs in the Faculty of
Islamic Studies and Teacher Training at State Islamic Institute of Surakarta (IAIN Surakarta).
In its fourth year of inclusive education, the faculty static in developing any electronic or
digital aid to sustain its visually impaired students in enhancing their learning experiences
and achievements. In the scope of English Department student, one student with visual
impairment suffers visual acuteness of 20/70 or classified as partial visual impairment
(Berger and Constance, 1970). In WHO scale, 20/70 is classified into severe visual
impairment (SVI) or low vision (Freeman, 2007).
The PVI category the student suffers from, in the context of linguistics, triggers a high
susceptibility toward the declination of linguistic proficiency (Galiano and Portelie, 2011).
The linguistic profiencies the student suffers from are dominantly in reading and writing
skills. This condition is perceptible from the necessity for the student to require a reading
assistant when a test is in progress. In English language, abridging this condition, simplified
English (SE) is designed (Kashdan and Barnes, 2002). This consideration to adopt simplified
English is not yet taken into account when deciding to accept students with VI and thereby it
triggers the feeling of social isolation (Webb, 2006), in the case of the student of English
Department, the feeling emerges in reading and writing class. The social isolation is
perceivable from the fact that the student is required to alter her reading and writing
experiences into listening and speaking experiences exercised for reading and writing
purposes. Therefore, an assistive technology to bridge these experiences is of necessity to
assist the student in her reading and writing class. Text-to-speech technologies, like stylus
pen (Zworykin and Flory, 1947), talking book pen, Kurzweil Reading Machine (KRM)
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(Dorman, 1995), The Reading Edge (Dorman, 1995) and Kindle. Meanwhile writing skills,
the focus of this research, are abridgedable by speech-to-text technology. Microsoft Word,
Dragon Nuance, Speakonia and other speech-to-text technologies are few to name.
The aforementioned speech recognition software and applications, due to its global
nature, are operated based on speech following to the English pronunciation standards. This
fact evokes a problem in the context of English as Foreign Language (EFL), a problem linked
to the standardization of English pronunciation. The presence of English pronunciation
standard on the speech recognition technologies indicates that the technologies are
dominantly intended for English native speakers. This is problematic if connected to the
problem faced by the VI student as aforementioned before. Students with VI possesses a
misunderstanding and an incomplete comprehension of a sound (Wild, Wilson, and Hobson,
2013) from which language expressions of the students are limited especially in reading and
writing skills. Therefore, speech-to-text technologies with standardized pronuciation are
assumed to hinder non-native students, especially students with VI, when they attempt to
learn reading and writing skills. Departing from this assumption and the fact for the need of
speech-to-text technology abridgable for the VI student to use, this research and development
inquiry with qualitative focus attempts to design speech-to-text technology friendly to VI
users.
To design the technology, the first step taken was to adopt a concept of mother tongue
related foreign language inspired from MT-Based MLE (Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual
Education), a language instruction involving the use of mother tongue along with other
languages used in a classroom (Malone, 2007). The incorporation of MT-Based MLE is
expected to open a possibility to record voices and writings adjusted to the pronunciation
standardization of the users. Thereby, it is expected the problems evoked from English
pronunciation standardization in designing a speech recognition application are solved.
Departing from aforementioned logical sequence, this research focused on
constructing a reciprocal design between student and lecturer. The following illustration
might help explain the intended reciprocal design:
Exercise making Answering the Assessing the

by lecturers using exercises by the answers, and
the text-to-speech student using discussing them
technology speech-to-text with the student
technology
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MT-Based MLE
The reciprocality of the application is perceptible from the interactions between the lecturer
and the student with the designed applicaition abridging them. The initiation of this
reciprocality starts by the inputs executed by the lecturers to the student in writing skill
exercises through text-to-speech technology. Utilizing this feature, the text composed by the
lecturers is converted into a speech. Through the technology, the student performs an exercise
by responding to the exercises given by the lecturer. The response is in the form of pseech by
the student which is converted into a text by the application.
Completing the exercises, the exercise will be downloaded as a text to which the
lecturers examine the answers and discuss the answers with the student. This cycle is
expected to generate a meta experience, an experience resulting from thought and feelings
toward the mood (Mayer and Gaschke, 1988), for the VI student. Regarding to writing skills
for VI students, meta experience is visible from the writing engagement process executed
through speech recognition technology. The following illustration depicts the relationship
between the designed speech recognition application with the expected meta experience:
FUNCTIONALITY
OPERATION INTERACTIVITY
META-EXPERIENCE
ACCESSIBILITY
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Opertion, functionality, interactivity, and accessibility are a union defining a program or

an application. Operation refers to the mechanical capabilities a program or an application
has. Functionality denotes the usabilities or benefits the program or the application has
toward the users. Interactivity signifies the level and form of communication appearing
between the users and the program or the application (HCI/Human Computer Interaction).
Accessibility refers to the capabilities a program or an application has for an access by
various types of users. Those four elements establish a meta-experience generated from the
four elements the program or application has. For instance, the application this research
attempts to design. The application aimed at assisting students with VI in learning English
especially writing skill and thereby this application is expected to endow a real learning
experience as that of non VI students. This application is expected to endow the users a
situated and simulated learning, digital and virtual paedagogical presentation aligned to the
real world (Shaffer, Squire, Halverson, Gee, 2004). Therefore, it is an expectation that the
students with VI possess meta-experience presented through situated and simulated learning
generated from this English linguistics aid.
This research resulting in an application called MAKTUM focused, first, on writing skill
as the primary focus of the skill and reading as the secondary focus. The primary focus of the
object was the VI student and the secondary was the lecturer. Secondary focus emerged due
to reciprocality owned by MAKTUM. Second, MAKTUM was a fusion of text-to-speech and
speech-to-text with the former still under development. Third, MAKTUM was targeted for
students with VI with categorization and clarification by Berger and Kautz of which the
relationship between language acquisition and visual impairment is perceptible. Fourth,
MAKTUM design related to speech recognition was limited to identification technology, sub
technology linked to word recognition uttered by verification technology, sub technology
designed to verify the uttered word accuracy. Fifth, MAKTUM did not incorporate NLG
(Natural Language Generator), natural language verifier since MAKTUM utilized MT-Based
MLE.
Research Objective
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The purposes of this research were first, to reveal the weakness MAKTUM has in
assisting writing skill learning by the VI student of English Department at IAIN Surakarta.
Second was to unveil the strength MAKTUM has in assisting the writing skill learning, and
third was to obtain responses from the VI student toward MAKTUM.
Research Methodology
This research was a research and development focusing not on product comparison but on
response intakes toward the designed product in alpha and beta testing scope. The primary
objective of this research was to design an application implemented to assist students with VI
of English Department at State Islamic Institute of Surakarta in learning writing and reading
skills.
This research was executed through three steps or triple helix (Mahdjoubi, 2009) namely
preliminary research, design, and application. The preliminary research was aimed at
revealing the negative impacts students with VI in the English Department without the
presence of an assistive technology helping the students qualitatively. The result obtained
from this preliminary research was utilized as an input to guide the researchers in designing
MAKTUM. After the design was completed, the next phase was to acquire the responses
toward MAKTUM from the student and the lecturers purposively.
The data validation utilized in this research was content-scale validation from Garcia-
Valderrama and Mulero-Mendigorri. Content-scale validation specifically designed to
validate research and development was executed through three phases namely selection,
consultation, and scalation (2005). Selection revolves around qualitative and quantitative
aspect selection assumed to possess the most crucial roles in developing a product. This
selection was undergone by performing extensive reviews on related literature.
Consultation concerns on consultation to the experts regarding with the qualitative and
quantitave aspects of the products. Scalation operates around employing scale design to
imply the conjunction of qualitative and quantitative aspects. In the context of MAKTUM,
qualitative aspects include interface and interactivity discussed through literary reviews
discussing both aspects. The consultation of MAKTUM was executed by cooperating with I
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After Smile studio and the scalation was undergone by combining table structurization by
Spradley intended to reveal the connection between interface and interactivity.
The research procedures were (1) observing the student with VI in English
Department regarding with the level of VI and English writing and reading competences (2)
interviewing the student regarding with the difficulties faced in English writing and reading
skills (3) designing the alpha version of MAKTUM based on the obsevation and the
interview (4) performing an alpha testing on MAKTUM involving the experts from I After
Smile Studio (5) redesigning MAKTUM based on the result of alpha testing (6) performing a
beta testing involving the student and the lecturers of reading and writing (7) uploading to
velis.xyz and Google Play.
The Description of MAKTUM
MAKTUM yang bisa diunduh untuk android melalui

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.iaftersmile.maktum atau bisa diakses
online melalui https://dl.dropboxusercontent.com/u/110823528/Maktum%20x2/index.html
ini didesain dengan menggunakan pendekatan koneksionis dan karakterisasi ASR (Automatic
Speech Recognition) (Boulard and Morgan, 2012) untuk fitur speech recognition-nya dan
pendekatan pola (pattern) untuk menu antar mukanya. Pendekatan koneksionis yang
digabungkan dengan ASR menghasilkan aplikasi speech recognition yang bersifat speaker-
dependent, berkosa kata khusus, dalam kasus ini adalah Basic English, dan tuturannya
bersifat isolatif.
MAKTUM is downloadable for Android application via

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.iaftersmile.maktum or accessible via
online from https://dl.dropboxusercontent.com/u/110823528/Maktum%20x2/index.html was
designed using a connectionist approach and characterization of ASR (Automatic Speech
Recognition) for its speech recognition feature, and pattern approach for the inter-face menu.
Connectionist approach combined with ASR produced speaker-dependent speech recognition
application having special vocabularies, in this case Basic English, and isolative speech.
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The resulting design from the aforementioned approach and characterization is a

reflection of the special linguistic needs for students with visual impairment. The underlying
assumption is that those who have disabilities, although inclusive in domain, require special
assistance also both in terms of operationalization and content of a linguistic aid application.
This assumption is in line with the concept of HCI (Human Computer Interaction) in the
perspective of the pattern approach, which stresses the specificity of the needs of the
technology users (Borchers, 2001). In the context of an application intended for users with
special needs, the interface of MAKTUM was designed with a minimalistic number of menu
and simple functionality. The visually impaired student from whom MAKTUM was designed
has low vision so that the menu design applies bright colors in order to be easy to read. The
example of menu presented in MAKTUM is as follows:
Chart 1 The Display of MAKTUM
The combination of connectionist approach, ASR characteristics, and pattern approach

in the context of linguistic need for those with special needs produces in the application that
is in linearity with the user, or in simple words, user-friendly.
MAKTUM consists of three main menus, namely Start, Clear, and Save. The Start
Menu is to start the recognition, CLEAR is to delete the text resulted from the recognition,
and Save is to save and download the text. In addition to the operational menu, there are also
descriptive menus which describe the status of the spoken utterances; Interim Result and
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Final Result menus. Interim Result Menu displays the text version of the utterances that can
still be corrected while Final result Menu displays the final result of the utterances.
Alpha and Beta Testing Result
The Alpha and Beta Testing implemented in this research covers the alpha testing for
content and operationalization as suggested in the concept of usability by Craig and Jaskiel
(2002). Through the Alpha Testing from the language application design expert in I After
Smile studio, MAKTUM is claimed to have two strengths and two weaknesses. The first
strength is that MAKTUM incorporates individual-based pronunciation which minimizes the
basic problem in pronunciation, International standard pronunciation. This strength, however,
comes with a weakness, the complexity of the recording.
The complexity comes to appear as the user has to record around 1500 words covered
in Charles Kay Ogaden‘s theory of Basic English. From linguistic perspective, the decision to
use this Basic English is considered less appropriate as this theory, in addition to the fact that
it is too classic to use, does not have the linguistic and philosophical accuracy in defining the
meaning of Basic and English as disclosed by Flesch (1944), and the trend of free to speech
in syntactical context which in turn lead to grammatical confusion for Basic English has
different grammar from the English language in general (1994).
The linguistic weakness of Basic English, as mentioned previously, is based more on

the structural perspective. From the functional perspective in the context of disabilities, as
discussed by oleh Pena (1967), Becker (1977), Templer (2006), dan Templer (2009), it is
revealed that English simplification is needed for those with special needs. The problems that
arise in the context of language simplification lies in the question whether or not the
simplification of the language includes all language units or only one of them such as
phonetic (Santa Ana, 1991) or lexica; (Spacia, Jauhar, Mihalcea, 2012) simplification.
The decision to choose Ogden‘s Basic English is in relation to the holistification of

English simplification which covers not only word-based lexical simplification with high
frequency of use but also the restructuring of English grammar though the implementation in
MAKTUM becomes redundant. The redundancy comes to appear as the grammatical
structure does not become the main focus in its design. MAKTUM which function as a
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speech recognition based linguistic aid application has the purpose of transferring the user‘s
voice into a physical lexical form so that third parties such as lecturers or teachers can, in the
context of writing or grammar lectures, read the work of MAKTUM user, in this case the
student.
The basic function, as described previously, does not require grammatical

construction as formulated by Ogden. The separation of frequent vocabularies from the
grammar in MAKTUM is because the design of MAKTUM was based on the connectionist
approach, ASR characteristics, and pattern approach which emphasize on specific design for
specific user.
The second strength, as revealed from the Alpha and Beta Testing, in the context of
the user interface of the speech recognition designed based on pattern approach is that
MAKTUM has simple user interface resulting in the easy operation by the user. In the
perspective of speech recognition with speaker-dependent characteristic, the simple user
interface menu designed based on the specificity of the user has fulfilled the criteria of being
user-friendly. However, in the perspective of speaker-dependent speech-recognition and the
perspective of users with special needs in overall context, the user interface displayed in
MAKTUM does not meet the criteria of being user-friendly.
This claim is based on the perspective of correlation of the menus at the user interface
categorized as collection, a relationship among objects (menus) directly related to the
operationalization of a menu without affecting other objects in the interface (Gallitz, 2007).
In this perspective of collection, the expert team in I After Smile consider, MAKTUM should
maximize the user interface menu for all levels of the visually impaired people by
implementing voice-recognition or motion sensors to the interface menu operationalization
which basically emphasizes on the ergonomics of menu.
Conclusion
By means of applying the Alpha Testing from the language application design expert
in I After Smile studio, MAKTUM is claimed to have two strengths and two weaknesses. The
first strength is that MAKTUM incorporates individual-based pronunciation which minimizes
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the basic problem in pronunciation, International standard pronunciation. This strength,

however, comes with a weakness, the complexity of the recording.
References
Becker, W. (1977). Teaching reading and language to the disadvantaged—What we have

learned from field research. Harvard Educational Review, 47(4), 518-543.
Berger, Allen dan Constance R. Kautz. (1970). Sources of Information and Materials for
Blind and Visually Limited Pupils. Elementary English, Vol. 47, No. 8 (December,
1970), pp. 1097-1105.
Borchers, J. O. (2001). A pattern approach to interaction design. Ai & Society,15(4), 359-376.
Bourlard, H. A., & Morgan, N. (2012). Connectionist speech recognition: a hybrid
approach (Vol. 247). Springer Science & Business Media.
Craig, R. D., & Jaskiel, S. P. (2002). Systematic software testing. Artech House.
Dorman, David. (1995). Technically Speaking: Products for the Blind and Visually Impaired.
American Libraries, Vol. 26, No. 11 (Dec., 1995), pp. 1143-1144.
Flesch, R. (1944). How Basic is Basic English?. Harper‟s Magazine, 188(1126), 339-343.
Freeman et. al. (2007). Care of the Patient with Visual Impairment (Low Vision
Rehabilitation). American Optometric Association.
Galiano, Anna. R dan Serge Portalier. (2011). Language and Visual Impairment: Literature
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Galitz, W. O. (2007). The essential guide to user interface design: an introduction to GUI
design principles and techniques. John Wiley & Sons.
Garcia-Valderrama, Teresa dan Eva Mulero-Mendigorri. (2005). R&D Management 35, 3,
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Kashdan, Sylvie dan Robby Barnes. (2002). Teaching English as a New Language to Visually
Impaired and Blind ESL Students: Problems and Possibilities. Kaizen Program for
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Mahdjoubi, Darius. (2009). Four Types of R&D. Presentation Paper. University of St.
Edward. Texas
Malinowski, B. (1994). The problem of meaning in primitive languages.Language and
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literacy in social practice: A reader, 1-10.

Malone, Susan. (2007). Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education: Implications for
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Education: Towards More Equitable Outcomes for South Asia‘s Children Kathmandu,
17-20 September 2007
Mayer, D. John dan Yvonne N. Gaschke. (1988). the Experience and Meta-Experience of
Mood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Vol. 55, No. 1, 102-111.
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Santa Ana, A. (1991). Phonetic simplification processes in the* English of the Barrio:
Across-generational sociolinguistic study of the Chicanos of Los Angeles.
Shaffer,W.D., Squire, R.K., Halverson, R., Gee. P.J. (2004). Video Games and Future
Learning. Academic Advanced Distributed Learning Co-Laboratory.
University of Wisconsin Madison: US.
Specia, L., Jauhar, S. K., & Mihalcea, R. (2012, June). Semeval-2012 task 1: English lexical
simplification. In Proceedings of the First Joint Conference on Lexical and
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shared task, and Volume 2: Proceedings of the Sixth International Workshop on
Semantic Evaluation (pp. 347-355). Association for Computational Linguistics.
Templer, B. (2006). Revitalizing'Basic English'in Asia: New directions in English as a lingua
franca. TESL Reporter, 39(2), 17-33.
Templer, B. (2009). A two-tier model for a more simplified and sustainable English as an
international language. Journal for Critical Education Policy Studies, 7(2), 187-216.
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139-142.
Indonesian and English Lexical Metaphoric Expressions

Used In Online Competition News Text
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Siti Tarwiyah
FITK UIN Walisongo Semarang
sititarwiyah98@yahoo.co.id
Abstract
The subject of this article deals with discourse semantics. The focus of its description is
metaphoric expressions used to express competition news in online media. Based on some
theories about metaphor, the writer tries to search for kinds of metaphoric expressions used
and the reasons behind the use of the expressions. The result shows that English and
Indonesian language use lexical metaphors with three specifications, i.e. anthropomorphic,
animal, and synesthetic. The choice of specific lexical metaphoric expressions is related to
situational and cultural aspects.
Key words: Metaphor, Online Media News, Cultural Aspects
Abstrak
Subyek artikel ini berhubungan dengan semantik wacana. Fokus deskripsinya ialah ekspresi
metaforis yang digunakan untuk mengungkapkan berita kompetisi di media online.
Didasarkan pada beberapa teori tentang metafora, penulis mencoba untuk mencari jenis
ekspresi metaforis yang digunakan dan alasan di balik penggunaan ekspresi tersebut. Hasil
penelitian menunjukkan bahwa Bahasa Inggris dan Bahasa Indonesia menggunakan metafora
leksikal dengan tiga spesifikasi, yaitu metafora antropomorfik, metafora binatang dan
metafora sinestetik. Pilihan ekspresi metaforis leksikal tertentu berkaitan dengan aspek situasi
dan budaya.
Kata Kunci: Metafora, Berita Media Online, Aspek Budaya
Introduction
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Every nation or community has its own ways to express information, thought, idea,
attitude, and stand point. This is in line with Saussure opinion (in Crystal, 1993:407) that the
relationship between signifier (form) and signified (meaning) is arbitrary. This arbitrariness
mainly depends on culture of the society and how they see phenomena around them. Javanese
people consider their interlocutors in choosing which speech level to use, Ngoko, Kromo, or
Basa. English people see the importance of time through the use of tenses. Eskimo
differentiate five kinds of snow represented by five terms. Indonesian people see the
difference among padi, beras, and nasi which are called rice in English.
On the other hand, language also influences choices of interpretation to things around
the language users. Sapir (in Hodge and Gunther, 1993:210) said, ―... language habits of our
community predisposes certain choices of interpretation. In Indonesian language padi is
different from beras and nasi. All of which are called rice in English. This results in an
interpretation that all those three things are different that must be treated differently in
accordance with their functions.
Metaphor, as one of figurative languages may be seen as another example of the

difference in language use. Every speech community often has distinctive symbols to refer to
certain referents. English people may say dr. Yusuf is a butcher, pass with flying colors, feel
blue, which cannot be found in Indonesian language.
The definitions of metaphor from some experts seem varied. Metaphor or figure of
speech is ―a word or phrase which is used for special effect, and which does not have its
usual or literal meaning‖ (Richards, 1990: 105). The Greek translation of metaphor simply
means ‗transfer‘. It is a transfer because it replaces a certain word which cannot fully express
the writer‘s mind. Johnson (1972:26) defines metaphor as ―carry beyond‖. It is an expression
that literally denotes one thing but at the same time it is used to refer to something else. The
changing of the referent is influenced by its context. Metaphor is based on perception of
similarities between two references, i.e., thing which is being talked and which is being
compared (Ullmann, 1972:213). It is a normal thing that we see some same metaphoric
expressions in many languages as far as they have clear analogies (1972:238)
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Metaphor is a variation of language which can be found in any language. Lakoff and
Johnson in Metaphors We Live By admits this phenomenon. They say that metaphors is used
both in literature and in daily language in any language and dialect (in Hatch and Cheryl,
1995:87). Some examples of universal metaphors are analogizing darkness with sadness or
bad luck (Cirlot in Abdul Wahab, 1991:15), catch or grab means understand (Ullmann,
1972:238), assuming heat as anger (Lakoff and Johnson in Hatch and Cheryl, 1995:96).
Meanwhile, Harimurti says that is the use of a certain word or expression for another
object or concept based on analogy or similarities (1983:106). Metaphor is an analogy that
compares two things directly (Gorys Keraf, 1987:139 and Anton M. Moeliono, 1988:580).
Abdul Wahab, an Indonesian linguist who has observed metaphoric problems, defines
metaphor as an expression whose meaning cannot be grasped directly from its form because
the meaning is predicated on the expression. The meaning is formulated based on
understanding and experience of the thing meant to refer something else (1995:72).
Metaphor is a creative power of language. It may give the freshness in language, avoid
boredom, revive dead things (language), and actualize things (language) which are paralyzed.
That is why metaphoric expressions are mainly used in literature with the creativity of men of
letters in processing language (Edi Soebroto, 1986:46).
Metaphoric concept is actually based on relativism paradigm that is figured by Edward

Sapir (1921) and Whorf (1956). According to this school, meaning is the result of mental
processes. This is due to unseparated relationship between human and their society, which
influences human‘s thought about their life (Sapir in Sampson, 1980:82-83).
Metaphor is an important in our conceptual system. It may also reinforce social values
of its user. ―Metaphors are fundamental parts of our conceptual system. We could not
eliminate them from our vocabulary or our press.‖ (Nelson in Pangestuti, 1997:183) ―… By
framing an issue in a particular way, metaphors reinforce certain social values….‖
(1997:182) some rude or taboo expressions tend to be metaphorized in order to be more
polite or cultured. Indonesian people prefer using pekerja seks komersial to cabul, keluarga
pra-sejahtera to keluarga miskin that are more euphemistic.
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Every nation or language community has different ways of expressing information,

idea, attitude and stand. Saussure said that the relationship between form (signifier) and
meaning (signified) is arbitrary (Crystal, 1993:407). This difference depends on the culture of
the community and the way they view phenomena around them. Javanese people often take
the status of their interlocutor into account, which is then used as consideration whether to
use krama or ngoko. The use of tense in English asserts the importance of time within
English people. People in Eskimo have more than five words to refer to different snow.
Indonesian people have padi, gabah, and beras, while English people only have rice. All
these expressions and norms of speech are tightly related to the view of each people on the
realities around them.
The principle of arbitrary can also be seen in the use of metaphor. Besides its universal
every language community often has different symbol to refer to a certain referent. English
people has no cry over the spilt milk, which is expressed as nasi sudah menjadi bubur in
Indonesian language. Chagga speakers see a sexy woman as lilya ‗oven‘ but Indonesian
people see this woman as a guitar.
As a kind of creativity of language use, metaphors are interesting to be observed. In
which domain it should be looked? Searle claimed that metaphor is an utterance meaning
rather than sentence meaning and should be investigated pragmatically (Morgan, 1980:139).
Abdul Wahab asserted that social and cultural context, human perception, comprehension,
and sometimes myth and symbolism should be taken into account when we discuss metaphor
(1995:93). This is to say that enough knowledge about this world is highly recommended in
the discussion.
Metaphor has something to do with human perception system of this universe and
feeling (Hatch and Cheryl, 1995:95). Suggesting the similar argument, George Lakoff and
Mark Johnson (1980) say,
―… Metaphor is not just a matter of language, that is, of mere words. We shall argue
that …. Human thought processes are largely metaphoric. This is what we mean when
we say that human conceptual system is metaphorically structured and defined.‖ (In
Abdul Wahab, 1995:76)
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Lexical metaphor is identified from the use of a certain word that denotes a certain
thing or reality to refer to another thing or reality. The word flooded in in the protest flooded
in is an example of lexical metaphor. Flooded usually refers to a large quantity of water
covering an area that is usually dry. The congruent expressions to describe a big protest are
Protest were received in large quantities and even very many people protested.
a. Object of the study
The object of this study is online competition news text uploaded from October to
December 2014.
b. Unit of Analysis
This research is focused on metaphoric expressions used to express competition news.
The analysis involves lexemes in its context or grammar. It is realized at the lexico-grammar
strata. According to Eggins (1994: 82), if the stratum of language to be analyzed is lexico-
grammar, the unit of analysis is clause.
c. Technique of Data Collection

The data of this study was collected by downloading online competition news text uploaded
from October to December 2014.
d. Technique of Data Analysis

The data was analyzed by using the following steps:
a. Reading the news
b. Segmenting the news into clauses
c. Identifying the metaphoric expressions
d. Identifying semantic relations between symbol (metaphoric expressions) and referents.
e. Interpreting the influence of cultural aspects toward the use of symbols.
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Discussion
1. Anthropomorphic Metaphors
The tables below shows Indonesian and English lexical metaphors used in
Indonesian online competition news.
Table 1
Indonesian Anthropomorphic Metaphors
No. Expression The Change from Meaning

Referent  Symbol
1. singkirkan unggulan opponent/people  defeat
pertama (Ib1) unused thing
2. menyingkirkan unggulan opponent/people  defeating
pertama (Ib3) unused thing
3. mengukuhkan provinsi winning  title decide as the winnerl
ibu kota negara (Id2)
4. menggeser dominasi opponent/people  thing outdo
Jateng (Id3)
5. membabat semua cathegory  grass win
kategori (Ia4)
6. menyabet 29 emas (Ia5) medal  people/things win
7. kejutan besar ditorehkan winning  latex, sap got
(Ib2)
Table 2
English Anthropomorphic Metaphors

Referent  Symbol
1. societal shift (Ea6) people  thing slight change
2. a push toward gender quality  concrete thing motivation

quality (Ea7)
3. give himself a shot (Eb1) game  battle play
4. shot up the ranking (Eb3) game  battle get higher rank
5. It was neck and neck nerveous  human body nervous
6. maiden World Sperseries event  people First event
(Eb13)
7. edged past Denmark‘ people  thing outdo
Mads Pieler (Eb15)
8. a stunning performance game  fight good
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(Ec2)
9. by sweeping their ... opponent/people  outdo
(Ec3) unused thing
10. the other wins came winning  win the game
(Ec5) human/animal
11. they moved to second winning  place become the second
place winner
12. on the provisional winning  position winning
standing
Non-metaphoric expressions (in meaning column) describe the semantic relationship

between referent and symbol clearer. The meanings are drawn based on the context of each
expression and the shared semantic features between metaphoric and non-metaphoric
expressions or symbol and referent as shown in the following examples:
(1) menyingkirkan unggulan pertama (Ib3) (2) defeating the seed no 1
―Getting rid of the seed no 1‖
- Throwing something away - giving no chance to play in the next round
- Done with effort - done with effort
- The thing moves from the previous place - the team leave the next round
Menyingkirkan ―getting rid of‖ is said to symbolize defeating because of those similar
semantic features.
Opponent/people  thing dominates symbolization of metaphors of this kind. The
symbol used are singkirkan (Ib1), menyingkirkan (Ib3), menggeser (Id3). The meaning
conveyed is to defeat/to outdo/to win. Again, the defeated team is seen as the victim. The
same symbolization is also often used in English. The used symbols are societal (Ea6), edged
past (Eb15), and sweeping (Ec3).
The symbols which may be typical are membabat (Ia4), menyabet (Ia5), ditorehkan
(Ib2). This is due to the relationship between all those expressions with agricultural setting of
community life, which is still dominant in Indonesia. Meanwhile, some English metaphoric
expressions are closed to their modern tradition. It can be seen from the use of shot (Eb1) and
shot up (Eb3) which employ such modern tool as gun. The same symbols are not found in
Indonesian online compettition news.
2. Animal Metaphors
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Metaphors of this kind can be seen from the examples in table 3 and 4 below:
Table 3: Indonesian Animal Metaphors

Referent  Symbol
1. menunjukkan taringnya team  animal good play
(Ia1)
2. taring itu ditunjukkan (Ia2) team  animal good play
3. mengincar kemenangan winning  prey pursue
(Ia6)
4. jadi incaran (Ia7) winning  prey pursue
5. memburu nomor individual winning  prey pursue
(Ic6)
Table 4
English Animal Metaphors

Referent  Symbol
1. flying regionally (Ed2) team  animal play
2. a hawk in flight (Ed3) team  animal team
From the data in the two tables, it may also be concluded that Indonesian animal
metaphors are dominantly pertaining to hunting. Such symbols as taring (Ia2)/taringnya
(Ia1), mengincar (Ia6)/incaran (Ia7), memburu (Ic6) are closed to the natural way of live.
Meanwhile, English has fly (Ed2) and hawk (Ed3), cooccured with flight (Ed3) which are
may be seen as having correlation with technology or modern way of life.
3. Synesthetic Metaphors
Table 5 and 6 below summarize synaesthetic metaphors that express game processes
and results in online competition news.
Table 5
Indonesian Synaesthetic Metaphors
No Expression The Change from Meaning
Referent  Symbol
1. pertandingan digelar (Ia3, competition  mat held
Ib8)
2. menundukkan pasangan no. to defeat  to nod defeat
1 (Ib4)
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3. lolos dari pasangan to win  to save from win

Tiongkok (Ib5) siege
4. diserang/menyerang (Ib6, competition  battle play
Ib7)
5. ajang Word Military event  place event
Parachuting Championship
(Ic1)
6. merebut medali emas (Ic3) to compete  to fight win
over
7. medali dipersembahkan medal  offering given
(Ic4)
8. Ni Putu mencatat ketepatan to parachute  to note to parachute to 0,57
0,57 cm (Ic5) cm
9. mengumpulkan medali (Ic7) medal  common win
collection
10. merebut gelar juara (Id4) to compete  to fight win
over
11. kegembiraan terpancar (Id5) happiness  light happy for the
winning
12. mendulang 8 medali (Id6) winning  gold win
Table 6
English Synesthetic Metaphors
No Expression The Change from Meaning

Referent  Symbol
1. earned a medal (Ea1,3,4,5) winning  earning got
2. takes second place (Ea2) winning  position becomes the second
winner
3. entering the men‘s single game  room/place Playing
final (Eb2)
4. stunned no 4 seed (Eb4) to compete  to fight played
over
5. trailled for much of (Eb5) event  place/road played
6. he stepped it up (Eb6) winning  ladder won
7. to take the next six points winning  concrete to win
(Eb7) thing
8. shot past his opponent (Eb9) competition  battle outdo
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9. quelled Kento Moonota competition  battle outdo

(Eb10)
10. lost his way (Eb11) play  track played badly
11. earned a shot (Eb12) competition  battle play
12. a title clash with (Eb14) to compete  to fight play
over
13. Indonesia beats Armenia to compete  to fight outdoes
(Ec1) over
14. their latest victim (Ec4) to compete  to fight opponent
over
15. Indonesia pounded 4-0 to compete  to fight won
(Ec8) over
16. true test came in the third play  test good play
round (Ec9)
17. beating Romania (Ec10) opponent  victim outdoing
18. the lead up to the third competition  track play
round (Ec11)
19. given the opponent‘s line up competition  track chance
(Ec12)
20. Medina was outstanding winning  reputation win over
over Foisor (Ec13)
21. taking three wins (Ec14) winning  concrete getting
thing
22. the team challenged China to compete  to fight played
(Ec15) over
23. first place honour (Ed1) winning  place becomes the first
winner
24. a top place to be for .... winning  place becomes the first
(Ed4) winner
25. KU team placed first in .... winning  place won
(Ed5)
26. a first place award (Ed6) winning  place winning
Most of metaphoric expressions found both in Indonesian and English online

competition news are antropomorphic. The symbolization of competition as fighting or
battle is dominant in those two languages. It is shown by 42% of Indonesian and 42.3% of
English metaphors. The symbols used are lolos (Ib5), diserang/menyerang (Ib6, Ib7),
merebut (Ic3, Id4), stunned (Eb4), shot (Eb9, Eb12), quelled (Eb10), clash (Eb 14), beats
(Ec1), victim (Ec4), pounded (Ec8), challenged (Ec15).
Conclusion
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The conclusions may be made based on the data analysis in the previous part are: (1)
metaphoric expressions are used to intensify meaning, to represent the writer‘s sense of
things being described, (2) metaphoric expressions used in the online competition news
falls into three cathegories, i.e. Anthropomorphic, animal, and synesthetic metaphor, (3)
metaphoric expressions used in the online competition news are tightly related to the way
the writer sees the phenomenon, which is influenced by cultural aspects of the writer.
References
Crystal, David. 1993. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.
Deddy Mulyana dan Rakhmat Jalaluddin. 1996. Komunikasi Antarbudaya. Bandung: Penerbit
PT Remaja Rosdakarya.
Edi Subroto, D. 1986. Semantik Leksikal I. Surakarta: Universitas Sebelas Maret.
Eggins, Suzanne.1994. An Introduction to Systematic Functional Linguistics. London: Pinter
Publisher.
Fairclough, Norman. 1989. Language and Power. New York: Longman Group Ltd.
Hatch, Evelyn dan Cheryl Brown. 1995. Vocabulary, Semantics and Language Education.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hodge, Robert dan Gunther Kress. Language as Ideologi. London: Routledge.
Johnson, Wendell Stacy. 1972. Words, Things and Celebrations. Harcourt Brace Javanovich
Inc.
Mansoer Pateda. 1998. Semantik Leksikal (ed. kedua). Jakarta: Penerbit Rineka Cipta.
Morgan, Jeffy L. 1980. ―Observations on the Pragmatics of Metaphor‖, dalam Metaphor and
Thought (ed. Andrew Ortony). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Pangestuti Wiedarti. 1997. ―Ragam Bahasa Jurnalistik dalam Rubrik Konsultasi Seksualitas‖,
dalam Ragam Jurnalistik dan Pengajaran Bahasa Indonesia (ed. Sudaryanto dan
Sulistiyo). Semarang: Citra Almamater.
Richards, Jack, John Platt and Heidi Weber. 1990. Longman Dictionary of Applied
Linguistics. Harlow: Longman Group Limited.
Sampson, Geoffrey. 1980. School of Linguistics. London: Hutchinson & Co. Ltd.
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Vol. 9, No. 1, 2016
Code-Mixing and Code Switching in The Process of Learning

Diyah Atiek Mustikawati
Universitas Muhammadiyah Ponorogo
diyah_mustikawati08@yahoo.co.id
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Vol. 9, No. 1, 2016
Abstract
This study aimed to describe a form of code switching and code mixing specific form
found in the teaching and learning activities in the classroom as well as determining factors
influencing events stand out that form of code switching and code mixing in question.
Form of this research is descriptive qualitative case study which took place in Al
Mawaddah Boarding School Ponorogo. Based on the analysis and discussion that has been
stated in the previous chapter that the form of code mixing and code switching learning
activities in Al Mawaddah Boarding School is in between the use of either language Java
language, Arabic, English and Indonesian, on the use of insertion of words, phrases, idioms,
use of nouns, adjectives, clauses, and sentences. Code mixing deciding factor in the learning
process include: Identification of the role, the desire to explain and interpret, sourced from
the original language and its variations, is sourced from a foreign language. While deciding
factor in the learning process of code, includes: speakers (O1), partners speakers (O2), the
presence of a third person (O3), the topic of conversation, evoke a sense of humour, and just
prestige. The significance of this study is to allow readers to see the use of language in a
multilingual society, especially in AL Mawaddah boarding school about the rules and
characteristics variation in the language of teaching and learning activities in the classroom.
Furthermore, the results of this research will provide input to the ustadz / ustadzah and
students in developing oral communication skills and the effectiveness of teaching and
learning strategies in boarding schools.
Keywords: Multilingualism, Bilingualism, Mixing Code and Switching Code.
Abstrak
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mendeskripsikan wujud alih kode dan wujud campur kode
tertentu yang ditemukan dalam kegiatan belajar-mengajar di kelas serta faktor penentu menonjol yang
mempengaruhi peristiwa wujud alih kode dan campur kode dimaksud.
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Vol. 9, No. 1, 2016
Bentuk penelitian ini adalah deskriptif kualitatif, dengan studi kasus yang mengambil lokasi
di pesantren Al Mawaddah Kabupaten Ponorogo. Berdasarkan analisis dan pembahasan yang telah
dikemukakan di bab sebelumnya bahwa wujud campur kode dan alih kode kegiatan pembelajaran di
PP Al Mawaddah adalah peralihan penggunaaan bahasa baik bahasa Jawa, bahasa Arab, bahasa
inggris, dan bahasa Indonesia, pada penggunaan penyisipan kata, frasa, idiom, penggunaan kata
benda, kata sifat, klausa, dan kalimat. Faktor penentu campur kode dalam proses pembelajaran
meliputi: Identifikasi peranan, keinginan untuk menjelaskan dan menafsirkan, bersumber dari bahasa
asli beserta variasinya, bersumber dari bahasa asing. Sedangkan faktor penentu alih kode dalam
proses pembelajaran, meliputi: penutur(O1), mitra tutur (O2), hadirnya orang ketiga (O3), topik
pembicaraan, membangkitkan rasa humor, dan sekedar gengsi. Signifikansi dari penelitian ini adalah
memungkinkan pembaca mengetahui pemakaian bahasa dalam masyarakat multilingual, khususnya di
pesantren Al Mawaddah tentang kaidah dan karakteristik variasi bahasa dalam kegiatan belajar-
mengajar di kelas. Lebih jauh, hasil penelitian ini akan menjadi bahan masukan bagi ustadz/ustadzah
dan santri dalam mengembangkan keterampilan komunikasi lisan dan efektivitas strategi belajar-
mengajar di lingkungan pesantren.
Kata Kunci: Multilingualisme, Bilingualisme, Campur Kode dan Alih Kode
Introduction
Language is not something rare to hear. However, not all people understand about the
understanding of the language. Most people know that language is one of the communication
tools used by humans to perform activities of daily living. In communicating, sometimes
people do not just use one language. An interesting phenomenon is now often the case that
many people make the transition (alternation) code, both of code (code switching) and code
mixing (mixing code) in communicating with others. The phenomenon of code switching and
code mixing can be seen either through electronic media and print media. In fact, if we
examined closely, often occurrence of code switching and code mixes between speaker and
partner speaker in an environment of our daily lives, either in writing or orally.
The role of code switching and code mixing in the community is very important, in
conjunction with the use of language variation by a person or group of people, especially in
the use of language in bilingual or multilingual communities, for example in boarding school.
Boarding can be said is unique in relation to the use of code switching and code-mixing.
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Boarding school is unique, because institutionally can be incorporated in the form of non-
formal institutions but can also be referred to as formal education, because it has its own
education program organized. In the boarding school there is no clear separation between the
school and the environment. Boarding schools are generally unified and organized in a
systematic way so as to double as a formal school environment in the form of classes and
trying to grow a certain lifestyle that make up a subculture in a general population.
Boarding school as a subculture of society tent to have a certain culture and norms
were used as pattern and the agreement rules in their social interactions. In terms of language
contact members of the boarding school community ( students and the teacher ) many of
which have the capability / control of more than one language ( Indonesian, English, Arabic,
and local) that allows the so-called bilingualism and multilingualism with a wide variety of
events, including over code and code-mixing.
In the event of oral communication, community schools perform a variety of
communication in different events and for the purpose as well as different interests. Based on
the tendency of language use at such events, researchers have tried to focus on events of
teaching and learning activities in the classroom, the learning process or learning activities in
select based on the consideration that variations may appear and the languages , including in
this case are the events over code and code-mixing. Teacher and students will try to
understand the science they learned, by utilizing variations in language that is easily
understood by both the Ustadz and Ustadzah.
Communication activities in the process of teaching and learning activities in
modern pesantren Al Mawaddah always involve two or three languages. Consequently, a
speaker (students and teacher) sociologically cannot escape from the communication strategy,
both for acceptance from the perspective of anthropology and sociology religious education.
Strategies that used by the speakers at the Al Mawaddah boarding school harness the
potential variation of the language as a medium for knowledge transfer (transfer of
knowlegde) covering religious science and general science. Religious Studies involving
transcendental consciousness, while general science involves the rational consciousness in
communication. That is, the Arabic language on one side feels more acceptable in religious
contexts for students or teacher at the boarding school to cultivate the field knowledge of
Islam is dominated by the use of the Arabic language.
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While on the other hand, the appreciation of the English language that relate to modern
science and technology was stressed. As a further consequence of contact between languages
language that has been dominated by the language that dominated later, both because of the
encouragement of academic environment and non-academic chance of the emergence of
language variations, including code switching and code-mixing (code switching and code
mixing).
The use of code switching and code-mixing in boarding schools Al Mawaddah is
interesting to study. The tendency of language use, especially in the use of oral
communication, both formal and informal show consistency and form a kind of specific
patterns and norms. Since Al Mawaddah boarding school was founded by KH. Ahmad Sahal,
two foreign languages, namely English and Arabic to learn and use together, either in the
hostel and outside the hostel, both in formal situations (teaching and learning activities) and
non-formal (care system), in addition to the local language (Java) and Indonesian. Even the
tendency of foreign language use is increasingly apparent consistency of the user after
modern pesantren Al Mawaddah proclaimed as modern boarding international program. The
core curriculum and language of instruction, namely Arabic and English applied actively as
the language of instruction lessons (in the process of teaching and learning activities),
everyday conversation, discussion, writing, and so forth. This study reviews the form of
code-mixing and code switching found in the learning process in modern Al Mawaddah
Boarding School and what factors caused it.
Bilingual, Contacts Culture, and Contacts Languages

The study of code switching and code-mixing is inseparable from the study of
bilingual, bilingualitas, and bilingualism. Someone who is bilingual is a person who has the
ability to use two or more languages with others (Nababan, 1984: 27). One's ability to use
two or more languages may include the ability receptive (reading, listening) or productive
capabilities (speaking, writing) or both.
Bilingualitas is the willingness or ability to bilingual (bilingual), while bilingualism is
used to the habit of a person or a society in two languages (Harimurti Kridalaksana, 2001).
Bilingual can occur in a person or a group of people. A group of bilingual people are in the
community when there are individuals who are bilingual.
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The first occurred bilingualism for their cultural contacts (in the broad sense) between
the two groups of speakers of different languages. Cultural contacts between the two different
groups of speakers that can occur in the field of religion, trade, science and politics, the arts,
economics and social activities. In such interactions will be mutual influence in the cultural
field so that in one speaker will result cultural contacts.
Bilingualism occurs because of the cultural contact (in the broad sense) between the
two groups of speakers of different languages. Cultural contacts between the two different
groups of speakers that can occur in the field of religion, trade, science and politics, the arts,
economics and social activities. In its interactions will be mutual influence in the cultural
field so in the speaker will occur cultural contacts.
As a result of these contacts will influence either language within a bilingual or within
a group of people. Language contact between two different languages either in person or
bilingual speakers between two different groups of speakers that will result in the interplay
between the two languages, or a code switching and code-mixing, including the mutual use
and interference occurs.
Mackey, as cited by Fishman (1968: 23) gives an idea of bilingualism as a symptom
of substitutions. Bilingualism, according to him, cannot be considered as a system.
Bilingualism is not a characteristic feature of the code but the disclosure; not a social nature
but as individual. Therefore bilingualism regarded as characteristic of language use, namely
the practice of language usage alternately conducted by speakers. Substitution in the use of it
is motivated and determined by the situation and the conditions faced by speakers in action
speak (Kunjana Rahardi, 2001: 14).
Suwito (1985: 39) has shown that where there are two or more languages are used
interchangeably by the same speaker will pass the language contact. Contact event that
language could lead to a change in the language (language change). Effect of changes in
language directly it can be clearly seen the used of the lexicon of a language from the
language that contact each other. These conditions can result in the existence of the symbiotic
relationship between one languages to another language at such a speech community. That is,
never be possible for a speaker in the speech community that such would only use one
language in a pure, unaffected by another language that already exists within the speaker. It
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can cause symptoms of interest in the study sociolinguistics are referred to as symptoms of
code switching and code-mixing.
Code Mixing and Code Switching

Code switching is the event of the transition from one code to another code. If a
speaker originally used the code A (e.g. Indonesian), then move onto the B code (e.g. Java
language), the use of language switching events like this are called code switching (Suwito,
1985: 68). Rather the code can be code switching styles, types, and variations of other
languages.
As disclosed Myers & Scotton (1993: 1-2)
―Code switching is the term used to identify alternations of linguistic varieties within the
same conversation. The linguistic varieties participating in code switching maybe different
languages, or dialects or styles of the same language‖.
Code switching is a term alternation lingual variation in the same conversations.
Variations lingual which is taking part in code switching can be different languages, dialects,
or a wide - variety of the same language.
Code switching based on Appel (in Abdul Chaer and Leonie Augustine, 1995: 141-
142) is a "transitional phenomenon of language usage because of the changing situation". In
contrast to Appel that said code switching that occurred between languages, then Hymes
states over the code was not only occur between languages, but can also occur between a
wide - variety or styles contained in one language:" Code switching has Become a common
term for alternates of two or more language varieties of language, or even speech styles".
Code switching can also be defined by switching or transfer of a form of speech from
one language into another language, or from one variation to another variation, or from one
dialect to another dialect (Edi Subroto et al, 2002: 11). Code switching is conscious or
deliberate generally occurs due to a certain reason and motivation.
Suwito (1985: 68) mentions that the event of switching code is the transition from one
code to another code. So when someone speakers initially using a code and then switch to
using code B, the intermediate code as it is referred to as code switching.
The Form of Code Switching
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In line which expressed by Suwito is a restriction posed by Dell Hymes (1975 : 103 )
(in Rahardi Kunjana, 2001: 20), that the code switching is a general term used to mention the
alternation use of two or more languages, some variation from one language, or even some
styles of a variety. He also referred to what he called intern code switching (internal code
switching), which happened between regional languages in a national language areas, inter-
regional dialects in one language, or between several styles and styles that are present in a
dialect. As is the external switching code (external code switching) is a language transition
that occurs between the base language (base language) with a foreign language.
Supomo Poedjosoedarmo (1978: 46) explains that someone is often replaced the code
language when conversing. Its substitution can be realized or even possibly not realized by
the speakers. Symptoms of this kind of code arises because of the language component are
manifold. Furthermore, he also mentioned the term code switching transient (temporary code
switching), namely the change of code language used by a speaker whose for a moment or
temporary. In addition, he also mentions the permanent code switching (permanent switching
code). Said that because the language switching that occurs takes place permanently,
although in fact it is not easy to do. Rather latter code switching is usually associated also
with an attitude shift the relationship between speaker and opponents said in a society.
The Cause of Code Switching

Declared by Appel, Hubers, and Meijer that there is a close relationship between the
form of the language used and the situations in which the language is used (1976: 99) (in Edi
Subroto et al, 2002: 14). On the one hand the situation affect the form of the language used,
in terms of other language users choose a form of language that fits the situation. When the
situation changed language use, the form of the language used is also changing. Thus, the
situation of language usage greatly affected the transfer of the code.
Suwito (1985: 72-73) states that the language of code is an event caused by factors
outside of language, especially the factors that are socio - situational. Several factors are
usually the cause of the code switching as follows.
1) Speakers (O1)
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The speaker sometimes consciously trying to switch to code against an opponent he

said because there was intent. For example, if an employee is facing his boss in the
office (in a formal situation), they should speak Indonesian. But in reality it is not.
2) Partner Speakers (O2)
Each speaker in general is looking to the language used by the partner he said. In a
multilingual society a speaker may have switched the code to customize the hearer
faces. In this case the hearer can be divided into two groups, namely: (a) O2 the same
linguistic background with speakers, and (b) O2 the different linguistic backgrounds
with speakers. Thus the hearer role is important in the event of code.
3) The third speaker presence
Two people from the same ethnic group are generally interacted with the language of
their ethnic group. But when a third person is present in the discussions, and have a
different language background, usually two people who first turning the code into a
language that is controlled by a third person. This was done to neutralize the situation
and at the same time respecting the presence of a third person.
4) The subject of conversation (topic)
The subject is a dominant factor in determining the switching code. The subject is
divided into two, the subject of formal and informal. The talking points also play an
important role occurrence of switching code, because usually the speaker tends to
express desires, ideas, and his opinions are based principal ongoing talks (formal or
informal)
5) To generate a sense of humour
Switching code often used by teachers, leaders meeting, jokers to evoke a sense of
humor. This switching code is switching variant, switching style, or switching
speaking style.
6) For prestige
Most speakers there are switching codes just for prestige. This occurs when both
factors of the situation, the speaker, topic, and factors other socio-situational actually
not required to switching codes. Speakers tend to switching code to be wilderness by
the hearer is more commanding and honorable.
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Thus, the six factors that cause over the switching code are essential in
assessing the control of the code, because it focuses on the six factors that will shape
the language used by the speaker and the situation faced by the speaker and hearer.
A study of code switching is empirical, is necessary to identify changes in a
language or a language or code to other code based on the specific causative factors.
The switching code can be seen from the element word, phrase or group of words,
greeting words used, sentence intonation, and even certain forms of speech. (Edi
Subroto et al, 2002: 14).
Code Mixing
Mixing code is the use of language units from one language to another to expand the
style or variety of languages, including the use of words, clauses, idioms, greetings and so
forth (Harimurti Kridalaksana, 2001). An example, when referring to the mixing in
communication developed by a bilingual or multilingual speakers, it involves the use of
language elements in an utterance language X Y, there will be a code-mixing events. If
speakers choose between language X and language Y in the same speech it will caused the
mixing code. These elements can be lexical, syntactic or semantic. Talking about the concept
of code-mixing, will close relation to the concept of interference, they are deviations from the
norm in any language due to the closeness between the two languages. However, mixing
(mixing) it was not an interference event, however, the expression of a specific strategy for
bilingual speakers (Hammers Hablanc F.H. & M, 1986: 36)
According to Grosjean, (in Hamers 1986: 35) bilingual speakers use the model of a
bilingual with bilingual speech of others who share the language and with whom they can
mix the language (code switching, code-mixing and borrowing). So, code-mixing is produced
by a bilingual speaker or in a bilingual society.
According to Swain & Wesche et, al., Cited by Hamers (1986: 36) a majority of
mixing code is lexical, with nouns as words that are most often replaced. Many mixing a
lexical reduplication or spontaneous translation when the translation is equivalent to that
associated with synonyms. Translation spontaneous it could indicate that the speaker is aware
of the mixing is done carelessly as a communication strategy, and when the situation allows,
acting as translator.
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Suwito (1985: 75) describes this aspect of interdependence (language dependency) in

a multilingual society is the occurrence of code-mixing. If the code switching function within
the context and relevance of the situation are the traits of dependency, then in code-mixing
traits characterized by dependence of the reciprocal relationship between the roles and
functions of language. Mixed code is happen without a clear motivation and clear causal
factors as well. Mixed codes generally occur in a relaxed atmosphere or occur because of
habit.
Causes of the Occurrence of Mixed Code

According Suwito (1985: 77), behind the two types of code-mixing are (1)
background on attitudes, (2) linguistic background. Both are interdependent and often
overlap. On that basis, can be identified reasons for the mixed code, namely: (1)
identification of the role, (2) identification of the variance, and (3) the desire to explain and
interpret.
Mixed into the code will appear for instance when a speaker to insert elements of
regional languages in the national language (in this case Indonesian), elements of dialects into
regional languages. The language event may also indicate the identification of a particular
role in the identification of specific registers or desire and certain interpretation. In other
words, code-mixing that occurs because of the interrelationship between the role of speaker,
language form and language function. The speaker who tend to prefer forms of interference
specific code to support specific functions have a certain social background.
Mixed code in maximum condition is the convergence of language (linguistic
convergence) whose elements from several languages, each of which has let its functions and
support functions of language inserted. These elements can be divided into two, namely: (1)
derived from the native language along with its variations, and (2) sourced from a foreign
language. The first can be called mixed code into the (inner code mixing), the second one can
be called a code-mixing to the outside (outer code mixing) (Suwito, 1985: 76).
The Form of Code-Mixing
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Judging from the lingual form, part of a language derived from other languages can
be a word, but it can also be a phrase or units of language larger. Form of code-mixing can be
distinguished based on linguistic elements involved (Suwito, 1985: 79), namely:
1) The word element inserted.
 Antum boleh percaya boleh tidak, you boleh percaya boleh tidak, sampeyan boleh
percaya boleh tidak:
(‗anda boleh percaya atau tidak‘)
2) The phrase inserted.
 Nah karena saya kadung apik sama dia, ya takteken:
(‗Nah karena saya sudah terlanjur baik dengan dia, ya saya tanda tangani)
3) The Bastar form inserted.
 Banyak klap malam yang harus ditutup.
4) The repetition of words inserted
 Saya sih bolah-boleh saja, asal dia tidak tonya-tanya lagi.
5) The expression or idiom that is inserted
 Yah apa boleh buat, better late than never.
(‗Yah apa boleh buat, lebih baik terlambat daripada tidak sama sekali‘)
6) The clauses that is inserted
 Pemimpin yang bijaksana akan selalu bertindak ing ngarsa sung tuladha, ing madya
mangun karsa, tut wuri handayani. ‗ (di depan memberi teladan, di tengah memberi
semangat, di belakang mengawasi).
In understanding code-mixing, researchers must identify the speaker basically speak
the native language (base language), then the language possessed elements of other
languages. Mixed code can be regarded as part of the variation of a particular language
speaker consciously and fundamentally by using elements of other languages that do as well
as the communication strategy in order to explain or translate. Thus the choice of words in
the form of code-mixing was received by the audience. Part languages derived from other
languages that can be words, but can also be a phrase or units of language larger.
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This research is a qualitative descriptive study, while the research strategy using a case
study approach rooted, because the problems and the focus of research has been determined
in the proposal before the researchers conducting the study.
The location of this research is "Al Mawaddah Modern Boarding School". The
boarding school has a tendency to open towards positive values progress of the times and has
participated in shaping the values of life in society, particularly with respect to the use of
foreign languages (Arabic and English). The location was chosen because of the community
is in a social and educational institution that has a characteristics and motivation of the public
image of Indonesia in the rural areas. In particular, the location of this study was MTs and
MA in class IV and V in the process of teaching and learning activities carried out by
students and teachers, in the event of oral communication. The type of learning activities
focused on the initial activities, the core and the end of formal learning in certain subjects.
This study will be conducted from February through December 2014.
The target in this research is focused on the students and the teacher. Taking into
account the effectiveness of data mining, in this study were used as informants about 30
people. This restriction is because the focus of the research is in the class. So, the researchers
tried to find the informant who adequately represent and reliable in limited quantities. Object
of study is the main focus of this research are: first, a form of code switching in teaching and
learning activities focused on a form of code switching language (base language) Indonesian.
Rather code from Indonesian to English, Arabic, and region (Java) that occurs in the event of
an oral communication. Second, a form of mixing code in teaching and learning activities in
the classroom. Third, the determinant factors that will affect the use of code switching and
code-mixing in the teaching and learning activities in the classroom which is focused on non
- lingual factors.
The data in the study were classified into two kinds, namely (1) the primary data and
(2) secondary data. Primary data was intended as data obtained from various events or scenes
that are said in boarding schools " AL Mawaddah", related to the teaching and learning
activities in the classroom which performed by students and the teacher. As is as secondary
data is data obtained from interviews and a statement informant about everything related to
the problem form of code switching and code-mixing in the teaching and learning activities in
the classroom.
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Data collection method used is a cakap method and simak methods. In a conversation
method, widely used fishing techniques as basic technique and recording technique that
ensue. Refer to the method used in many of tapping techniques as basic technique, and
technical notes and recording technique as the technique continuation (Sudaryanto: 2001:
133-140). To obtain data on a form of code switching and code-mixing, simak method was
used, which access data by listening to the use of language in the teaching-learning process in
the classroom used by a religious teacher and students in the learning process. This technique
was applied in the technical notes, see, and recording technique.
Participation of researchers in obtaining oral communication data, in this case can be
active, that is by start the conversations, and be passive, that is by listening to the discussions.
In-depth interviews (in -depth interviews) are used by researchers to find data on the
determinants that affect prominent event code switching and code-mixing in the process of
teaching and learning in the classroom in "Al Mawaddah" Boarding school. Interviews
conducted after the researchers obtained data on a form of code switching and code-mixing
uttered by the informant in question. So, the interview material adapted to code uttered by the
informant.
Over the researchers conducted interviews with informants, in addition to recording
that need, the researchers also noted the matters raised by the informant, because this way
help- if the recording equipment as well as accelerate the process disturbed transcripts made
after the interview is completed . Once the data is deemed sufficient, the researchers quickly
move into the computer and classified (categorization) by type and group in the data card.
Observations are not conducted by researchers because of the data that it is difficult
for researchers to get it, because consideration of local norms and regulations, researchers
using research assistants, namely ustadzah who previously had been trained and given
sufficient insight about the main focus of research and methods of obtaining the necessary
data.
In this study, we will use two triangulation, namely triangulation methodology and
data sources. First, triangulation method is done by collecting similar data but using the
techniques or different methods of data collection. Here the emphasis is on the use of
different data collection methods, and even more clearly the effort leads to the same data
source to test the stability of his informant. In this case the researchers used data collection
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methods questioner then conducted in-depth interviews on the same informant, and the
results were tested with similar data collection using observation techniques. Second, the
triangulation of data sources used to clarify the questionable data, researchers conducted a
triangulation with different sources.
In this study, the data analysis is done by using an interactive model (Miles &
Huberman, 1984). The three components of the analysis in the analysis models are data
reduction, data presentation and conclusion or verification during the data collection process
takes place.
Methods of data analysis conducted on the determinants of prominent influence the
events of code switching and code-mixing is by using padan method (Sudaryanto, 2001: 13),
as a tool determinants are beyond language form sociological context surrounding the events
code switching and code mixing the teaching-learning process in Al Mawaddah boarding
school. In the process of data reduction is accompanied by the identification, coding and
categorization, researchers try to compare or classify the data that appears based on the shape,
type, circumstances and determinants that affect the use of code switching and code-mixing is
relevant.
Furthermore, the activity data presentation, information that is composed will give the
possibility of drawing conclusions and taking action. In drawing conclusions, the final
conclusions are not considered as data collection ends, but is part of the activities of the
configuration intact. The conclusions also verified during the study.
The data in this study also uses contextual approach, in particular by using the
concept of speech as a base component design. Said component concept in question is
presented by Dell Hymes (S P E A K I N G). It was intended to find answers to the
determinants that influence the events of code switching and code-mixing which is more
focused on non- linguistic factors.
Discussion & Research Finding

The findings of the subject in this study stated that there are eight types of the use of
language variation which is a form of code-mixing when communicating in the learning
process in Al Mawaddah boarding school are mixed code that is not only involves the use of
one or two languages only, but the use of foreign languages such as Arabic and English in the
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learning process. As for the form of Mixed Code boarding school in the learning process is
described as follows:
Mixed code between Indonesian with English

The form of code-mixing encountered in the use of Indonesian into English as the end
of learning in class. At the time this data was taken by ustadzah by announcing their
muhadharah activities to be held. In this first speech, ustadzah initially use the Indonesian
language but leave switch to using English words are concerned, joke. It can be listened to in
the following speech:
Ustadzah : Dalam mukadharah kamu seharusnya concern, walaupun anak-anak sekarang
ini lebih banyak melakukan joke-nya.
The quotation of speech above showed that a ustadzah want to emphasize to all female
students who followed muhadharah must be seriously and reduce joking when
following muhadharah activities. Furthermore, the speech below showed the
code mixing that also occurs marked by the use of phrase in conversation
between ustadzah and female students in teaching learning process.
Ustadzah : Pak Amin Rais itu adalah the first man di Indonesia yang
melakukan the brave of reform sebelum orang-orang lain
melakukannya.
Female Student : Saya setuju, ustadzah. Pada beliau itu (Amin Rais) Saya mau
positive thinking saja.
The speech above showed the occurrence of the use of phrase infixation in the word
‗the first man‟, „the brave of reform‘, and ‗positive thinking‘. It meant that the figure of Amin
Rais was the first man who was brave to encourage, to do reformation for deposing New
Order government from its leadership. A female student then expressed her opinion about her
agreement with ustadzah statement by saying that she agree and want to be ‗positive
thingking‘ or assume good faith on what has been done by Mr. Amin Rais. Then in this
following speech, code mixing also occurs in the use of idioms, this happens at the end of
lessons.
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Ustadzah : Perlu saya umumkan, bahwa kelas ini menurut catatan language centre
banyak santri yang came late dalam setiap acara mukhadhoroh. Untuk itu
mohon diperhatikan dan tidak diulang lagi. Kelas ini harus ada ketua yang bisa
the right man and the right place dalam mukhadloroh, jadi tidak asal tunjuk.
The use of idioms above were the idioms that have been become the words that are
familiar for the female students, e.g. ‗language centre‘, ‗came late‘, ‗the right man in the right
place‘. Therefore, when a ustadzah expressed these idioms the listeners or female students
can follow and understand about ustadzah said. Furthermore, code mixing also happened in
the end of lessons when ustadzah would end and close the meeting at that time.
Code Mixing of the use of English into Indonesian

Code mixing of the use of English into Indonesian encountered when ustadzah would
close or end the teaching and learning process in class. In that speech, ustadzah used English
clauses, and then switched to Indonesian clause. It was intended for all female students in
class one could understand what ustadzah said.
Ustadzah : Ok. Any question? In order to be clear my explanation, anda bisa

membacanya lagi dan merumuskan tentang definisi yang ada dalam buku
tersebut. I think time is up. See You.
In the speech above, there were clauses of ‗ok‘, ‗any question‘, ‗in order to be clear
my explanation, ‗I think time is up‘, ‗see you‘. Basically, the use of these clauses aimed to
provide information for female students, when that clauses were spoken, then the learning
process would end soon and just waited for some questions about the topic at that time, if
there were any questions from the female students. In addition, it was beneficial for the
female students as the habbit of using English as the communication tool from the beginning
to the end of teaching and learning process.
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Code Mixing between Arabic and English

A form of code mixing in this following speech is the transition from Arabic into the
usage of English words. It can be seen in the following data :
Female Student : Ya, fi al-haqiqoh lahu handphone, lakin HP li la yastathi‟, qod

intahay al-waqt hatt a tarih sab‟a „asyar, walam asytarii voucher
(Ya, sebenarnya ia punya telpon genggam, tapi HP punyaku tidak
bisa dipakai, masa pakainya sudah habis sampai tanggal tujuh belas,
dan saya belum membeli voucher)
The word ‗handphone‘, ‗voucher‘ in the above speech are basically the words from
English. But, these words have been popular and familiar as uptake language in Indonesian
speech, then when the words used or the speaker suddenly switched to using those words, the
listener will have no difficulties for understanding the meaning of speech. In addition, the
form of code mixing from Arabic into English also occurs in this following speech:
Female Student : ―........Ustadzah repeat......‖
The quotation of speech above was encountered in the collaboration activity of

teaching and learning process when a female student asked to ustadzah for repeating what has
been said. This is done because at that moment, the listener not so understanding towards the
material that has been delivered.
Code Mixing from English into Arabic

These speech is taken around the end of teaching learning process, when a ustadzah
before closing the learning activities at that day giving reflection and conclusion for what has
been learned before. It can be seen in the following data :
Ustadzah : The last, WA amma al-lughotu al-injilinziyyah as an international

language, muhimmatun…wa idza ja‟a adh-dhuyuf matsalan, la budd an
tatakallamu biha.
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(Terakhir, adapun bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa internasional. Sangat

penting, jika ada tamu misalnya anda harus berbicara dengan bahasa
itu).
The use of the word ‗the last‘ that has meaning ‗end‘, then followed by a sentence that
is a conclusion from the main language that has been delivered. In those speech, the
beginning of teaching and learning process, ustadzah taught using English then switched
using Arabic, both languages were often used by ustadzah in teaching and learning process.
Code Mixing from Arabic into Indonesian

The events of code mixing in the use of Arabic into Indonesian were also found in
some of the following speech :
Ustadzah : … mutanawwi‟ah, macem-macem

Ahya : Ba‟din nasytariy idaam fiy kantin mubasyaroh
Anna : Limaadza kok qolil ya attho‟am?
Layla : kan ba‟da maghrib?
Ahya : al waqt nahnu tadarusan…
Layla : dzalik tu ilaa basalia faqot
In the above speech, it was found the use of the word macem, kantin, kok, suffix -an,
which those words are derived from Indonesian vocabulary. Furthermore, code mixing also
found in the below speech. It can be seen in the word delapan dua, delapan tiga, when the
learning process took place with the subject of arithmetic. Code mixing was also happened
when ustadzah who asked in Arabic, while the female students answered using Indonesian.
Ustadzah : Tamrin kam?

Female Student 1 : Tamrin delapan dua Tadz,…
Female Student 2 : Delapan tiga…
Female Student 3 : Delapan dua,
Hereinafter, the use of idiom was also found in the data below. In this speech,
ustadzah asked question using Arabic while the female student answered by using idiom, it
was kapal selam.
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Ustadzah : Alghowaashu, assafiinatu fiy daakhili l maa’, maadza?

Female Student : Kapal selam…
Furthermore, code mixing in the learning process also encountered in the use of verbs
such as mencincang, bersuci, and so on. In that speech, ustadzah asked questions using
Arabic but female student who did not know what was meant, then she answered by using
Indonesian but ustadzah previously gave a clue about what was being asked.
Ustadzah : Maa ma‟naa ufarrimu? Mencin…

Female Student : Mencincang
Ustadzah : Wa laakin tajdiid…?
Female Student : Memperbaharui,
Ustadzah : Maa ma’naa thoharoh?
Female Student : Bersuci…
The next findings were the use of adjective and noun. The speech below indicates the
code mixing but it was in adjective such as the word : alyadu (hand), yumna (right), yusro
(left), al ashoobi‟a (fingers), al wustho (middle finger), jadidun (new), and, and shoghirotun
(small). Here are the snippets of the speech :
Ustadzah : Kalau ustadzah bilang Alyadu…

Ustadzah : Alyadu..
Female Student : Tangan…
Ustadzah : Yumnaa
Female Student : Kanan…
Ustadzah : Yusroo...
Female Student : Kiri…
Ustadzah : Al ashoobi’a,
Female Student : Jari-jari
Ustadzah : Jari tengah… jari tengah bahasa arabnya
Female Student : Alwusthoo…
The next....
Ustadzah : Jadiidun ma’nahu
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Female Student : Baruu

The next....
Ustadzah : Maa ma’naa shogiirotan?
Female Student : Kecil…
Data of speech above was taken in the learning process at Grade 1 Madrasah
Tsanawiyah or as well as junior high school level. The female students at this level are not
fully understood when ustadzah using intermediate language both Arabic and English.
Code Mixing from Indonesia into Javanese and Arabic

The main findings regarding code mixing in this research is the use of three languages
at once in a speech such as Javanese, Indonesian and Arabic. The speech of code mixing can
be seen as follows :
Ustadzah 1 : Kalo tidak ada bisa dipangku, maa ma’na dipangku? Santriwati
Di taruh diatas ini…
Ustadzah 1 : Di taruh di paha.
Ustadzah 1 : Fatimah di kucir jadi 3 rambutnya, yang dua ditaruh kiri kanan
yang satunya adalah naashiyatuhaa, kalau sempat, rambutnya sudah
lurus enak di klabang juga boleh.
The next data :

Ustadzah 2 : Misalkan lo, kita tasyakuran punya anak, terus orang Jawa
membikin itu iwel – iwel ya ndak? Iwel-iwel ini sebenernya dari kata
wali waalidayniy, ya ndak?
Female Student : Oalaah, hahaha iwel-iwel.
Ustadzah 2 : Tapi orang Jawa tidak bisa bilang syahadatayn, akhirnya bilang
apa?
Female Student : Sekaten…
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Besides Arabic words and phrases using Indonesian there were some words using
Javanese such as iwel-iwel, sekaten, which they have not switched word in Indonesia, so
ustadzah still used the original words to avoid misunderstandings.
Code Mixing from Indonesian into Javanese

The next findings is code mixing from Indonesian into Javanese such as the word
mbah-mbah (grandmother), dibuntel (wrapped). The data of speech can be seen below :
Ustadzah 1 : … kalo jaman mbah – mbah saya nggak ada sarung tangan
seperti itu…
Ustadzah 1 : Kalau di rumah sakit, kalau sudah tidak bisa ya dibuntel plastic.
Code Mixing from Indonesian into Arabic

The last findings regarding the code mixing is on the use of Indonesian and then
switched into Arabic. This happens in the exploration activity in teaching and learning
process when ustadzah reviewing the previous lesson, with the aim that the female students
always remember and understand about the material that has been received. The speech can
be seen as follows:
Ustadzah 2 : Seperti kemaren sudah diajarkan to, fiy ghoslil imamah dan
mashul imamah iya kan?
In the above speech, there were the word fi ghoslil imamah and mashul imamah, both
sentences are the title of materials that have been taught in the previous meeting.
Code Switching in the Teaching and Learning Process

A form of code switching that is found in this research is the use of four variations of
code switching at the exploration activity, elaboration activity and the confirmation activity
in the teaching and learning process. The description of code switching can be stated as
follows:
Code Switching from English into Indonesia
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The first form of code switching was occurred in the exploration activity in teaching
and learning process. At the beginning, ustadzah opened the learning activity using English,
but when she started delivering the material then switching to use Indonesian. For more
details, it can be seen in this data of speech:
Ustadzah : Good morning, and how are you today?

Female Student : Good morning, sir. I am fine
Ustadzah : So, so. Ok. I would like to explain about tenses.
Please open your book page number 23.
Silahkan diperhatikan tentang definisi tenses, kemudian tulis
kembali rumus yang ada dalam buku tersebut. Buatlah contoh
dalam bentuk simple present tense (1)
Code Switching from Indonesian into English

The second form of code switching was in the elaboration activity of learning
process. On that occasion, the female student asked about the functions of ‗to be‘ by using
Indonesian, but ustadzah giving explanations by using English. It was done in order to make
a habit for the female students using English during learning process, when at that time the
subject are being delivered was English. For more details can be seen in the following data:
Female Student : Ustadzah, tolong dijelaskan kembali mengenai fungsi to be

Ustadzah : Ok. Thanks. Actually you can open your book page 25. to be it
means function as, ‗help‘… to help sentence in order to stand and
have meaning. So, to be is very important in sentence…… for
example …..(2)
Code Switching from English into Arabic

The third was a form of code switching from English into Arabic. It was found in the
confirmation activity of learning process. At that time, previously ustadzah also gave the
conclusion about the material. Her speech can be seen in the following data :
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Ustadzah : Ok. Student, I think time is up, antum, should be study English
everytime… Wa amma al-lughotu al-injilinziyah as an international
language, muhimmatun… Wa idza ja‟a adh-dhunyuf matsalan, la
budd an tatakallamu biha. (Baiklah anak-anak, saya kira waktunya
sudah habis. Kamu semua, harus belajar bahasa Inggris setiap
waktu. Adapun bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa internasional, sangat
penting, jika ada tamu misalnya anda harus berbicara dengan
bahasa itu).
Code Switching from Arabic into Indonesia

The last form of code switching was occurred in the exploration activity of learning
process. Ustadzah used Indonesian to provide confirmation of what was delivered. Her
speech as follows :
Ustadzah : Anniyatu juz-un minal wuduu’, fa idzan laabud fiyl wuduu’

binniyat. Jadi kalau wudluu‟ harus niat
Ustadzah : Ijtihad haadza mashdar min ijtahada, yajtahidu, ijtihaad.
Ijtihaad itu perbuatannya,
Determinants of Code Mixing and Code Switching in Teaching and Learning Process
The teaching and learning process in classroom whether ustadzah or female students
often used Arabic as intermediate language. However, English was also frequently used in
the learning process. In other words, the process of learning used two languages or
bilingualism and even multilingualism.
Determinants of Code Mixing in Teaching and Learning Process

Identification of the role
A speaker will use language as a communication tool based on his/her role. Similarly,
an ustadzah in the learning process especially in Al Mawaddah Boarding School an
ustadzah will tend to use Arabic as a communication tool when teaching. This is
already as a rule in boarding school when the learning process must use Arabic and
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English. Furthermore, ustadzah uses her role in explaining the material, giving
assignments, giving motivation, and guiding her female students, so ustadzah must
use both foreign languages as a communication tool. As well as the female students,
based on their role that mostly still on beginner level who are not fully accustomed
using Arabic and English during learning process. This was proved when the learning
process took place, they were also asked using Indonesian.
The Desire to explain and interpret
When starting from the purpose of speech in every process of communication, it will
have a purpose why the speech happened. Language switching in the form of code
mixing and code switching has the purpose to explain about what was discussed so
that the communication in the learning process can run fluently and acceptable.
Sourced from the Native Language and it variations
The event of code mixing and code switching was also affected by the acquisition
and the use of native language or mother tongue. The female students who were
studying at Al Mawaddah Boarding School came from different areas around
Indonesia and foreign countries such as Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, and other
countries. Thus, it will carry over during the learning process in the boarding school.
Sourced from Foreign Languages
The differences of concept, structure, variation, and meaning in a foreign language is
automatically different from the local language, the national language will affect the
use of foreign language. The use of foreign and local vocabulary that is mixed in the
process of comunication will lead the event of code mixing and code switching. More
mixed langsuages between foreign language, national language and local language
that are used by speaker, it will increase the opportunity for the use of language
variation.
Determinants of Code Switching in Teaching and Learning Process

a. Speaker (O1) and Listener (O2)
The referred speakers in this research were ustadzah, administrators, academicians‘
boarding school, and female students. In interact both formally in the classroom and
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internal conditions outside the classroom will automatically affect how to speak and
communication patterns that done by speakers.
b. The Presence of Third Person (O3)
The presence of third person in the conversation will affect the ongoing conversation.
An ustadzah who speak using local language and national language, but suddenly
there are female students who came from different country, directly the process of
conversation switched to another language even used Arabic or English.
c. The Topic of Conversation
In the learning process, as the focus in this research, every speech in the
communication process must have a purpose. Learning in the classroom has a goal to
transfer of education and knowledge to female students that has been brokendown
into various types of teaching materials that was delivered on a daily basis.
d. Stimulating the Sense of Humor
The use of two languages or code mixing and code switching simultaneously does not
necessarily aim to reveal the seriousness and scientifics of the speakers and the
listener. It also intends to show a sense of humor as the ice breaker when learning
process took place. It can be known through video that has been recorded in the
learning process, when ustadzah switched to use the vocabulary of another language,
at once the female students laugh because it was funny for them and as a refresher in
the classroom.
e. Just for Prestige
The event of code mixing and code switching was often influenced by the factor of
prestige. This happened when an informal atmosphere outside the classroom, the
researcher encountered female students who intentionally used two languages
simultaneously only for the prestige. Even the use of sentence structure mixed with
other language structures ensued. They considered this as a common thing without
any effort to fix it.
The form of code mixing that was analyzed in this research is both in and out code
mixing that involved Indonesian, Arabic, English and local language (Javanese) in the form
of insertion elements of Indonesian to elements of foreign languages (Arabic and English)
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and the elements of local language (Javanese). This insertion is element of words, phrases,
repetition words, adjectives, nouns, and the repetition of words, idioms (expression), and
clauses.
The emergence of the form of code mixing and code switching is influenced by
internal and external factors of language. An analysis of dominant factor influenced the
events of code mixing in teaching and learning activities in the classroom based on Dell
Hymes‘s opinion (1974: 112) that in detail formulated by the acronym of ‗SPEAKING‘, it is
‗Setting‘ and ‗Scene‘, that has meaning place and atmosphere of the speech, ‗Participants‘;
they are Speaker and Listener, ‗End‘ or speech purposes, ‗Act‘ means the speech events,
‗Key‘ means that a variety of languages and the ways of speech, ‗Instrument‘ or tool used to
communicate, ‗Norm‘ means rules that must be adhered to, and ‗Genre‘ means the type of
activity in the event of speech.
At Al Mawaddah Boarding School there is the tendency to use four languages orally,
inside or outside the classroom. The use of foreign languages (Arabic and English) in the
event of oral communication is an important thing in the development of language in the
boarding shcool. This is because the mission of boarding school that tried to make Al
Mawaddah Boarding School as the international boarding school. With the international
program is expected to attract the students from abroad to study in Al Mawaddah Boarding
School. As a result of the use of foreign languages can creat variations in language usage,
which allows the code mixing event, and code switching as has been described and analyzed
above.
In code mixing, the characteristics of the depedency were marked by a mutual
relationship between the ‗role‘ (who is using the language) and ‗language function‘ (what is
to be achieved by speakers with their speech). In the event of code mixing, the elements of
language or variations that insert to another language no longer have its own function. These
elements have been fused with the inserted language, and overall it will only support one
function. In the maximum condition, code mixing is a convergence of linguistic that its
elements was derived from several languages, each of them had shed their functions and
supported the functions of inserted language (Suwito, 1985: 75).
Broadly speaking, code mixing is divided into two groups: (1) inside code mixing, is
code mixing that its elements are derived from the original language with all its variations;
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and (2) outside code mixing, is code mixing that its elements are derived from foreign
languages.
Related to this research, a group which included into inside code mixing is code
mixing that occurs between elements of cognates, for example, code mixing between
elements of Javanese with elements of Indonesian. Meanwhile, example of group that
included into outside code mixing is code mixing between Indonesian elements with the
elements of Arabic or English that is found in this reserach.
The elements of language that involved in code mixing events, if it was seen in terms
of the units of the language, variety of its forms is as follows; words, phrases, repeated words,
idioms, and clauses. This reserach followed Thelander‘s opinion, 1976 (in Suwito, 1985: 76)
in identifying phenomenon of code mixing, which is the largest element that possible to insert
in the event of code mixing is limited to the clause level. It means if the language elements
that inserts (mixing) in code mixing is a unit of languages that higher than clause level (for
example: a sentence, a series of sentences, or even a paragraph) then it will not be identified
as code mixing phenomenon, but has been a phenomenon of code switching.
Based on the key findings, the code switching involves the use of four languages,
namely: Indonesian, Arabic, English and local language (Javanese). Indonesian used as
standard intermediate language in education (in this case is in Al Mawaddah Boarding
School), then Indonesian as the base language that is used as the focus of the events of code
switching that was happened. Thus, code switching focus the switching events from
Indonesian into Arabic, English and local language (Javanese).
The form of code switching that is analyzed is code switching in the teaching and
learning activities in the classroom in the event of an oral communication between ustadzah
and female students when learning activities, which are focused on:, exploration activities,
elaboration activities and the confirmation activities. Exploration activities including:
opening and starting the lesson, greetings and giving motivation. Elaboration activities
including: delivering explanation, monitoring response and drawing conclusions.
Confirmation activities including: checking for students‘ understanding and closing the
meeting.
In the teaching and learning activities in the classroom at Al Mawaddah Boarding
School the main code that is used in important activities such as in the teaching and learning
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process in the classroom is Indonesian. The use of Indonesian in Al Mawaddah Boarding

School is still dominant in the event of oral communication between ustadzah and female
students in the classroom, especially for female students as the beginner or need more
adaptation, although the actual foreign language (Arabic and English) become the language
that must be used by every ustadzah and fmale students in the Boarding School.
Based on the data analysis, it should be delivered that code which regarding as
language in this research is divided into two, namely Javanese and non-Javanese. Code as
non-Javanese including two languages, they were Indonesian and foreign languages. Foreign
Languages referred to English and Arabic. Based on the events of speech was compiled and
transcribed in this research, it can be said that the code which regarding as language was
dominant for its usage, compared with a form in the level of speech, code of dialects and
code of diversity.
The fact that in Al Mawaddah Modern Boarding School consists of female students
and ustadz-ustadzah who came from different backgrounds and hometown caused towards
language used by female students and ustadz/ustadzah that make a mutual contact between
one languages to another language. The events of language contact caused variety of
language codes in Al Mawaddah Boarding School whcich occured in teaching and learning
activities in the classroom.
From this research, it can be said that language code that is often used in teaching and
learning activities is Indonesian. This is because Indonesian relatively mastered by female
students and ustadzah at Al Mawaddah Boarding School compared with English, Arabic, and
Javanese. In addition, Indonesian is commonly used in Al Mawaddah Boarding School
because Indonesian is the national language.
From the results of data triangulation conducted by the researcher, the form of code
switching and code mixing proved to have certain characteristics. For example, in the event
of speech done by ustadz/ustadzah in the exploration activity, that was salutation, often using
Arabic; "Assalamu'alaikum warohmatullahiwabarokatuh", then followed by English greeting:
"Good morning or Good afternoon, how are you today". Furthermore, in giving motivation,
ustadz/ustadzah adjusted to the subject matter that was being taught. For example,
ustadz/ustadzah who taught general subject would tend to use Indonesian and English,
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linguistic subject would tend to use English and Arabic, and religious subject would tent to
use Indonesian and Arabic.
Meanwhile, data from the speech event of students or ustadz/ustadzah in the
elaboration activity, namely delivering the explanation, monitoring response and drawing
conclusions, a form of code switching and code mixing that arose would adjust to the subject
matter that was being discussed. Then, in the confirmation activity, the tendency of female
students and ustadz conducted code switching and code mixing in order to adjust to the
subject matter.
In the meantime, sources of triangulation that have been done by the reseracher
towards the key informants showed similar results with the data from the event of speech
made by ustadz or female students who became the object in this research. Most informants
stated that the events of code switching and code mixing are a common thing in the teaching
and learning activities in the classroom. Ustadz or female students did code switching and
code mixing in order to adjust with the topic of speech, to facilitate communication in the
search for a certain understanding of explanations related to the subject matter, and as the
habit. The collected data showed the same characteristics, so the researcher conducted a
reduction of the data that have the same characteristics. The focus of researcher is on the
exploration activity, elaboration activity and the confirmation activity of teaching and
learning process in the classroom.
Furthermore, from the triangulation method conducted by the researchers with
interviews done by using method of questionnaire to the key informants, also showed the
same tendency towards the given answers related to the events of code switching and code
mixing. Most informants stated that the events of code switching and code mixing that
appeared caused by topic of speech and indication of prevalence or habits in boarding school.
Limitation of the data that presented in this research was also caused by the limitation
of the researcher to develop the methods of speaking and listening. In the methods of
speaking, for example, stimulating technique and recording technique used by the researcher
sometimes experiencing technical difficulties, such as the low quality of recorder and cassette
and the limited time owned by the informants in conducting interviews.
In addition, the process of data collection conducted by the researcher at every stage
has been carried out the validity of the data by doing some triangulation, either by
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triangulation of data, sources, or methods. The data findings and data analysis showed that
the relevant trendency of number of data that presented in this research were sufficient to
provide information and the overview of events of code switching and code mixing that
appeared on the teaching and learning activities in the classroom at Al Mawaddah Boarding
School.
Conclusion
Based on the analysis and discussion that has been stated in the previous chapter that
the form of code mixing and code switching, the learning activities in Al Mawaddah
Boarding School is the use of language switching either language Javanese, Arabic, English
or Indonesian, on the use of the insertion of words, phrases, idioms, the use of nouns,
adjectives, clauses, and sentences.
The determinants of code mixing in the learning process including: Identification of
the role, the desire to explain and interpret, sourced from the native language and it
variations, sourced from foreign languages. On the other hands, the determinants of code
switching in the learning process including: speaker and listener, the presence of third person,
the topic of conversation, stimulating the sense of humor and just for prestige.
References
Abdul Chaer dan Leonie Agustine, 1995. Sosiolinguistik, Perkenalan Awal .Jakarta:
Rineka Cipta
Alwasilah, A.Chaedar.1985. Sosiologi Bahasa. Bandung: Angkasa
Edi Soebroto, D, Maryono Dwirahardjo, dan Sumarlam. 2002. Alih Kode dan Campur
Kode Dalam Pernikahan Adat Surakarta. Proyek Pembinaan Bahasa dan Sastra
Indonesia dan Daerah Jawa tengah.
Hamers, Josane F. 1986. Bilinguality & Bilingualism. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Harimurti Kridalaksana, 2001. Kamus Linguistik. Jakarta: PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama
Hymes, D.1964. Toward Ethnographies of Communication: The Analysis of

Communicative Events dalam Language and Social Context by Giglioli, P. Paolo (ed).
1972. Great Britain: C. Nicholis & Company Ltd.
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Kunjana Rahardi, R. 2001. Sosiolinguistik, Kode dan Alih Kode.Yogyakarta: Pustaka

Pelajar
Miles, M.B & Huberman, A.M. 1992. Analisis Data Kualitatif (edisi terjemahan oleh
Tjetjap R. Rohadi). Jakarta: UI Press
Myers, Carol & Scotton.1993. Social Motivations for Codeswitching: Evidence from
Africa. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Nababan, P.W.J.1984 Sosiolinguistik: Suatu Pengantar. Jakarta: Gramedia
Pride, J.B. and Holmes Janet, ed.1972. Sociolinguistics. England: Pinguin Book.
Suwito.1985. Pengantar Awal Sosiolinguistik: Teori dan Problem. Surakarta: Henary
Suwito, 1987. Berbahasa dalam Situasi Diglosik, disertasi FSUI.
Sudaryanto. 1996. Linguistik: Identitas, Cara Penanganan Objeknya, dan Hasil

Kajiannya. Yogyakarta. Duta Wacana University Press
--------------. 2001. Metode dan Aneka Teknik Analisis Bahasa.Yogyakarta. Duta Wacana
University Press
Sumarsono dan Paina Partana. 2002. Sosiolinguistik. Yogyakarta; Sabda.
Sutopo. 2002. Penelitian Kualitatif. Surakarta; Sebelas Maret University Press
Wardhaugh, R. 1990. An Introduction To Sociolinguitics. Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd.
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Overview English as a Second Language for Young Learners
Setia Rini
Pasca Sarjana Universitas Negeri Semarang (UNNES)
setiarini.setia@gmail.com
Abstract
Young learners have special charactheristics hence the teachers of English as a Second
language needs special strategy too. It is indicated that the increas of abilities to learn second
language is started from the early age. We can imagine when the teachers do not use and
apply appropriate teaching methods and strategy in teaching English for young learners. As a
result, the students‘ achievement does not work well. Thus, except to be successful in
teaching English for young learners, it is very necessary for teachers to understand the
characteristics of young learners.‘ Learning method s will influence how a teacher makes a
lesson plan according to young learners‘ minds. This article tries to explain some methods
of young learners in teaching English as a second language for young learners
Key words: English, Second Language, and Young Learner.
Introduction
English as a second language (ESL) is used by speakers with different native

languages. Nowadays, English has great influence and this language has been taught all over
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the world especially in Indonesia. The academic curriculum focuses on all areas of language
acquisition: reading, writing, speaking, listening, grammar/structure, and culture.
In Indonesia, English is growing rapidly and it is found in primary school. We often
think of ESL students as the easiest to recognize among our special populations, picturing
students who characteristically enter our classrooms without a word of English. These 'pure
type' ESL students are, in fact, easily distinguishable: recent newcomers to the country and to
the international school community, for a while they may remain silent in class as they adjust
to a new school, environment and culture, unless there is a native language comrade to
interact with.
Nevertheles, the students begin their English Education in early age, it is not
important purpose to make good English speaker. For that reason, the teachers of English as
a second language (ESL) have to know the learning strategy for young minds. In addition, the
ESL teachers have to know the strategy to teach speaking skill for young tongues, as we
know that English words have different pronounciation with the written words. However, this
article will focus primarily on speaking and listening skills.
Factors Affecting Second Language Acquisition

Exactly how a second language is acquired is still uncertain, although individual
students show varying patterns, rates and styles of acquisition. For example, some students
seem to "take off" and become quickly conversant in English, while others continue to
struggle even after lengthy periods of exposure to the target language.
Factors that affect second language acquisition have been divided into three basic
categories. Their roles in second language acquisition are not fully understood at this time,
although it is certain that they do influence student learning outcomes and success in school.
These three categories are :
1. Learner characteristics or personal traits (Izzo, 1981; Kusuma-Powell, 1992; Ramirez,
1995; Sears, 1998);
2. Situational or environmental factors (Ramirez, 1995; Sears, 1998); and
3. Prior language development and competence (Cummins, 1979; Adamson, 1993).
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Defining the young language learner

In different socio-educational contexts, the term young learners refers to different age
ranges. The European Union member states working group has recently defined young
learners as primary school pupils between the ages of seven and 12, and has introduced the
term very young learners to refer to pre-scholars (age: three to six years). Still, in some
contexts even learners older than 12 are often included in the young learners‘ age group,
reflecting different national policies and practices in introducing children to foreign language
(FL) learning.
Young Learners
Young Learners (YLs) refer to children from the ages of four to twelve. Increasingly,
though, children as young as three are being formally introduced to English as a foreign
language. According to Sarah Phillips (1993), young learners are children from the first year
of formal schooling (five or six years old) to eleven or twelve years of age. They can be
divided into two groups, Younger Group (6-8 years old) and Older Group (9-12 years old).
The adult world and the child‘s world are not the same. Children do not always understand
what adults are talking about. Adults do not always understand what children are talking
about.
The Characteristics of YLs

There are many factors that influence children's maturity: for example, their culture
and environment (city or rural), sex, the expectations of their peers and parents. Young
children do not come to the language classroom with empty hand. They bring a well-
established set of instincts, skills and characteristics which will help them to learn another
language. We need to identify those and make the most of them. For example, children
characteristics are curious, outspoken, active, inquisitive nature, and like to move around.
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They are skilled in being very good at interpreting meaning without necessarily
understanding the individual words. Children have great ability in using limited language
creatively and frequently learning indirectly rather than directly. They also taking great
pleasure in finding and creating fun in which they do and a ready imagination.
How we think of the child as a language learner ( Lynne Cameron: 2001)

a. Piagets
The child is as active learner. A child‘s thinking develops as gradual growth of

knowledge and intellectual skills towards a final stage of formal, logical thinking.
Moreover, the implications for language learning: the child as sense-maker which is limited
by their experience.
b. Vigotsky
The child is social. Language provides the child with a new tool, opens up new
opportunities for doing things and for organizing information through the use of words as
symbols. The implications for language learning: the words are a recognizable linguistic
unit, so they will notice words in the new language.
c. Bruner
Children are scaffolding and routines. Language is the most important tool for cognitive
growth. In US, parents read bedtime stories to children as the routines, as the child gets older
the type of book changes, but the basic format remains.
Learning a second language

Children learn a second language better than adults. The Critical Period Hypothesis:
children can learn a second language before puberty because their brain is still able to use
the mechanisms t hat assisted first language acquisition.
Presenting the grammatical structure in a child’s context
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Sometimes it‘s difficult to see how a grammatical topic can be made humorous.
Visual stimuli can be very effective in teaching young children. Characters are extremely
helpful when presenting points of grammar for the first time. You can create your own
characters to suit the English you‘re teaching. Use a soft toy or a puppet as a character.
Cameron (2001) give example of conversation with a young learner which took place
between a 7 year old boy and herself in Malta. There the students start learning English as a
foreign language at year 5. She was visiting his English class, where the children mostly
had been working on a dinosaur project, by showing her his drawing of a Tyrannosaurus
Rex. The conversation was the following:
A : what is that?
P : it‘s T Rex
A :is it big or small?
P : big
A :how big?
((silence))
A :this big? ((demonstrating small size with hand a few inches off the floor))
((child shakes his head to indicate ‗no‘))
A :this big? ((demonstrating a waist-high size with hand))
A : this big? ((demonstrating a human size with hand))
A : THIS big? ((demonstrating as high as ceiling with hand stretched up))
((child nods his head to indicate ‗yes‘))
A :yes, it was VERY big!
By the end of the conversation between Cameron and the child, then the size of T-Rex
is agreed, by introducing simple phrase –it was very big- which may seem more like
vocabulary than grammar. But it creates meaning through its use.
Traditional exercises in the form of mechanical drills, gap-fills, and sentence
transformations all have a part to play in practicing grammar. They are useful at times when
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you need to calm your students down, and in the early stages of practice when you need to
familiarize the children with the structure taught.
Cameron (2001) proposes dialogues between a student and a teacher about T-Rex, has
illustrated several starting points for thinking about grammar and young learners; (1)
grammar is necessary to express precise meanings in discourse, (2) grammar ties closely into
vocabulary in learning and using foreign language, (3) grammar learning can evolve from
the learning of chunks of language, (4) talking about something meaningful with the child
can be a useful way to introduce new grammar, (5) grammar can be taught without technical
labels.
Several techniques for teaching English to young learner
Drawing and writing on the board
The board is a wonderful resource, then we can use it for all sorts of things. Try playing
hangman to practice specific points – ing forms. Crosswords can be used for practicing
countable and uncountable nouns, plurals, irregular verbs.
Learning through Stories
Story telling is much under-used in grammar practice. We all know that children love
stories. They‘ll even listen to the same story over and over again. One of the best ways to
introduce the past simple is through a story – you can use well-known traditional tales.
Cameron (2001) proposes the language use when planning the use of a story, she
makes three groupings: (1) language that children have met, (2) new language that will be
useful for all children to learn from the story, (3) new language that may or may not be learnt,
depending on individual children‘s interest.
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According to White, teaching children trough stories is important because stories rely
so much on words, offer a major and constant source of language experiences. Children will
also listen and read to find the meaning in stories. Stories help children become aware of the
general feel and sound of the foreign language. He added that stories introduce children to
language items and sentence constructions without their necessarily having to use their
productivity. The experiences of the story encourage responses through speaking and writing.
It is natural to express our likes or dislikes and to exchange ideas and associations related to
stories we hear or read. By listening, reading, writing the stories is also learning to
communicate.
Learning Language through Theme-Based Teaching
Cameron (2001) stated that children‘s language learning can be learning discourse
skills. She focuses on using information texts, on paper and on computer. In this study she
classifies texts that can be used in theme-based teaching will include relevant songs, rhymes,
videos, stories, and non-fiction informational texts, including sources accessed through the
internet or on CD-Rom, catalogues, leaflets and magazines and educational materials written
for native speaker children.
a. Songs and chants
Every playground the world over rings out with the sound of children singing or
chanting rhymes. What better way to practice grammar than allow the children to do what
they do for pleasure? There are so many songs that you can use to practice grammatical
structures, such as Old MacDonald had a farm.
b. Games
A game is an activity with rules, a goal and an element of fun. There two kinds of
games: competitive games, in which player or teams race to be the first to reach the goal, and
co-operative games, in which players or teams work together towards a common goal. Games
help and encourage many learners to sustain their interest and work. Games can be found to
give practice in all the skill (reading, writing, listening and speaking), in all the stages of the
teaching / learning.
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Some suggested games which may be used to make the learning activities get more fun are:
1. Story games: silly stories, fantasy stories, bits and pieces, domino story.
2. Word games: bingo, the odd man out, missing words, dash it and hang it.
3. Question and answer games: half the class nose, twenty questions, who are you,
guessing and speculating games, hiding and finding, feel and think, box, picture out of
focus.
c. Rhymes & Poems
Rhymes and poems can both entertain and inform. Here‘s a traditional rhyme you could use
to introduce children to the past simple:
Incy wincy spider climbed up the spout.
Down came the rain and washed poor Incy out.
Out came the sun and dried up all the rain.
Incy wincy spider climbed up the spout again.
Here is a poem for prepositional practice:

Mice!
Mice, mice – they‟re everywhere!
They‟re on the table and under my chair.
Mice, mice – at half past two
I saw one sitting in my shoe.
Mice, mice – running along
My garden wall, singing a song.
Mice, mice – just last week
I found them playing hide and seek.
Mice, mice – on Tuesday morning,
I saw one in my cupboard, yawning.
Mice, mice – beside my bed
I felt one jump over my head!
Mice, mice – oh, why don‟t you
Go and live in North Peru?
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Conclusion
Based on the explanation above, Lynne Cameron (2003) argues that the continuing
growth of teaching English to young learners brings a number of challenges. Starting to learn
English at an earlier age may not bring automatic improvements to proficiency levels, unless
teacher education and secondary language teaching both adapt to meet the challenges of the
new situation. According to Cameron, amongst other knowledge and skills, teachers of young
learners need an awareness of how children think and learn skills and knowledge in spoken
English to conduct whole lessons orally, an ability to identify children‘s interests and use
them for language teaching, and to be equipped to teach initial literacy in English.
References
Cameron, Lynne, Penny McKay. Bringing Creative Teaching into the Young Learner
Classroom. Oxford. Oxford University Press.
Cameron, Lynne. 2001. Teaching Languages to Young Learners. New York. Oxford
University Press.
Ehrman, E. Madeline, Betty Lou Leaver, Rebecca L. Oxford. 2003. A brief overview of
individual differences in second language learning. System 31 (2003) 313-330.
www.elsevier.comlocate/system.
Jelena, Mihaljevic Djigunovic. 2012. Attitudes and Motivation in Early Foreign Language
Learning. CEPS Journal 2(2012) 3, 5.55-74 URN:um:nbn:de:0111-opus-67873.
The Analysis of Grammatical and Textual Equivalence Used in The Translation of

Paolini„s Novel of “Inheritance” into Indonesian
Badi‟atul Azmina
SDIT Nidaul Hikmah Salatiga
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Cow.az19@gmail.com
Abstract
This study examines kinds of grammatical and textual equivalence which are used by Poppy
D. Chusfani in translating English into Indonesia language of Christopher Paolini‗s Novel of
―Inheritance‖ as well as the most dominant equivalence used by Poppy D. Chusfani in
translating English into Indonesia language of Christopher Paolini‗s Novel of ―Inheritance‖.
This is descriptive qualitative research and the method of collecting data of this study are
documentation and library research. The data in the novel which have been collected are
classified into two kinds of equivalence; grammatical equivalence (number, gender, person,
tense/aspect and voice) and textual equivalence (reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction
and lexical cohesion). After analyzing and classifying the data, researcher discovered that
there are 25 data of number, 27 data of gender, 38 data of person, 12 data of tense/aspect and
12 data of voice. Furthermore, researcher discovered that there are 33 data of reference, 9
data of substitution and ellipsis, 35 data of conjunction and 17 data of lexical cohesion.Those
data presented are representative from all of the data in the novel, because the writer takes the
data by its part among the translated sentences contained grammatical and textual (cohesion)
equivalence. To sum up, the result shows that Poppy D. Chusfani uses all kinds of
grammatical and textual (cohesion) equivalence, after all, grammatical equivalence of person
is the most dominant data (38) used by Poppy D. Chusfani in translating English into
Indonesia language of Christopher Paolini‗s Novel of ―Inheritance‖
Keywords: Concept of Equivalence, Grammatical Equivalence, Textual Equivalence,

Inheritance Novel
Abstrak
Penelitian ini menelaah macam-macam padanan kata grammatikal dan tekstual yang
digunakan oleh Poppy D. Chusfani dalam menerjemahkan Bahasa Inggris ke Indonesia dari
Novel ―Inheritance‖ karya Christopher Paolini begitu juga menelah padanan kata yang paling
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dominan digunakan. Penelitian ini merupakan deskriptif kualiatif dan metode pengumpulan
datanya adalah dokumentasi dan studi pustaka. Data yang telah dikumpulkan dalam novel ini
telah dikelompokkan berdasarkan dua macam padanan kata; grammatikal (nomor, jenis
kelamin, orang, bentuk kata kerja dan kalimat pasif) dan tekstual (rujukan, penggantian,
peniadaan, kata hubung dan kohesi leksikal). Setelah menganalisis dan menggolongkan data,
peneliti menemukan bahwa ada 25 data nomor, 27 data jender, 38 data orang, 12 data bentuk
kata kerja, dan 12 bentuk kalimat pasif. Di samping itu, peneliti juga menemukan 33 data
rujukan, 9 data penggantian dan peniadaan, 35 data kata hubung, dan 17 data kohesi leksikal.
Data yang disajikan tersebut mewakili semua data yang ada dalam novel karena peneliti
mengambil data menurut bagian kalimat terjemahan yang mengandung padanan kata
grammatikal dan tekstual. Kesimpulannya, hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa Poppy D.
Chusfani menggunakan semua macam padanan kata grammatikal dan tekstual, namun
padanan kata orang merupakan data yang paling dominan (38) yang digunakan dalam
menerjemahkan Bahasa Inggris ke Indonesia dari Novel ―Inheritance‖ karya Christopher
Paolini.
Keywords: Konsep Padanan Kata, Padanan Gramatikal, Padanan Tekstual.
Introduction
This study examines how the concept of Grammatical and Textual Equivalence Used by
Poppy D. Chusfani in Translating English into Indonesia Language of Christopher Paolini ‗s
Novel of ―Inheritance‖. The previous study are ―An Analysis of Students‘ Ability in
Translating Grammatical Equivalence‖ (e.g. Ruhansah, 2013), ―The Question of
Grammatical Equivalence in Translation‖ (e.g. Sudartini, n.d.) and ―An Analysis of Technical
Devices in Translation Procedures Applied by Listiana Srisanti in Translating A J.K.
Rowling‘s Novel‖ (e.g. Lina, 2013). Few published studies focus on grammatical and textual
equivalence in relation with novel translation.
This study aims to find and analyze the kinds of grammatical and textual equivalence
which are used by Poppy D. Chusfani in translating English into Indonesia language of
Christopher Paolini‗s Novel of ―Inheritance‖ as well as to find the most dominant
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equivalence used by Poppy D. Chusfani in translating English into Indonesia language of

Christopher Paolini‗s Novel of ―Inheritance‖. This discussion gives additional information to
the readers about analysis of grammatical and textual equivalence in translation of written
language. Theoretically, the result of the research expected to inspire others to hold further
research. Meanwhile, the result of the study will be useful for additional information in
teaching translation concerning grammatical and textual equivalence practically.
Understanding the world of Translation

Translation is an activity of transferring meaning from the source language into the
target language. Many experts give their definitions about translation. A deeper opinion was
revealed by Brislin (1976:1, in Widiyantari 2012: 58) that ―Translation is the general term
referring to the transfer of thoughts and ideas from one language (source) to another (target)
whether the languages are in written or oral form”. According to Brislin, translation is a
general term that refers tothe transfer of idea or thought from the source language to the
targetlanguage either written or spoken. Therefore the core of translation isthe transforming
of message, meaning or idea from the source languageto the target one. Whereas, in the term
of language style, both languagesused must be appropriate each other so that it will give the
same effect between the reader of the source text and the reader of the translation version.
That is because the resulted translation is accurate, understandable and acceptable.
Meanwhile, Catford (1974:20) stated that ―Translation may be defined as the
replacement of textual in one language (SL), by textual material in another language‖. In this
definition, translator will only changethe text material or the passage in source language into
the target language.Besides, in the real activity translator will not only transfer the substance
material but he/she also has to consider the language style and the culture. Nida and Taber
(1974:14) mentioned that ―Translation consists ofreproducing in the receptor language and
secondly in terms of style‖. It means that translation is the re-expression into target language
from the source language, with first focus on the meaning expression and then the style of the
expression as the second.
The mastery of the culture and both languages used is not a guarantee that someone can
be a qualified translator. Many requirements have to be possessed. Bell (1991:36) said ―The
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translator must, as acommunicator, possess the knowledge and skill.‖ It means that a
translator should have a wide deep insight and also skill. Furthermore, he has to master the
translation theory and also has an understanding about the types of translation. Bell also
revealed that ―…the professional (technical)translator has access to five distinct kinds of
knowledge: target language(TL) knowledge; text-type knowledge; source language (SL)
knowledge;subject area (“Real-world”) knowledge and contrastive knowledge.” In doing the
process of translation, a translator does not only transfer the meaning (Widiyantari, 2012: 57-
59).
There are several aspects that should be taken into consideration such as the problems of
non-equivalence. Baker (1992: 18) states that the choice of a suitable equivalent will always
depend not only on the linguistic system or systems being handled by the translator, but also
on the way both the writer of the source text and the procedure of the target text, i.e. the
translator, choose to manipulate the linguistic systems in question.
The comparison of texts in different languages inevitably involves a theory of
equivalence. Equivalence can be said to be the central issue in translation although its
definition, relevance, and applicability within the field of translation theory have caused
heated controversy, and many different theories of the concept of equivalence have been
elaborated within this field in the past fifty years proposed by Leonardi (2000). Furthermore,
Mona Baker in the book of In Other Words (1992) defines six types of equivalence: (1)
equivalence at word level, (2) equivalence above the word level, (3) grammatical
equivalence, (4) textual equivalence; thematic and word order, (5) textual equivalence;
cohesion, and (6) pragmatic equivalence.
However, Newmark states that knowledge of text-linguistics, in no way dispenses with
the lexical, grammatical and referential problems that have to be solved at the particular and
specific points of the text. The problems of coherence and cohesion coincide when the
meanings of sentence joins are to be determined (1993: 4). For this reason, grammatical and
textual (cohesion) equivalence are obviously important for translator to account for in the
text. Consequently, the writer limits this study only on grammatical and textual (cohesion)
equivalence.
Grammatical equivalence refers to the diversity of grammatical categories across
languages. Baker (1992) notes that grammatical rules may vary across languages and this
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may pose some problems in the terms of finding a direct correspondence in the target
language which later may induce the translator either to add or to omit information in the
target language because of the lack of particular grammatical devices in the target language
itself (p. 82). It includes:
1. Number
The idea of countability is probably universal in the sense that it is readily accessible
to all human beings and is expressed in the lexical structure of all languages. However,
not all languages have a grammatical category of number, and those that do not
necessarily view countability in the same terms (Baker, 1992: 87).
2. Gender
Gender is a grammatical distinction according to which a noun or pronoun is
classified as either masculine or feminine in some languages. The distinction applies to
nouns which refer to animate beings as well as those which refer to inanimate objects
(Baker, 1992: 90).
3. Person
The category of person relates to the notion of participant roles. In most languages,
participant roles are systematically defined through a closed system of pronouns which
may be organized along a variety of dimensions (Baker, 1992: 95).
4. Tense/Aspect
Tense and aspect are grammatical categories in a large number of languages. The
form of the verb in languages which have these categories usually indicates two main
types of information: time relations and aspectual differences (Baker, 1992: 98).
5. Voice
Voice is a grammatical category which defines the relationship between a verb and
its subject (Baker, 1992: 102).
While textual equivalence refers to the equivalence in the terms of information and
cohesion. It is up to the translator to decide whether or not to maintain the cohesive ties as
well as the coherence of the source language (p. 132). It consists:
1. Reference
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The term reference is traditionally used in semantics for the relationship which
holds between a word and what it points to in the real world. The reference of chair
would therefore be a particular chair that is being identified on a particular occasion
(Baker 1992: 181). There are three types of reference: personal, demonstrative and
comparative reference (Halliday and Hasan 1976: 38-39).
2. Substitution and ellipsis
Unlike reference, substitution and ellipsis are grammatical rather than semantic
relationships. In substitution, an item (or items) is replaced by another item (or items),
while ellipsis involves the omission of an item. In other words, in ellipsis, an item is
replaced by nothing (Baker, 1992: 186-187).
3. Conjunction
Conjunction involves the use of formal markers to relate sentences, clauses and
paragraphs to each other (Baker 1992: 190).
4. Lexical cohesion
Lexical cohesion refers to the role played by the selection of vocabulary in
organizing relations within a text (Baker, 1992: 202). Halliday and Hasan (1976) divide
lexical cohesion into two main categories: reiteration and collocation. Reiteration, as
the name suggests, involves repetition of lexical items. A reiterated item may be a
repetition of an earlier item, a synonym or near synonym, a super ordinate, or a general
word (Baker, 1992: 203). Collocation, as a sub-class of lexical cohesion in Halliday and
Hasan‘s model, covers any instance which involves a pair of lexical items that are
associated with each other in the language in some way (Baker, 1992: 203).
In addition, text is the object of translation. The strategies of translation and how the
translator translates language are seen in the target text. The writer chooses Inheritance,
English novel written by Christopher Paolini for the reason that it is translated by Poppy D.
Chusfani. She is a great editor, translator and writer (Hanifah, 2013: 1). She has certain
strategies how to find the adequate equivalence from English into Indonesia language. The
strategies includes how to translate conversion, ‗he‘ or ‘she‘, generic ‗you‘, tenses, active-
passive form and conjunction. For example, Poppy (2013: 14) says that some active
sentences in English are easier to read if it is translated into passive in Indonesia. This type of
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translator‘s strategies and preference will cause problems of equivalence based on Mona
Baker‘s theory of equivalence, including problems in grammatical and textual (cohesion)
equivalence.
Research Method
In this research, a qualitative descriptive method is used. Bogdan and Taylor

(1972:5) define ―qualitative method‖ as a kind of research that produces descriptive data
as the result include theoretical review, people‘s common perspective and unique
human‘s behavior. Deal with this concept, Kirk and Miller (1986:9) states that qualitative
descriptive is a part of sociology whish depends on observation to human‘s language and
human‘s attitudes fundamentally.
Data source
Sumanto states that data sources are divided into primary and secondary sources
(Sumanto, 1995:11). Primary source is the research data obtained directly from the
original source (no intermediaries) that are specifically collected by the researchers to
address issues in research (Ruslan, 2004:31).It has relation with the object of the
research. The primary resource is taking from English and Indonesia Novel of Inheritane
by Christopher Paolini.
The writer conducted the research within one month namely in July 20th until
August 20th, 2015. Besides, she only takes the data from the novel until chapter 21 in
both English and Indonesian novel because the novel consists of 80 chapters and more
that 900 pages. For instance, she takes it started from page 1 until page 122 in English
epub book version and it started from page 1 until page 209 in Indonesian book version.
Those data presented are representative from all of the data in the novel, because the
writer takes the data by its part among the translated sentences contained grammatical
and textual (cohesion) equivalence.
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Technique of Data Collection
In this research, the technique of data collection is documentation.

Documentation may refer to the process of providing evidence (to document something
or to the communicable material used to provide such documentation). In addition, the
writer also uses library research or study of the library (Hadi, 1981:4).
Method of Data Analysis
The writer defines analysis as consisting of three current flows activity: data
reduction, data display and drawing conclusion/verifications (Miles and Hubberman,
1994: 10-12).
a. Data Reduction
Data reductionrefers to the process of selecting, focusing, simplifying,
abstracting, and transforming the data that appear in written-up field or
transcriptions. Data reduction is a form of analysis that sharpens sorts, focuses,
discards, and organizes data in such a way that ―final‖ conclusions can be drawn and
verified. Qualitative data can be reduced and transformed in many ways: through
selection, through summary or paraphrase, through being subsumed in a larger
pattern, and so on.
b. Data Display
A display is an organized, compressed assembly of information that permits
conclusion drawing and action. Designing a display-deciding on the rows and
columns of a matrix for qualitative data and deciding which data, in which form,
should be entered in the cells-are analytic activities.
c. Drawing Conclusion and Verifications
From the start of data collection, the qualitative analysis is beginning to
decide what things mean-is noting regularities, patterns, explanations, possible
configuration, casual flows and prepositions. Verification may be as brief as a
fleeting second thought crossing the analyst‘s mind during writing, with a short
excursion back to the field notes, or it may be thorough and elaborate, with lengthy
argumentation and review among colleagues to develop ―inter-subjective consensus‖
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or with extensive efforts to replicate a finding in another data set. The meanings
emerging from the data have to be tested for the plausibility, their sturdiness, their
―confirmatibility‖-that is, their validity.
d. Data coding
The writer marks the data by codes to make the analysis of each utterance easier.
The data coding in this research is as follows:
Table 3.1 List of codes
Abbreviation Meaning
SL Source Language
TL Target Language
ST Source Text
TT Target Text
Ch. Chapter
p. Page
Hal. Halaman
Discussion & Research Finding
After obtaining the data, the researcher found that Poppy uses all of the kinds of
grammatical and textual (cohesion). For the grammatical equivalence, they are number,
gender, person, tense/ aspect and voice. Likewise, for the textual equivalence (cohesion), they
are reference, substitution and ellipsis, conjunction and lexical cohesion.
Here is the discussion based on the data collection:
Table 7. 1 Result of Grammatical Equivalence Analysis
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Grammatical Equivalence
Number Gender Person Tense/aspect Voice
The most The most The most The most The most
dominant dominant dominant dominant dominant
number of gender of person of tense/aspect of voice of
grammatical grammatical grammatical grammatical grammatical
category is category is category is category is category is
translating translating translating the translating the translating
plural into plural masculine into data data passive into
form. It is called neutral. It is grammatically grammatically passive form.
grammatically called non- non- It is called
equivalence. grammatically equivalence equivalence grammatically
non- equivalence.
equivalence
Total: 13 out of Total: 8 out of Total: 13 out Total: 9 out of Total: 4 out of
25 data findings 27 data of 38 data 13 data 12 data
findings findings findings findings
As the data above, researcher discovers that there are 25 data of number and 13 of them
are plural into plural form. For gender, there are 27 data and 8 of them are masculine into
masculine form. Then, the researcher found 38 data of person and 13 of them are
grammatically non-equivalence. Later, there are 12 data of tense/aspect and 9 of them are
grammatically non-equivalence. The last, it is found 12 data of voice and 6 of them are
passive into passive form.
Table 7. 2 Result of Textual Equivalence Analysis
Textual equivalence
Reference Substituion and Conjunction Lexical cohesion
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ellipsis
The most dominant The most dominant The most dominant The most
reference of textual substitution and conjunction of dominant lexical
(cohesion) category ellipsis of textual textual (cohesion) cohesion of
is personal (cohesion) category category is textual (cohesion)
reference. is substitution. translating the data category is
textually reiteration.
equivalence.
Total: 16 out of 33 Total: 6 out of 9 data Total: 25 out of 35 Total: 10 out of

data findings findings data findings 17 data findings
Considering the data above, researcher discovers that there are 33 data of reference and
16 of them are personal reference. For substitution and ellipsis, there are 9 data and 6 of them
are substitution. Next, there are 35 data of conjunction and 25 of them are textually
equivalence. The last, there are 17 data of lexical cohesion and 10 of them are reiteration.
Then, the researcher found that the most dominant equivalence used by Poppy D.
Chusfani is grammatical equivalence person. It shows 38 data. Those data presented are
representative from grammatical and textual equivalence‘s data in the novel. The researcher
does not involve all of it, because it will be more excessive. So, she only takes the
representative part of the translated sentence to be presented.
Conclusions
The study shows that in translating the novel, Poppy D. Chusfani uses all the kinds of
grammatical and textual equivalence. For grammatical equivalence, they are number, gender,
person, tense/aspect and voice. For textual equivalence, they are reference, substitution and
ellipsis, conjunction and lexical cohesion. Then, the researcher concludes that the most
dominant equivalence used by Poppy D. Chusfani is grammatical equivalence i.e. person.
Most of the data are grammatically equivalence. All of those data presented are representative
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for all of the data in the novel, hence the researcher only took the sample of the
sentences‗part contain the grammatical and textual equivalence.
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http://www.writersservices.com/magazine/success-story-christopher-paolini
Yinhua, Xiang. Equivalence in Translation: Features and Necessity in International Journal
of Humanities and Social Science, Vol 1 No. 10; August 2011. China.
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Deixis Analysis of the Good Dinosaur the Movie
Nur Kholis
Sekolah Indonesia in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Cool.alcukil@gmail.com
Abstract
This essay is a descriptive qualitative research which will attempt to answer the following
objectives: (1) what are types of deixis found in the movie of ―The Good Dinosaur‖? And (2)
what is the most dominant deixis found in the movie ―The Good Dinosaur‖ and the analysis?
From the analysis of the movie entitled ―The Good Dinosaur‖, found some data finding about
the types of deixis which used in the movie. Five types of deixis they are: personal deixis,
time deixis, place deixis, social deixis, and discourse deixis found in the film in the different
data percentage. Personal deixis found in the highest percentage which directly answers the
second objective with the data collection 80%, time deixis 5%, place deixis 3%, social deixis
9% and discourse deixis 3%.
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Personal deixis has a correlation to the point of view of narrating the film ―The Good
Dinosaur‖. This caused by the finding of personal deixis involving thr first, second and third
pronoun in determining the story. Further, this contribute to make the personal deixis
dominate the deixis used in the film.
Key Words: Deixis, Types of deixis, Personal deixis.
Abstrak
Karangan ini merupakan sebuah penelitian deskriptif qualitatif yang akan mencoba menjawab
rumusan masalah: (1) Jenis-jenis deiksis apakah yang ditemukan dalam film yang berjudul
―The Good Dinosaur‖? dan (2) Apakah jenis deiksis yang dominan ditemukan dalam film
―The God Dinosaur‖ serta analisisnya?.
Dari analisis film yang berjudul ―The Good Dinosaur‖, ditemukan beberapa penemuan data
tentang jenis-jenis deiksis yang digunakan dalam film. Lima jenis deiksis yakni deiksis
persona, deiksis waktu, deiksis tempat, deiksis social dan deiksis wacana ditemukan dalam
film dengan persentase data yang berbeda-beda. Deiksis persona ditemukan dalam persentase
tertinggi yang sekaligus menjawab pertanyaan kedua dengan perolehan data sebesaar 80%,
deiksis waktu sebesar 5%, deiksis tempat sebesar 3%, diksis social sebesar 9 % dan deiksis
wacana sebesar 3%.
Deiksis persona memiliki keterkaitan dengan sudut pandang penceritaan dalam film ‗The
Good Dinosaur‖. Hal ini dikarenakan hasil penemuan deiksis persona yang melibatkan kata
ganti pertama, kata ganti kedua dan kata ganti ketiga memiliki dalam menentukan jalan
cerita. Hal ini kemudian mendasari kenapa deiksis persona mendominasi deiksis yang
digunakan dalam film.
Kata Kunci: Deiksis, Macam-macam deiksis, Persona deiksis
Introduction
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Language is a tool to communicate between the speaker and the partner of speaking in the
daily activity which has its own meaning and purpose. In the communication, language plays
the most important thing to transfer and deliver the meaning to the hearer. To transfer it, well
we know the name of verbal communication and written communication. Both of the kind of
communication has their basic function of language tend to the need of the people to use the
language in communication. Some of the functions of language are to express the feeling, to
communicate, as a tool to make an integration and social adaptation in a particular
environment and situation and also as the tool for social control (Keraf, 1997:3).
Deals to pragmatic in a language, Leech (1983:14) explain in his opinion that ―pragmatic
deals with verbal acts and performances which take place in particular situation, in time‖. As
a part of language, pragmatic, which since 1938 had been acknowledged to be the new room
of linguistics study, plays a fundamental role in studying the verbal acts in a particular
performance and situation. Thus, pragmatic is a study of the ability of the language user in
combining and adapting sentence correctly (Yuliana, 2011:1). As the part of language which
also means as a study of language that involves the aspects in the outside of language,
pragmatic has its own scope. Based on Gazdar (1979:2), pragmatics is the study of deixis (at
least in a part), implicature, presupposition, speech acts and aspect of discourse structure.
Based on the explanation of Gazdar, the brief explanation of those studies in pragmatics,
when the language focuses on how the hearer could response and answers explicitly the
questions of the questioner with some non literal word of answer, the study of pragmatic is
divined as implicature. However, if the hearer can give a response with some additional
meaning such as some assumptions, the study named as presupposition. Further, Levinson in
Suyono (1990:5) a linguist define other part of pragmatic namely speech acts that according
to him, communication is not only a symbol, word or sentence but it is more appropriate to be
called as a the result of those which forms a behavior of speech act, which this is also studied
in the pragmatic. Another part of pragmatic is deixis that could be meant as a condition in
semantic which exist in a sentence or utterance in which only could be interpreted the
reference with considering the context of speaking or sentence.
In this occasion, during the fulfilling of the paper, the writer interested to raise the study
of pragmatic which deals to the reference that considering the context of speaking to be
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interpreted: Deixis. Deixis in a communication plays some important matters to refer who or
what the object is being talked about. Deixis is a part of language which always present both
in daily communication and in the text or discourse. As what Yule (1996:1) stated, ―the
technical term for one of the most basic things we do with utterances which means pointing is
called deictic expression.
To analyze those explanations of deixis, the writer tries to analyze it from the very good
movie namely ―The Good Dinosaurs‖ movie directed by Peter Sohn. The Good Dinosaur is a
2015 American 3 D computer animated comedy drama adventure buddy film produced
by Pixar Animation Studios and distributed worldwide by Walt Disney Pictures, directed
by Peter Sohn from a screenplay by Meg LeFauve. Set on a fictional Earth in which
dinosaurs never went extinct, the film follows a young Apatosaurus named Arlo, who meets
an unlikely human friend while traveling through a harsh and mysterious landscape. Bob
Peterson, who came up with the idea for the story, directed the film until August 2013. In
October 2014, Sohn was announced as the new director. The film, along with Inside Out,
marks the first time that Pixar has released two feature films in the same year. The Good
Dinosaur premiered on November 10, 2015 in Paris, and was released in the United States on
November 25, 2015, to positive reviews. The film grossed $329.1 million worldwide – lowest
for a Pixar film – on a $175–200 million budget.
This film is directed by Peter Sohn, an American animator, director, voice actor, and
storyboard artist at Pixar Animation Studios. Sohn started his career with Pixar in the art and
story departments for Finding Nemo. He also worked on The Incredibles, Ratatouille and
WALL-E. Sohn also performed the voice of Emile in Ratatouille. He made his directorial
debut with the short film Partly Cloudy in 2009 which he also wrote. Partly Cloudy was
included in the Animation Show of Shows in 2009. Sohn co-directed the English-language
version of Ponyo on the Cliff by the Sea in 2009 with John Lasseter and Brad Lewis. Sohn
was directing for about 18 film which as the production of Pixar and other studios. Some of
the films directed by Sohn are Monster University, Toy Story, Up and The Good Dinosaurs.
A very important thing to do during watching the movie is following the plot so that the
viewer could catch the story. Plot could be met by scene per scene with the dialogue that tells
us the story. Thus, because of the dialogue per scene contains its own discourse that stated by
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the actors that possibly to be analyzed the writer propose the paper under the title ―Deixis
Analysis of The Good Dinosaur Movie Directed by Peter Sohn: Pragmatic‘s Study‖.
Synopsis of the Movie
In an alternate timeline, the asteroid that would have caused the extinction of
the dinosaurs 65 million years ago passes safely over Earth. Millions of years later,
two Apatosaurus named Henry and Ida, who are farmers, watch as their three eggs hatch into
children: Libby, Buck, and the runt Arlo. Unlike his siblings, Arlo has trouble adjusting to
farm life; while the others are successful and allowed to "make their mark" (a mud-print on
the family's corn silo), Arlo's timid nature makes even his simple tasks difficult for him, so
Henry attempts to give Arlo a sense of purpose by putting him in charge of guarding their silo
from critters, and helps him set up a trap. The trap manages to capture a feral cave boy, but
Arlo doesn't have the heart to kill him, and sets him free. Disappointed, Henry takes Arlo to
track the cave boy, leading them into a ravine where it begins to rain. Arlo injures himself,
and Henry decides to turn back, but a massive flash flood occurs, and Henry only manages to
save Arlo before being swept away and killed.
Without his father, Arlo must shoulder more of the workload. He spots the same cave boy
inside the silo and, blaming him for his father's death, chases him until both of them fall into
a river. Arlo cannot swim, and is quickly swept downstream where he hits his head on a rock
and is knocked unconscious. Waking up, he is dismayed to find himself far from home and
tries to survive on his own with minimal success, becoming trapped when a boulder pins
down his leg. Arlo awakes to find his leg has been freed, and the cave boy appears with food
for him to eat. The cave boy then leads Arlo to a berry tree, where the cave boy fends off a
large snake, amazing Arlo, and also impressing a nearby Styracosaurus, who wants to keep
the boy. The eccentric older dinosaur forces Arlo to compete with him to give the boy a name
he will respond to, which Arlo finally wins when he calls him "Spot", and the Styracosaurus
relents. Arlo and Spot bond, as Arlo laments his lost family, and Spot reveals that his own
parents are dead. When a thunderstorm strikes, though, Arlo runs away in fear, and loses the
riverbank he has been following home.
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The next morning, Arlo wakes up to find Spot at his side. They are noticed by a band
of pterodactyls that appear to be conducting a rescue operation but turn out to be savagely
carnivorous. When the pterodactyls try to take Spot, Arlo and Spot flee, happening upon a
pair of Tyrannosaurus named Nash and Ramsey, who ward off the pterodactyls. Nash,
Ramsey, and their father Butch have lost their herd of longhorns, so Arlo offers Spot's help in
sniffing them out. They locate the herd, but Butch recognizes the work of cattle rustlers, and
uses Arlo as a lure. Arlo and Spot attract the attention of the rustlers allowing Butch and his
family to attack. During the fight, Arlo musters his courage and fends off two raptors that
have overwhelmed Butch, helping to turn the fight in their favor. Having gained their respect,
Arlo joins the T. Rexes in driving the cattle south when he sees the familiar mountain peaks
of his homeland in the distance, and leaves with Spot to return home. Along the way, Arlo
and Spot encounter an adult feral caveman in the distance, and though Spot shows interest,
Arlo dissuades him and they continue on.
As another storm approaches, the pterodactyls return and attack, this time managing to
carry Spot away. Arlo becomes entangled in some vines, where he has a vision of Henry
leading him back home. Arlo instead resolves to save Spot, making the vision of his father
proud before he fades away. Arlo wakes up filled with determination and finds and attacks
the pterodactyls, which have cornered Spot at the river. Arlo and Spot manage to overpower
the pterodactyls, plunging them one after another into the water where they are swept
helplessly downstream. Another flash flood occurs, triggering a massive torrent to approach.
Despite his fear, Arlo leaps into the water to rescue Spot as the two are swept away toward a
waterfall. Arlo protects Spot as the two falls, and carries him to shore.
As they approach Arlo's home, the two again hear the unknown caveman call, and are
approached by an entire caveman family. With great reluctance, Arlo pushes Spot to join his
kind, and the two of them share a tearful goodbye. Arlo finally arrives back home to his
mother and siblings, and makes his mark on the silo between those of his mother and father.
Film as a Literacy Media
Nowadays, technology has been long developed. Literacy resources could not only be
found by the reading habit but trough many resources that also involve another part of senses
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such like visual, audio and the combination of both visual and audio. Even of course the use
of reading habit is the main resource to acquire the information.
Film also called a movie, motion picture or photoplay as described by Wikipedia (2016,
Retrieved may 12th 2016) is a series of still images which, when shown on a screen, creates
the illusion of moving images due to the phi phenomenon or optical illusion. In recent, the
use of a movie is not just as an entertainment to amuse the viewer, but also useful for
education. Quoted from Tempo (2016, Retrieved May 12th 2016), there are six ways to build
science literacy which one of them was trough film. Moreover, Noves (2000) in Tempo stated
that study of science should be fun, and the way to make it happen is by movies. This kind of
learning tyle has been applied for the student university in Brazil where there, they study
science by referring to such scientific movies such like Star Wars, A Space Odyssey, Star
Trek and others. This shows us that the existence of movie, now becomes the alternative ways
to educate the students and largely people.
Film literacy as explained by The West Georgia University in westga.edu (Retrieved May
12th 2016) is a convergence of the interdisciplinary practices of literary and media studies,
which both concentrate on the analysis of significance in all manner of texts: visual and
written. Ushering students toward a more open notion of literary discourse and practice,
critical media pedagogy begins with the assumption that visual images, songs,
advertisements, and film are inherently ideological and political. The media enacts, as John
Berger, an art critic frames it as the ways of seeing that can effectively produce and
determine the meanings and outcomes of discourse itself and which, therefore, shape the
cultural contexts.
John Berger according to make film as one of media reference proposed on his script
entitled Ways of Seeing (1972) that described by West Georgia University in his westga.edu
(Retrieved May 12th 2016) 3 core concepts of media literacy that can be applied to films as
follow:
1. Representations and images in media catalogue or mirror commonly shared practices,

ideologies and experiences. In this sense, media representations play a formative role in
reifying and entrenching cultural practices and are seen to be expressions, often, of the
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collective (or dominant) will. An advertisement, for example, might project gendered,
classist, and even racial fears or fantasies; a film might catalogue the beliefs, assumptions,
and prejudices of a particular historical moment.
2. To draw from Henry Giroux, one of todays leading critical pedagogy scholars, The media
enacts its own invisible pedagogy. Media is not neutral terrain but rather contains
embedded arguments, points of view, and messages.
3. According to Maurice E. Stevens, in an article on Spike Lees Malcolm X, the visual
medium is an arbiter of identities. Hence more than merely reflecting shared beliefs,
customs and value-systems by which we come to identify ourselves, the media plays a
critical role in constructing identities and social ideology, promoting, challenging, and
mediating prevailing attitudes toward corporeality, race, gender, class, sexuality,
occupation, (etc.) that permeate Western culture and language at their deepest levels.
Deixis in Pragmatics
Deixis deals with connections between discourse and the situation in which discourse is
used. The term of ‗deixis‘ is derived from the Greek word which mean ‗to show‘ or ‗to
indicate‘ used to denote the elements in a language which refer directly to the situation.
Moore (2001:14) give definition about deixis that "Deixis is an important field of language
study in its own right and very important for learners of languages. But it has some relevance
to analysis of conversation and pragmatics. It is often and best described as "verbal pointing",
that is to say pointing by means of language. The linguistic forms of this pointing are called
deictic expressions, deictic markers or deictic words; they are also sometimes called
indexicals."
Moreover, deixis is a technical term (from Greek) for one of the most basic things we do
with utterance. Or it can be said ‗pointing‘ via language. Essentially language, deixis
concerns with the ways in which the interpretation of utterance depends on the analysis of
that context of utterance.
Here are the explanations of five kinds of deixis as proposed by Levinson:
a. Person Deixis
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In many languages, person deixis can also contain other meaning elements like the
gender of the third person. In addition, to pronoun and agreeing predicates, person, or
participant-role is marked in various other ways. Person deixis concerns with the
encoding of the role of participants in the speech even in which the utterance in question
is delivered. Yule (1996, p.9-10) describe that person deixis involves the speaker and the
addressee and operates in a basic three-part division they are:
1) First person (I). The first person deixis is a reference that refers to the speaker or both
speaker and referent grouped with the speaker which is expressed in singular
pronouns (I, me, myself, mine) and plural pronouns (we, us, ourselves, our, ours). The
first person deixis can be divided into exclusive first person deixis, which refers to a
group including addressee.
2) Second person (you). The second person deixis is a deictic reference to a person or
persons identified as addressee, such as you, yourself, yourselves, your, yours.
3) Third person (He, She, It). Third person deixis is a deictic reference to a referent(s)
not identified as the speaker or addressee and usually imply to the gender that the
utterance refers to, for example: he, she, and they, him, himself, her, herself.
b. Place deixis
Is also described as spatial deixis, where the relative location of people and things is
being indicated. Place deixis or spatial deixis usually expressed in this, these, there, here,
that, and those. Place deixis can be described along many of the same parameters that
apply to the time deixis. Therefore, those references to place can be absolute or relational
in nature. Grundy (2000) add that there are three degrees of proximity is by no means
uncommon, with some languages distinguishing proximity to the speaker and to the
addressee. They are: here (proximal), there (distal), where (and the archaic hither, hence,
thither, thence, wither, whence), left, right, up, down, above, below, in front, behind,
come go, bring, and take.
Briefly, place deixis is an expression used to show the location relative to the location
of a participant in the speech even.
c. Time deixis
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Place deixis is also called as temporal deixis. Renkema (1993, p.79) stated that time
deixis is a reference to time relative to a temporal reference point and it is typically the
moment of utterance. These language resources are the adjectives of time in the line
yesterday, now and tomorrow, and the verb tenses. The verb sometimes also has another
function besides referring to a specific time.
For example:
A: I live here now
B: I live there now
The present tense is the proximal form as in (a) and the past tense is distal form as in
(b). The deictic items use reference that can only be determined in relation to the time of
the utterance in which they occur. Such as:
This / last / next Monday / week / month / year.
Now, then, ago, later, soon, before.
Yesterday, today, tomorrow.
In other words, time deixis is an expression in relation to point to certain period when
the utterances produced by the speaker.
d. Social deixis
Social deixis does not deal with three main components (person, place and time) of
the coordinate system of subjective orientation, but they show how different social
rankings and the participants of communication utter relationships within society via
language. It is rather to refer to the level of relationship between people than to
information.
Levinson (1983, p.90) stated that social deixis concerns with the aspects of sentences
which reflect or establish or determined by certain realities of participants or the social
situation in which the speech event occurs. He adds that there are two basic kinds of
social deixis information that seems to be encoded in language around the world. They
are: Relational social deixis and Absolute social deixis. Relational social deixis is a
deictic reference to some social characteristic of referrent apart from any relative ranking
of referents or deictic reference to a social relationship between the speaker and
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addressee. In English, relational social deixis may be a lexical items (e.g. my husband,
teacher, cousin, etc), pronouns (you, her). Absolute social deixis is a deictic reference
usually expressed in certain forms of address which will include no comparison of the
ranking of the speaker and addresse. For examples: your highness, Mr. President, your
majesty, etc.
Briefly, social deixis is a deictic expression used to distinct social status. Social deixis
separated in to two kinds relational and absolute social deixis.
e. Discourse deixis
Discourse deixis deals with the orientation in the text through the writer or the
speaker, the relation of the text passages to the current utterance either as a head of time
or past, forthcoming or simultaneous. It encodes reference to portions of the unfolding
discourse in which the utterance is located (Levinson, 1983, p.62). It means that discourse
deixis is deictic reference to a portion of a discourse relative to the speaker‘s current
location in the discourse, such as: above, below, last, previous, proceeding, next or
following (usually used in texts) and this, that, there, next, last (usually used in
utterances).
In spoken or written discourse, there is frequently occassion to refer to earlier or
forthcoming segments of the discourse. Since discourse unfolds in time, it is natural to
use temporal deictic terms to indicate the relation of the referred to to the temporal
location of the present utterance in the discourse. But spatial terms are also often
employed. Reference to parts of of a discourse which can only be interpreted by knowing
where the current coding or receiving point is, are clearly deictic in character (Asher
1994:856).
Levinson (1983:86) added that discourse deixis should be distinguished from a related
notion that of anaphora. Moreover, discourse deixis shares with anaphora and cataphora
the capacity to function as a text cohesion device. As we noted, anaphora concerns with
the use of a pronoun to refer to the same referent as some prior term. Anaphora can hold
within sentences, across sentences, and across at speaking in a dialogue. Deictic or other
referring expressions are often used to introduce a referent, and anaphoric pronouns are
used to refer to the same entity thereafter. However, it is important to remember that
deictic and anaphoric usages are not mutually exclusive. Therefore, in principle the
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distinction is clear: when a pronoun refers to a linguistic expression itself, it is discourse

deictic. When a pronoun refers to the same entity as a prior linguistic expression refers to,
it is anaphoric.
In other words, discourse deixis is an expression used to refer to certain discourse that
contain the utterance or as a signal and its relations to surrounding text.
Research Objective
Based on the background above, the paper only analyzed the scope of pragmatic that
focus on deixis in the film entitled ―The Good Dinosaurs movie directed by Peter Sohn‖. This
film is an English film that possibly to be analyzed the language used for communicating in
the film. Thus, the study of this paper will focus to analyze of the research question as
follow:
1. What are types of deixis found in the movie of The Good Dinosaur?
2. What is the most dominant deixis found in the movie and the analysis?
The research will present some data in order to complete the research and will use a
descriptive qualitative method to analyze the data because the goal of this method is to
describe the facts, characteristics, and relationship of the researched elements. Bogdan and
Biklen (1982:37) states that there are five features of qualitative method:
The natural setting is the direct source of data and the researcher is the key instrument in
qualitative research; qualitative data are collected in the form of words or picture rather than
numbers; Qualitative researchers are concerned with process as well as product; Qualitative
researchers tend to analyze their data inductively; How people make sense of their lives is a
major concern to qualitative researches.
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In addition, Moleong (1995, p.6) says that qualitative research is descriptive, which
means that the analyzed data and its findings are in the forms of descriptions, instead of
numbers. Therefore, it is clear why this method is chosen.
A descriptive method will be applied in presenting the data, analysis, and its findings.
This method is the most appropriate method because it will systematically and factually
describe and illustrate the characteristics and the connection between the phenomena studied
(Gay L. R: 1998:34). Descriptive methods is appropriate for this study because the goal of
this study is systematically, factually, and accurately describes or illustrates the fact,
characteristics and relationship of the researched element.
Discussion & Finding
1. The finding data

From those five kinds of deixis, there are the finding data from the Good Dinosaur movie:
a. Personal Deixis
Division Kind of Expression Type of Pronoun Number of Finding Data
First Singular I 81
Me 21
Myself 1
Mine 0
Plural We 18
Us 1
Our self 0
Our 5
Ours 0
Second You 100
Yourself 1
Yourselves 0
Your 39
Yours 2
Third He 4
She 3
They 9
Him 16
Himself 0
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Her 3
Herself 0
Total 304
b. Place Deixis
Type Number
Where 9
Here 0
There 11
Total 20
c. Time Deixis
Type Number
Now 6
Then 0
Ago 0
Later 0
Soon 0
Before 4
Yesterday 2
Today 1
Tomorrow 0
Last day 0
Last week 0
Last month 0
Next week 0
Next month 0
Total 13
d. Social Deixis
Kind Type Number
Relational Momma 15
Poppa 16
Son 2
Brother 1
Absolute - 0
Total 34
e. Discourse Deixis
Type Number
This 3
There 1
That 2
Total 11
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Analysis of Dominant Deixis Used in the Story of the Movie
From the finding data, we can observe the most dominant deixis used in the movie is
the personal deixis which completing 80% of the total deixis found in the movie. We can
observe it in the chart below:
Personal deixis longer we talk about the character of the movie. In this context, the
use the author, that is Peter Sohn, asks us to analyze the story from where the author tells
it in the context of narrating. This is called as point of view of a story.
Winahyutari (2004:131) stated that point of view is the way the writer shows the
story. While Pratiwi (2005:45) argued that showing the point of view is the way to appear
the figure or actors in the story. From those definition, we can conclude that point of view
is a technique used by author in appearing the character of the story. Moreover, point of
view is apparently not only the way to appearing the character, but in the story, most of
point of view shows the story about the character, action, set and many occurrences that
make the story in some literature.
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Abrams in Nurgianto (2002:252) defined there are three kinds of point of view in the
story. They are:
1. Third person of point of view
The author is someone who put on his/herself in the outside of the story and show the
characters by the name or the pronoun such like he, she and they. The name of the
character always be mentioned and as a variation there is used the pronominal. This to
ease the readers to recognize the characters are being described in the story. The third
person of point of view is divided in to two kinds, they are:
a. He/she is the omniscient
In this point of view, told from the point of view he/she. Author knows everything
deals with characters, events, and actions also motivation which cause the story.
b. He/she as an observer
Author describes what the characters see, listen, experience, think and feel.
2. First person of point of view
a. I as the main character
In this point of view, I tells every occurrences and the behavior which ―I‖
experience well internal or external conflict of the ―I‖. Here, ―I‖ becomes the
focus of the story which every single event that has a relation towards I is told by.
b. I as an additional character
In this point of view, I arises not as the main character, but as an additional
character. I appears to bring the story towards the readers, while the characters of
the story are allowed to brim their self in the story to tell their experiences in the
story.
3. Mixed point of view
Mixed of point of view is the mix of both first and third of point of view.
From those explanations, we can analyze the point of view used in the movie of The
Good Dinosaur which mainly use the mention of the name of the characters of the story
and directly use a face-to-face conversation, in the film use the third person of point of
view. Even, basically the movie uses the third person point of view, however, in the
following story the character always uses the first of point of view to describe their own
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experience as a variation of the story. It proved by the use of the personal deixis which
also use the first pronoun. Now let us compare the use of the first, second and the third
person used in the movie.
Second personal is also dominate in the chart above, but as we know, in the third
person of point of view, the second personal pronoun is used as the opposite of the first
personal pronoun. It describes the plot of the story which also deliberating another
character that influencing each other. This might the real dialogue becomes real or
―lifelike‖ in the story and also make the readers deliberated to show directly to the
conflict which faced by the characters. So when we combine both of first and second
personal pronoun and compare it to the third personal pronoun it will be 99% accordance
with 1%. This caused by the dialogues of the movie deliberating the first and second
personal pronoun. It can be analyzed from some part of the dialogue that taken as
example below:
- Minutes 00:14:24,464 to 00:14:27,133: ―I got a new job for you tomorrow.‖
- Minutes 00:20:51,517 to 00:20:55,189: ―but I need you to do more, Arlo.‖
- Minutes 00:50:37,255 to 00:50:41: ―And I said we would get you home.‖
- Minutes 00:53:37,068 to 00:53:40,305: ―How many times I got to tell you this?‖
- Minutes 00:58:59,457 to 00:59:03,029: ―I know you're there. I can smell you.‖
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This can be combined both of the second personal pronoun with the third personal
pronoun and compare it to the first personal pronoun becomes 53% accordance with 47%.
This caused by some of the dialogues in the movie deliberating between the third and the
first personal pronoun. It means that between the third and the first or conversely has a
relationship that make both of personal pronouns used to make a conversation in the
movie. This could be analyzed from the example below:
- Minutes 00:11:10 to 670 00:11:15,575 : ―Tell Momma I love her.‖
- Minutes 00:37:08,126 to 00:37:10,869: ―I name him, I keep him. Hmm...‖
- Minutes 00:57:48,719 to 00:57:52,056: ―Ask me what I think they're doing.‖
- Minutes 01:12:34,171 to 01:12:37,808: ―So I got to go help him.‖
- Minutes 01:12:38,008 to 01:12:41,214: ―Because... I love him.”
In brief, it can be said that in the movie, there are two types of point of view used to
describe the experiences experienced by the characters of the movie. As the basic, the
author use third person of point of view to describe the story by let the characters talk and
make a dialogue between the characters by naming her/his self and make a mention of
each characters as the variation of using of pronominal.
In this context, the author is also allowing the character to have a direct conversation
that could be enjoyed by the readers in case as the viewers. However, in the way the
characters play their role, they also tell him/herself and sometime tell others by
combining both of first and second and second and third personal pronoun. As the
developing of the story, this is allowed in a story to add the pursue essence of the movie
could be longer enjoyed by the viewers.
Conclusion
Based on the data presentation and data analysis of deixis used in Good Dinosaur the
movie, the writer draws some conclusion as follows:
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1. Five types of deixis are found in the movie of The Good Dinosaur. They has different
number of finding data which the percentages are: personal deixis 80%, place deixis 5%,
place deixis 3% social deixis 9%, and discourse deixis 3%.
2. The huge number of deixis and will be the most dominant deixis found in the movie of
The Good Dinosaur is Personal deixis which accumulated 80% of total deixis. Personal
deixis could be the most dominant deixis used in the movie because of it deals with the
point of view where there, between the finding data and the point of view meet the
correlation. First and second personal pronoun and second and third personal pronoun can
built a story way which both of them influences the finding data that deploy the personal
deixis to be the most dominant.
References
Berger, John. 2008. Ways of Seeing. UK: Penguin.

Cutting, Joan 2002. Pragmatics and discourse. A resource book for students.London:
Routledge.
Keraf, Gorys. 1991. Tata Bahasa Rujukan Bahasa Indonesia. Jakarta: PT Grasindo
Leech, Geoffrey. 1983. Principle of Pragmatic. London: Longman.
Mey, Jacob L. 2001. Pragmatics. An introduction. 2nd edition. Oxford: Blackwell.
Moleong, Lexi. 1995. Metode Penelitian Kualitatif. Bandung: Remaja Rosda Karya.
Nurgiyantoro, Burhan. 2002. Teori Pengkajian Fiksi. Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University
Press.
Pastia, Andi Lisano. 2013. Skripsi Analisis Penggunaan Deiksis Persona Pada Novel
Laksamana Jangoi Karya Muharoni.
Yuliana, Nuryati. 2011. Skripsi Analisis Pragmatik Dalam Kartun Editorial "Kabar Bang
One" Pada program Berita TV One. perpustakaanuns.ac.id.
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Tempo. 2005. Enam Aktivitas Membangun Literasi Sains. Retrieved May 12th, 2016, from
https://indonesiana.tempo.co/read/43502/2015/06/09/desibelku.1/enam-aktivitas-
membangun-literasi-sains.
Wikipedia. 2016. Film. Retrieved May 12th, 2016, from https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/film.
Westga.. Introduction: What is Media Literacy?. Retrieved May 12th, 2016, from
www.westga.edu/~mmcfar/Film-Media%20Literacy.htm
Discourse Analysis of a Song Lyric Entitled "We Will Not Go Down”
Faizal Risdianto
IAIN Salatiga
faizrisd@gmail.com
Abstract
This library research aimed at finding the three aspect of discourse analysis: contextual,
grammatical and lexical aspect of Michael Heart‘s song lyrics entitled ―We will not go down
(Song for Gaza). After analysis it can be found that the life experience and background of the
song writer and singer is closely related to the idea proposes within the song lyrics. Whereas,
the result of the grammatical and lexical analysis gives a depiction of cohesion and coherence
of the song discourse of ―We will not Go Down (Song for Gaza)‖. There are eight (8) forms
of first plural personal pronoun of ―We‖, four (4) second plural personal pronoun of ‗You‖
and seven (7) third personal pronouns in various forms. On the other side, it is difficult to
find lexical aspects of this song discourse. There is only one form of anaphoric repetition.
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The repetition of the sentence ―We Will Not Go Down‖ seven times is to influence the
hearers whether they are supporters or opponents of the idea brought by the singer/the author
that whatever happens Palestinian people will not surrender to every force, nation or people
that want to colonialize them.
Key words: Discourse analysis, Song for Gaza, Palestinian people.
Abstrak
Riset pustaka ini bertujuan untuk menemukan tiga aspek analisis wacana: kontekstual,
gramatikal dan leksikal dalam lirik lagu berjudul ―We will not go Down (Song for Gaza)‖
karya Michael Heart. Setelah diadakan analisis dapat diketahui bahwa pengalaman dan latar
belakang kehidupan seorang penulis and penyanyi lagu sangat berkaitan dengan ide yang
dikemukakan dalam lirik lagu tersebut. Sedangkan hasil analisis gramatikal dan leksikal
memberi gambaran adanya kohesi dan koherensi dalam lirik lagu. Terdapat delapan (8)
bentuk pronomina pertama jamak, empat (4) pronominal kedua jamak dan tujuh (7)
pronominal ketiga dalam bentuk yang bervariasi. Di sisi yang lain, sulit menemukan aspek
leksikal dalam wacana lagu. Hanya ada satu bentuk repetisi anaforis. Pengulangan tujuh kali
kalimat ―We will not go down‖ dimaksudkan untuk mempengaruhi pendengar entah mereka
mendukung atau menentang ide yang dikemukakan penulis atau penyanyi lagu bahwa apapun
yang terjadi orang Palestina tidak akan menyerah kepada kekuatan, bangsa atau orang yang
ingin menjajah mereka.
Kata kunci: Analisis Wacana, Lagu untuk Gaza, Orang Palestina.
Introduction
Human is social living being, who always need company in their life. It is hard to
imagine that they should live alone without anyone to accompany them. They always need
others in order to facilitate their efforts to provide themselves with their necessities of life. To
carry out the cooperation among others, they need a means of communication, which is called
‗language‘.
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Hornby (1992:62) defines that language is a system of sounds and words used by
humans to express their thoughts and feelings. Other definition is given by Carrol as quoted
by Ramelan that language is an arbitrary system of sounds or sequences of speech sounds
which is used or can be used to interpersonal communication (Ramelan, 1992:10). In other
words, it can be said that language is a system of sounds used as a means to communicate
human‘s feelings and thoughts with others. Ramelan states that the use of language enables
the members of a social group to cooperate with one another for their own benefits
.Regarding the use of language, the writer can say that the role of language is very important
in human life as a means to communicate ideas, feelings and desires among individuals as the
part of social community. By the use of language, we can communicate and express our
ideas, our feeling and also share information with other people. One way to communicate
with language is by the use of music.
The word ―music‖ was derived from Greek word ―mousike‖ taken from the name of
God which led the world of art and science. The primary subject matters of music are feelings
and sounds. These imply that the content of music is a revelation of feelings and sounds and
that music gives us more sensitive understanding of them. According to Webster (1983:781)
―music is the science of art ordering tones or sounds in succession, in combination and in
temporal relationship to produce a composition having unity and continuity as well as
rhythm, melody, and harmony as its elements‖. Greek philosophers and ancient Indian
philosophers defined music as tones ordered horizontally as melodies and vertically as
harmonies.
M. Stubbs' textbook (Stubbs 1983:1), discourse analysis is defined as:

a) concerned with language use beyond the boundaries of a sentence/utterance,
b) Concerned with the interrelationships between language and society and
c) Concerned with the interactive or dialogic properties of everyday communication.
Discourse analysis is how texts relate to contexts of situation and context of culture,
how texts are produced as a social practice, what texts tell us about happenings, what people
think, believe etc., and how texts represent ideology (power struggle etc.) In this study, the
writer will focus on the implication meanings of the Michael Heart‘s song lyric entitled ―We
will not Go Down (Song for Gaza)‖.
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Michael Heart (born Annas Allaf ) is a Syrian American singer-songwriter, recording

artist, guitarist, producer and audio engineer based in Los Angeles, CA. He was born in Syria
and raised in Europe (Switzerland and Austria) and the United States. In January 2009, he
composed and released a song in support of the Palestinian civilian victims of the Israeli war
in Gaza. The song is called "We Will Not Go Down (Song for Gaza)" and gained popularity
on sites like YouTube. The official YouTube video of the song was viewed over 1 million
times within a month of its release; the recording of the song was broadcast on radio and
television in many countries along with blogs and websites worldwide and it was chanted in
many demonstrations in cities ranging from Sydney, Australia to London, England. The
Palestine Argentine Delegation Embassy website also put the song with lyrics on its page.
Heart initially made the mp3 of the song freely downloadable from his official
website, which he reports has been downloaded over 500,000 times, encouraging the listeners
to make a donation to United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the
Near East (UNRWA). After incessant emails from people asking why the song hadn't been
made available on iTunes, he finally uploaded it to the Apple music site in July 2010.
There are many people who like to listen to this song, but they don‘t really know the
true meaning of this song, especially in Indonesia. So the writer specifies the problem
through the following question: What are the contextual, grammatical and lexical aspect of
the song lyrics entitled ―We Will not Go Down‖ by Michael Heart?. It is hoped that after
reading this paper, the readers can be able to know the true meaning of this song, so they not
just able to sing it and listen to it, but they can also understand it.
In conducting this study, the writer used the qualitative approach which means that
the data were analyzed qualitatively. Berg (1989:2) states that ―quality refers to the what,
how, when, and where of a thing-its essence and ambience. Qualitative research thus refers to
the meanings, concepts, definitions, characteristics, metaphors, symbols, and description of
things.‖ The data in this study is in the form of paraphrasing the song lyrics of We Will not
Go Down by Michael Heart. There are two kinds of data in this research: main or primary
data and secondary data.
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The main data was taken from Michael Heart‘s song entitled ―We Will not Go Down
(Song for Gaza)‖. The secondary data were taken from the relevant sources from the internet
that may support the analysis and find the answer from the problems.
The procedure of collecting the data in this study was divided into several steps: (1)
Reading - In the first step, the writer will read and re-read and also listen to the song in order
to get the meaning and the feeling. (2) Analyzing - Next is analyzing the words which need
to be explained to find the meaning. (3) Reporting - The data which had been analyzed will
be drawn in the form of conclusion by paraphrasing the song based on the implicated
meaning.
The theme of the song is about the struggle of the Moslems against the Zionist Israel‘s
army. People of Palestine still do not want to give up even though Israel has destroyed
homes, schools and mosques of the Moslems. The Israel‘s army has killed so many people of
Palestine. So many women and children killed in the war. However, the Muslims still want to
fight with Israel‘s army.
Discussion & Finding
Text might be said that the term of the text is restricted to written language. Modern
linguistics has introduced the concept of text that includes every type of utterance. For
examples, text may be a magazine article, a television interview, a conversation or a cooking
recipe. Besides that, according to De Beaugrande and Dressler (1981), text is defined as
communicative events which have seven criteria; there are: cohesion, coherence,
intentionality, acceptability, informative, situational, and textual.
The term of discourse is restricted to spoken language. Discourse is influenced by

contexts of situation and context of culture, how texts are produced as a social practice, what
texts tell us about happenings, what people think, believe etc., and how texts represent
ideology (power struggle etc.). Discourse competence refers to the selection, sequencing, and
arrangement of words, structures, and utterances to achieve a unified in spoken. This is where
the top-down communicative intent and socio-cultural knowledge intersect with the lexical
and grammatical resources to express message and attitudes and to create coherent texts.
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Lyrics (in singular form Lyric) are a set of words that make up a song. The writer of
lyrics is a lyricist or lyrist. The meaning of lyrics can either be explicit or implicit. Some
lyrics are abstract, almost unintelligible, and, in such cases, their explication emphasizes
form, articulation, meter, and symmetry of expression. The lyricist of traditional musical
forms such as Opera is known as a librettist.
Lyric derives from the Greek word lyrikos, meaning "singing to the lyre". The word
lyric came to be used for the "words of a song"; this meaning was recorded in 1876. The
common plural (perhaps because of the association between the plurals lyrics and words),
predominates contemporary usage. Use of the singular form lyric remains grammatically
acceptable, yet remains considered erroneous in referring to a singular song word as a lyric.
Lyrics can be studied from an academic perspective. For example, some lyrics can be
considered a form of social commentary. Lyrics often contain political, social and economic
themes as well as aesthetic elements, and so can connote messages which are culturally
significant. These messages can either be explicit or implied through metaphor or symbolism.
Contextual and Inferential Analysis
There are several contexts within this analysis that is socio-cultural and situational
contexts. Based on this contextual analysis then it will be explained about inferential aspect.
Socio-Cultural contexts
The comprehension of cultural and social context can be developed through the
understanding of external context analysis of a discourse (Sumarlam, 2003:5). In this case, it
can be observed the cultural and social context by trying to find out the background of the
making of the song lyrics. Reading articles from websites and blogs it can be known that
during the war in Gaza, Michael Heart wrote a humanitarian song entitled ―We will not Go
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Gown (Song for Gaza)‖ in January 2009. It is written in order to support of the Palestinians
victims from the Israeli Aggression.
The song was very well-known in all over the world because it is spread as a free
MP3 which means it can be downloaded without any charge. It has been downloaded by over
half a million people from the official websites and not yet counted from other web-sites.
More than 500 new clips have been made with ―We Will Not Go Down‖ by people all over
the world, and thousands of websites have uploaded the clip and posted the lyrics. As the first
release, the official video on YouTube has viewed by over one million people within the first
month. And the appreciations of the song are very high since the statistic shows that over
10,000 e-mails, comments, and messages are sent to respond this song. The protest towards
Palestinians victims can be seen from these lines of song lyrics:
(1) A blinding flash of white light

(2) Lit up the sky over Gaza tonight
(3) People running for cover
(4) Not knowing whether they're dead or alive
(5) They came with their tanks and their planes

(6) With ravaging fiery flames
(7) And nothing remains
(8) Just a voice rising up in the smoky haze
(9) We will not go down

(10) In the night, without a fight
(11) You can burn up our mosques and our homes and our schools
(12) But our spirit will never die
(14) In Gaza tonight
(15) Women and children alike

(16) Murdered and massacred night after night
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(17) While the so-called leaders of countries afar

(18) Debated on whose wrong or right
(19) But their powerless words were in vain

(20) And the bombs fell down like acid rain
(21) But through the tears and the blood and the pain
(22) You can still hear that voice through the smoky haze


In addition, the song has also been translated into a dozen languages and subtitled on
numerous clips. Besides his popularity achieved from the song, he also received some
critiques. The first, of course, comes from the Israeli politician because they would get the
disadvantages from it. Besides that, many people also claimed that Heart is a follower of any
particular religion. Therefore, to encounter that, Heart explained that the song has nothing to
do with religion. It is only a humanitarian song in nature. Based on the above explanation, it
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can be drawn to the conclusion that how phenomenal this song so it can gain many respects,
responds, or claims from many people around the world.
Situational Context
Situational context consists of physical, epistemic, social context with personal,

locational and temporal analogical interpretation principle:
a. Physical context. These are some aspects of physical context and its analysis.
(1) Based on locational interpretation, the real situation which is expressed in this
song lyric is in chaotic area of Gaza, Palestine and the far away countries
neglecting the suffering of Palestinian people.
(2) The topic of conversation is the voice and steadfastness of Palestinian people
facing the dreadful terror of Israeli murdered and massacred Palestinian people for
years.
b. Epistemic Context
Based on epistemic context, it can be assumed that there is a common

understanding between the speaker/the writer of song lyrics and the hearer/the reader
about the bittering truth and evidence of the misery of Palestinian people particularly
in the area of Gaza and the importance of establishing world‘s peace.
c. Social context
In the perspective of participant‘s activeness, this discourse can be categorized as

a monologue discourse (Baryadi, 2002:10). This discourse does not involve the hearer
who can turn as the hearer treats in this discourse remains to be the hearer.
The interpretation about the hearer in social context can be viewed by analyzing
the speeches of the speaker. The misery or the suffering of Palestinian Gaza is the
saddening problem that worries the speaker so much. It is a naked truth that the more
powerful terrorizing, murdering and destroying the weak without any accepted
rational and humanistic consideration for normal healthy-minded people. In Social
life this is a shameful thing and a dreadful violation of human rights.
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Grammatical Aspect analysis
Grammatical aspect analysis in discourse analysis consists of reference, substitution,

elliptical aspect, and conjunction. These are some grammatical aspect found in the analysis of
song lyrics of ―We will not Go Down (Song for Gaza)‖.
1. Reference
a. Personal Reference
First personal reference found in song lyrics of ―We will not Go Down (Song
for Gaza) can be viewed in line of these verses below:

The element of ―We‖ in line (9), (13), (23), (27), (29), (33) and (35) is the first
plural personal pronoun reference. In this case, the element of ―We‖ refers to the
voice of Palestinian Gaza and for everyone who support the struggle of Palestinian
people to achieve their independence from the annexation of Israel.
The second personal reference in this song can be seen in line of these verses:
All the elements of ―You‖ in line (11), (22), (25) and (31) refer to the hearer. The use
of the word ―You‖ here refer to plural personal pronoun reference.
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The third personal reference in this song can be seen in line of these verses:

(17) While the so-called leaders of countries afar
All the elements of ―A blinding flash of white light‖ in line (1), ―People‖ in line (3),
―They‖ in line (5), ―A voice‖ in line (8), ―Women and children‖ in line (15), ―Leaders of
countries afar‖ in line (17), ―Powerless words‖ in line (19) and ―the bombs‖ in line (20) refer
to the third personal pronoun reference. All of them consist of two category: the plural third
personal pronoun like ―People‖, ―They‖, ―Women and children‖, ―leaders of countries afar‖,
―powerless words‖ and ―the bombs‖ and there are only two data of singular third personal
pronoun found in the song lyrics ―A blinding flash of white light‖ in line (1) and ―A voice‖ in
line (8).
b. Demonstrative reference
Demonstrative reference is easily marked by the use of the forms of ―this‖, ―that‖,
―these‖, and ―those‖ and there is only one data can be found in the song lyrics:
The use of ―that‖ on the phrase ―that voice‖ refers to the voice of freedom in the mind of
Palestinian People.
2. Substitution
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Substitution is the replacement of particular element which refers to the same realities
(Sumarlam, 2003: 28).
This substitution can be seen in the line of verses below:

The word ―They‖ in line (4), ―a voice‖ in line (8), ―their‖ in line (19) refer to Palestinian
people that is simply wrote by the song writer as ―people‖ in line (3).
3. Elliptical aspect
Elliptical grammatical aspect can be viewed below:
(3) People Ørunning for cover

(4) Not knowing whether theyØ're dead or alive
(8) Just a voice Ørising up in the smoky haze
(21) But through the tears and the blood and the painØ.
(22) You can still hear that voiceØ through the smoky haze
The actual grammatical construction is:
(3) People (of Palestine are) running for cover
(4) Not knowing whether they (are) dead or alive
(8) Just a voice (which is) rising up in the smoky haze
(21) But through the tears and the blood and the pain (of Palestinian)
(22) You can still hear that voice (of Palestinian) through the smoky haze
4. Conjunction
There are some elements of conjunction which can be found in the song lyrics ―We
will not Go Down (Song for Gaza)‖:
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(7) And nothing remains
(16) Murdered and massacred night after night
(21) But through the tears and the blood and the pain
There are 11 forms of conjunction ―And‖ in line (5), (7), (11), (15), (16), (20), (21),
(25) and (31) whereas there are four (4) forms of conjunction ―but‖ in line (19), (21), (26)
and (32). There is only one data of the form of conjunction ―or‖ in line (4).
Lexical Aspect Analysis
Lexical aspect used in this discourse to support cohesion and coherence in semantic
perspective. There are some lexical aspects in the song lyrics ―We will not Go Down (Song
for Gaza)‖.
1. Repetition
The terminology used in this repetition refers to the terminology used by Gorys Keraf
(in Sumarlam, 2003:35). In this discourse there is only one form of repetition that is
anaphoric repetition. Anaphoric repetition is the repetition of lingual constituent in a form
of word or the initial phrase on every verse or subsequent sentence. The sentence ―We
will not go down in line (9) is repeated in the sentence in line (13). And it is also repeated
without change in line (13), (23), (27), (29), (33) and (35).
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The objective of the repetition of the sentence ―We will not go down‖ seven times is to
influence the hearers whether they are supporters or opponents of the idea brought by the
singer/the author that whatever happens Palestinian people will not surrender to every force,
nation or people that want to destroy and take the legacy of their ancestors. The Israeli may
burn up Palestinian mosques, homes and schools but they cannot destroy their zeal or
enthusiasm to fight against the enemies or colonialists.
2. Synonymy
Synonymy can be found in these verses:

In the first line of the song lyrics there is a phrase ―a blinding flash of white light‖
which has a synonymic relation to the phrase ―the bombs‖ in 20th line.
Conclusion
The song lyrics ―We will not Go Down (Song for Gaza) has been analyzed based on
the aspects of discourse analysis. Contextual aspect illustrates a vivid picture of song lyric
reality and song writer‘s reality. Many efforts had been made to comprehend contextual
aspects. One of them is investigating the background and the life experience of the song lyric
author and singer and then it is connected to the speeches of the verses or lines produced in
the song lyrics. Music news from internet gives great contribution to the understanding of the
contextual meaning and analysis.
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The result of the grammatical and lexical aspect gives a depiction of cohesion and
coherence of the song discourse of ―We will not Go Down (Song for Gaza)‖. It can be seen
that there are eight (8) forms of first plural personal pronoun of ―We‖, four (4) second plural
personal pronoun of ‗You‖ and seven (7) third personal pronoun in various forms like the
elements of ―A blinding flash of white light‖ ,―People‖ ,―They‖ ,―A voice‖ ,―Women and
children‖, ―Leaders of countries afar‖, ―Powerless words‖ and ―the bombs‖.
On the other side, it is difficult to find lexical aspects of this song discourse. There is
only one form of anaphoric repetition. It is the repetition of the sentence ―We Will Not Go
Down‖ seven times is to influence the hearers whether they are supporters or opponents of
the idea brought by the singer/the author that whatever happens Palestinian people will not
surrender to every force, nation or people that want to destroy and take the legacy of their
ancestors.
References
Alba-Juez, Laura. 2009. Perspectives on Discourse Analysis: Theory and Practice. England:
Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Baryadi, 2002. Dasar-Dasar Analisis Wacana dalam Ilmu Bahasa. Yogyakarta. Pustaka
Gondosuli.
BeauGrande, Robert & Ulrich, Dressler. 1981. Introduction to text

Linguistics.London.Longman Press.
Berg, L. Bruce, (1989). Qualitative Research Methodes for the Social Science: Introduction
to Qualitative Research. Methods. New York: John Wiley and Sons Press.
Halliday MAK, Hasan R (1976) Cohesion in English. Longman, London.
Hornby, A.S. Oxford Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary of Current English. England. Oxford
University Press.
Ramlan, 1992. Introduction to Linguistic analysis.Semarang.IKIP Press.
Sumarlam. 2003. Teori dan Praktik Analisis Wacana. Surakarta. Pustaka Cakra.
Stubbs, Michael. 1983. Discourse Analysis..Chicago.University of Chicago Press.
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Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary. Merriam-Webster Inc, 1983

Michael Heart 'We will not Go Down' played in London Gaza Rally 17th Jan 2009 YouTube
video
―We will not go down (Song for Gaza)‖ Official Video at YouTube
http://www.rabble.ca/rabbletv/program-guide/best-net/song-gaza-we-will-not-go-down
http://www.alertnet.org/db/blogs/29542/c1be2c8229a2af970d6f1f2767c8646c.htm
http://www.groundreport.com/Arts_and_Culture/WE-WILL-NOT-GO-DOWN-Song-for-
Gaza/2888268
http://www.michaelheart.com/Michael_Heart_Bio.html
http://www.palestina.int.ar/noticias/Enero08/Noticia_452.html
http://www.michaelheart.com/Song_for_Gaza.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Heart
INDEX
Arabic, 44 MAKTUM, 8
Bilingual, 27 Metaphoric Expressions, 13
Code Mixing, 31 Metaphors, 20
Code Switching, 24 Personal deixis, 74
Code-Mixing, 24 Pragmatics, 80
Deixis, 74 Research, 34
Demonstrative reference, 101 Second Language, 52
Grammatical Aspect, 100 Second Language Acquisition, 53
Grammatical equivalence, 63 Socio-Cultural contexts, 97
Language, 25 speech recognition, 1
Learning Process, 43 teaching, 26
Lexical Aspect, 103 Textual Equivalence, 60
linguistics, 2 Translation, 62
Literacy Media, 79 Young Learners, 52
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LANGUAGE AND LANGUAGE TEACHING JOURNALS

Vol. 9, No. 1, June 2016 P-ISSN :1979-8903 E-ISSN: 2503-040X

The first issuance

Contact Person for Subscription

Vol. 9, No. 1, June 2016 P-ISSN :1979-8903 E-ISSN: 2503-040X

Speaker-Dependent Based Speech Recognition

Code-Mixing and Code Switching in The Process of Learning

Overview English as a Second Language for Young Learners

The Analysis of Grammatical and Textual Equivalence Used in the

Deixis Analysis of the Good Dinosaur the Movie

Discourse Analysis of a Song Lyric Entitled "We Will Not Go Down”

Vol. 9, No. 1, 2016

Speaker-Dependent Based Speech Recognition

Key Words: MAKTUM, Speech Recognition, Visual Impairment

Vol. 9, No. 1, 2016

Kata kunci: MAKTUM, Speech Recognition, Mahasiswa Tunanetra.

Vol. 9, No. 1, 2016

Exercise making Answering the Assessing the

Vol. 9, No. 1, 2016

Vol. 9, No. 1, 2016

Opertion, functionality, interactivity, and accessibility are a union defining a program or

Vol. 9, No. 1, 2016

Vol. 9, No. 1, 2016

The Description of MAKTUM

MAKTUM yang bisa diunduh untuk android melalui

MAKTUM is downloadable for Android application via

Vol. 9, No. 1, 2016

The resulting design from the aforementioned approach and characterization is a

Chart 1 The Display of MAKTUM

The combination of connectionist approach, ASR characteristics, and pattern approach

Vol. 9, No. 1, 2016

Alpha and Beta Testing Result

The linguistic weakness of Basic English, as mentioned previously, is based more on

The decision to choose Ogden‘s Basic English is in relation to the holistification of

Vol. 9, No. 1, 2016

The basic function, as described previously, does not require grammatical

Vol. 9, No. 1, 2016

the basic problem in pronunciation, International standard pronunciation. This strength,

Becker, W. (1977). Teaching reading and language to the disadvantaged—What we have

Vol. 9, No. 1, 2016

literacy in social practice: A reader, 1-10.

Vol. 9, No. 1, 2016

Indonesian and English Lexical Metaphoric Expressions

Vol. 9, No. 1, 2016

Key words: Metaphor, Online Media News, Cultural Aspects

Kata Kunci: Metafora, Berita Media Online, Aspek Budaya

Vol. 9, No. 1, 2016

Metaphor, as one of figurative languages may be seen as another example of the

Vol. 9, No. 1, 2016

Metaphoric concept is actually based on relativism paradigm that is figured by Edward

Vol. 9, No. 1, 2016

Every nation or language community has different ways of expressing information,

Vol. 9, No. 1, 2016

c. Technique of Data Collection

d. Technique of Data Analysis

Vol. 9, No. 1, 2016

No. Expression The Change from Meaning

No. Expression The Change from Meaning

2. a push toward gender quality  concrete thing motivation

Vol. 9, No. 1, 2016

Non-metaphoric expressions (in meaning column) describe the semantic relationship

Vol. 9, No. 1, 2016

No. Expression The Change from Meaning