LITERATURE REVIEW

ON

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF PIPES

Submitted By
T. RAVITEJA
(MT14STR021)
Structural engineering

1
BURIED CONCRETE PIPES

1. ASCE (2000) published Standard Practice for Direct Design of Buried Precast Concrete
Pipe Using Standard Installations (SIDD) .This paper given the information to design of
buried concrete pipe by direct deign method with standard installations.in this journal
loads to be considered are dead load and live load. The calculation of these loads are
mentioned below.
1.1 Dead loads
In the dead load calculation includes self-weight of pipe, weight of earth, weight of fluid.
(i) Self-weight of the pipe
Wp = π(ro2 – ri2)ϒc ---------------- (1)
Where
ri – internal diameter of concrete pipe
ro – external diameter of concrete pipe

(ii)Weight of backfill. For calculating weight of earth is different for embankment and
trench installations. For unpaved and flexible pavement areas, the minimum fill, including
flexible pavement thickness, over the top outside of the pipe shall be 300 mm or 1/8 of the
inside diameter, whichever is greater. Under rigid pavements, the distance between the top
of the pipe and the bottom of the pavement slab shall be a minimum of 150 mm of
compacted granular fill. Live load impact factor shall not be used in these minimum
conditions. The weight of backfill in embankment condition is
We =VAF X PL -------------- (2)
where
VAF = vertical arching factor
PL = prism load
𝐷𝑜
PL = ϒs (H + 0.0089Do) 12 - ------------ (3)
(iii)The self-weight of the fluid in the pipe
Wf = π ri2ϒw -------------- (4)
1.2 Live loads
AASHTO LFRD given the various vehicular loads
(i)If a rigid pavement or a thick flexible pavement designed for heavy duty traffic is
provided with a sufficient buffer between the pipe and pavement, then the live load
transmitted through the pavement to the buried concrete pipe is usually negligible at any
depth
(ii)Intermediate and thin thicknesses of asphalt or flexible pavements do not reduce the
pressure transmitted from a wheel to the pavement subgrade to any significant degree these
pavements should be considered as unsurfaced roadways and If any culvert or sewer pipe
is within the heavy duty traffic highway right-of-way, but not under the pavement
structure, then such pipe should be analysed for the effect of live load transmission from
an unsurfaced roadway, because of the possibility of trucks leaving the pavement.
(iii)The AASHTO LRFD design loads are (i) a single dual wheel loading of the AASHTO
design truck, (ii) two single dual wheels of AASHTO design trucks in passing mode at a
distance of 4ft apart, (iii) or two single dual wheels of two alternate load vehicles in passing
mode The contact area of the dual wheels with the ground is assumed to be a rectangle
(Figure 1), with dimensions presented in table 1

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 (iv) AASHTO specifications suggest that truck loads may be ignored for burial depths
greater than 2.4 m. For SIDD (standard installation of direct design) designs, truck loads
should be considered at all depths and not arbitrarily eliminated
(v)The calculation of live load encompasses 4 steps.
1. Obtain the following project data: Pipe shape, size and wall thickness, Height of cover
over the concrete pipe, and type of earth fill. LRFD or other criteria.
2. Calculate the average pressure intensity of the wheel loads on the soil plane on the
outside top of the pipe.
3. Calculate the total live load acting on the pipe.
4. Calculate the total live load acting on the pipe in pounds per linear foot
1.2.1 Average Pressure Intensity
The wheel load average pressure intensity on the subsoil plane at the outside top of the
concrete pipe is:
𝑃(1+𝐼𝑀)
𝑊 = 𝐴 -------------- (5)

W= wheel load average pressure intensity, pounds per square foot

P= total live wheel load applied at the surface, pounds
A= spread wheel load area at the outside top of the pipe, square feet
Im = dynamic load allowance

1.2.2 Impact factors

The AASHTO LRFD Standard applies a dynamic load allowance to account for the truck
load being nonstatic. The dynamic load allowance, IM, is determined by Equation 6

33(1.0−0.125𝐻)
𝐼𝑀 = ----------- (6)
100

H = height of earth cover over the top of the pipe in ft.

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1.2.3 Load distribution
The surface load is assumed to be uniformly spread on any horizontal subsoil plane. The spread
load area is developed by increasing the length and width of the wheel contact area for a load
on a horizontal soil plane, the dimensional increases to the wheel contact area are based on
height of earth cover over the top of the pipe as presented in Table 2 for two types of soil

As indicated by Figures 3, 4 and 5, the spread load areas from adjacent wheels will overlap as
the height of earth cover over the top of the pipe increases

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Live load will also dissipate through the concrete pipe itself resulting in an effective length
that resists this load as demonstrated in Figure 7. The effective supporting length of pipe is a
combination of the overlap in live load pressures distributed through the soil, as well as any
instance where the effective lengths from adjacent tires overlap within the pipe itself .These
conditions have been summarized in Table 3.

Le = L + 1.75 (3/4 Ro) --------------- (7)

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1.2.4 Total Live Load
A designer is concerned with the maximum possible loads, which occur when the distributed
load area is centred over the buried pipe. Figure 6 illustrates the dimensions of the spread
load area, A, related to whether the truck travel is transverse or parallel to the centreline of
the pipe. The total live load acting on the pipe is:

WT = w L sL ------------ (8)
Where
WT = total live load, pounds
W=wheel load average pressure intensity, pounds per square foot
(At the top of the pipe)

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1.2.5 Total Live Load in Pounds per Linear Foot
The total live load in pounds per linear foot, WL, is calculated by dividing the Total Live
Load, WT, by the Effective Supporting Length, Le (See Figure 7), of the pipe:
𝑊𝑇
𝑊𝐿 = -------------------- (9)
𝐿𝑒

where
WL = live load on top of pipe, pounds per linear foot
Le = effective supporting length of pipe

In order to facilitate application of the SIDD Practice without using the SIDD computer
program, the moments, thrusts, and shears at points that govern the design of the pipe wall may
be reduced from the results obtained in the SIDD computer analyses for each of the four
Standard Installation types to the form of nondimensional coefficients that are independent of
pipe diameter and actual applied load. The nondimensional coefficients Cmi Cni and Cvi for
determining the stress resultants Mi , Ni and Vi respectively, at governing locations at the crown,
invert, spring line and at the critical locations for shear in the invert and crown regions are
given in Table C-3. Two coefficients are given for live load. The coefficients with an L1
subscript are for a pipe with overfills greater than 1.15 Do and with uniformly distributed live
load. The coefficients with an L2 subscript are for a pipe with 1-ft burial with relatively narrow
load distribution over the crown of the pipe. Coefficients for pipe having an intermediate burial
depth between 1 ft. and 1.15 D0 may be estimated between these two extremes.

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The following equations define the relationship between the nondimensional coefficients and
the actual moments, thrusts, and shears caused by each of the types of total load .The term Wi
in each of these equations represents the following loads on the pipe: pipe weight, Wp;
vertical earth load, We; fluid load, Wf, and live load, WL

Mi = Σ 0.5 Cmi Wi Dm ------------------------ (10)

Ni = Σ Cni Wi ------------------------- (11)

Vi = Σ Cvi Wi -------------------------- (12)

1.3 REINFORCEMENT
The equations in this section contain quantities such as As, M, N, and V whose dimensions are
taken for a 12-in. (1,000 mm) length of wall section. Thus, b should be taken equal to 12 in.
(1,000 mm) in all the equations containing b in this section, and all reinforcement areas are
calculated per foot (meter) of pipe length. Flexural reinforcement shall not be less than

---------- (13)

g = 0.85 b f ’c

b = width of section that resists stress taken as 12 in. (English units), and taken as
1,000 mm (SI units)
f'c = design compressive strength of concrete, Ibs/ in2 (MPa)

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Ǿf = strength reduction factor for flexure=0.95
d - Distance from compression face to centroid of tension reinforcement, in. (mm)
h = overall thickness of member (wall thickness), in. (mm)
Nu - factored axial thrust acting on length b (+ when compressive, - when tensile), Ibs/ft.
(N/m)
FY = design yield strength of reinforcement, lbs. /in2 (MPa)
Mu - factored moment acting on length b, in-lbs. /ft. (Nmm/m)
1.3.1 MINIMUM REINFORCEMENT
Equations (14) and (15) apply to circular pipe reinforced with double circular cages. The area
of reinforcement shall be not less than Asi where

𝑏
Asi = 1000 (Di + h) 2 / 44.2fy ----------------- (14)

The area of reinforcement for the outside face of pipe shall be not less than Asv where

Asv = 0.6 Asi --------------------- (15)

For circular pipe reinforced with a single circular or single elliptical cage, the area of
reinforcement shall be not less than
As = 2 Asi ------------------------ (16)

Di = inside diameter of pipe, in. (mm)

Do - outside diameter of pipe, in. (mm)

1.3.2 Limited by Radial Tension

When stirrups are not used, the wall shall be designed so that the flexural reinforcement
required by equation (13) for the inside cage and/or elliptical cage at the top or bottom of the
pipe does not exceed

----------------- (17)

Frs = 1+0.00833(72-Di ) ------------- (18)

For 12 inch ≤ Di ≤ 72 inch

(144−𝐷𝑖)2
Frs = + 0.80 ---------------- (19)
26000

For 72 inch < Di ≤ 144 inch

Frs = 0.8 for Di > 144 inch ----------- (20)

Ǿs = strength reduction factor for shear=0.9

Ǿr = strength reduction factor for radial tension=0.9
Frp = factor for process and materials that affect the radial tension strength of pipe
Fr, = factor for pipe size effect on radial tension strength
rs = radius of the inside reinforcement, in. (mm)
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1.3.3 Limited by Concrete Compression
The wall shall be designed so that the flexural tensile reinforcement required by equation.(13)
does not exceed

---------------- (21)
b= 12 inches
g’max = 0.85 b f’c
g’min = 0.65 b f’c

1.3.4 CRACK CONTROL

Crack control is assumed to be 1 in. (25 mm) from the tension reinforcement. The Crack
Control Factor shall not exceed that specified, where

---------------------- (22)

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Where

st = spacing of circumferential reinforcement, in.

n = 1, when tension reinforcement is a single layer
n = 2, when tension reinforcement is made of multiple layers
C1= crack control coefficient for type of reinforcement
B1 = crack control coefficient for effect of spacing and number of layers of reinforcement
H = design height of earth above top of pipe, ft. (m)
I = coefficient for effect of axial force at service load stress
tb = clear cover over reinforcement, in. (mm)

1.4 SHEAR STRENGTH

The area of reinforcement, As, determined in Eq 13 and Eq 16 shall be checked for shear
strength adequacy so that the basic shear strength, Vb is greater than the factored shear force,
Vuc at the critical section located where Mnu,/Vud = 3.0. See Equation (22) for Mnu

Where f’cmax = 7000psi

𝐴𝑠
b= 12 inch and ρ = 𝑏𝑑

Where b = 12inch -------------------- (23)

ρmax = 0.02

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Where

Max Fd= 1.3, for pipe with two cages or a single elliptical cage
Max Fd= 1.4, for pipe through 36-in. diameter with a single circular cage

--------------------- (24)
( + ) = tension on the inside of the pipe
( —) = tension on the outside of the pipe

For compressive thrust (+ Nu)

--------------------------- (25)
For tensile thrust (-Nu )

------------------------- (26)

------------------ (27)

Mnu, = factored moment acting on length b as modified for effects of compressive or tensile
thrust, in-lbs. /Ft. (Nmm/m)
Vb - basic shear strength of length b at critical section where Mnu / Vud = 3.0, Ibs/ft. (N/m)
Vt. = nominal shear strength provided by concrete in length b, Ibs/ft. (N/m)
Vuc - factored shear force acting on length b, Ibs/ft. (N/m)
n - Number of layers of reinforcement in a cage, 1 or 2
p - Ratio of reinforcement area to concrete area

If Vb less than Vuc stirrups need to be provided

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1.4.1 STIRRUPS
If stirrups are required for radial tension by or for shear they shall meet the following
requirements
(i) Radial tension stirrups

(ii)Shear stirrups

------------------ (27)
1.4.2 EXTENT OF STIRRUPS
When stirrups are required at the invert or crown regions for shear strength or for shear and
radial tension, they shall be spaced at Sv along the inner reinforcing and extend over a basic
length on each side of the invert or crown where Vu is greater than Vc, plus an additional
minimum arc length 0.5 le from each end of the basic arc length to allow for installation
Variations up to the orientation angle, 9, where

If stirrups are also required at the spring line region (they may be required in very high
loading conditions), they shall be spaced at Sv, and shall extend around the entire pipe
circumference. When stirrups are required for radial tension only they shall be spaced at sv
along the inner reinforcing and extend over a basic length on each side of the invert or crown

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where the required As is greater than the limiting value given by Equation (5), plus an
additional minimum arc length 0.5 LƟ.from each end of the basic arc length to allow for
installation variations up to the orientation angle Ɵ.

Ɵ = orientation angle, degrees

Ms = service load bending moment acting on length b, in-lbs. /ft. (Nmm/m)
siv= circumferential spacing of stirrups, in. (mm)
si= spacing of circumferential reinforcement, in. (mm)
LƟ = total additional arc length beyond calculated arc lengths requiring stirrups, in. (mm)
Fc = factor for effect of curvature on diagonal tension (shear) strength in curved components
FN = coefficient for effect of thrust on shear strength

2. ACPA CONCRETE MANUAL (2011): This manual given the procedure to design the
buried concrete pipe by indirect design method with standard installations. In this method
reinforcement, spacing, minimum wall thickness obtained by ASTM C76 code if we know the
“D load”.it is nothing but the supporting strength required for the applied loads.it is also called
design T.E.B.three edge bearing test is the test to determine the supporting strength of concrete
pipes. This T.E.B value multiply by strength factor to read the reinforcement requirement from
C-76 code. Since supporting strength is a function of earth pressure around the pipe Spangler
theory proposed equation of bedding and its factors to relate the total load at the site to the D
load obtained in the test to avoid the difficulties while testing .In 1970 ACPA conducted long
research programme for considering soil pipe interactions and developed four new standard
installations type 1 to type 4 and replaces tradition bedding factors.The following is the
procedure to calculate supporting strength for concrete pipes by indirect design method using
standard installation and its bedding factors
The design procedure for the selection of pipe strength requires:
I . Determination of Earth Load
2. Determination of Live Load
3. Selection of Bedding
4. Determination of Bedding Factor
5. Application of Factor of Safety
6. Selection of Pipe Strength
2.1 Determination of Earth Load
Calculation of earth load is different for trench installation and embankment installation i.e
positive and negative embankment installation. The type of installation has a significant
effect on the loads carried by the rigid pipe
(i)Trench.. The pipe is installed in a relatively narrow trench excavated in undisturbed soil and
then covered with backfill extending to the ground surface.
(ii)Positive Projecting Embankment. The pipe is installed on the original ground or
compacted fill and then covered by an earth fill or embankment.
(iii)Negative Projecting Embankment. The pipe is installed in a shallow trench of such depth
that the top of the pipe is below the natural ground surface or compacted fill and then covered
with an earth fill or embankment which extends above the original ground level.

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2.1.1 Positive Projecting Embankment Soil Load
The type of installation has a significant effect on the loads carried by the rigid pipe. Although
narrow trench installations are most typical, there are many cases where the pipe is installed in
a positive projecting embankment condition, or a trench with a width significant enough that it
should be considered a positive projecting embankment condition. In this condition the soil
alongside the pipe will settle more than the soil above the rigid pipe structure, thereby imposing
additional load to the prism of soil directly above the pipe. With the Standard Installations, this
additional load is accounted for by using a Vertical Arching Factor, VAF. This factor is
multiplied by the prism load, PL, (weight of soil directly above the pipe) to give the total load
of soil on the pipe.
W=VAF X PL --------------------------------- (1)

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2.1.2 Four standard installations
There are four standard installations in the design. Type 1 Standard Installation requires the
highest construction quality and degree of inspection. Required construction quality is reduced
for a Type 2 Standard Installation, and reduced further for a Type 3 Standard Installation. A
Type 4 Standard Installation requires virtually no construction or quality inspection.
Consequently, a Type 4 Standard Installation will require a higher strength pipe, and a Type I
Standard Installation will require a lower strength pipe for the same depth of installation. For
the relatively high quality materials and high compaction effort of a Type 1 Installation, a lower
strength pipe is required. Conversely, a Type 4 Installation requires a higher strength pipe

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 Standard trench/embankment installation
2.1.3 Trench Soil Load. In narrow or moderate trench width conditions, the resulting earth
load is equal to the weight of the soil within the trench minus the shearing (frictional) forces
on the sides of the trench. Since the new installed backfill material will settle more than the
existing soil on the sides of the trench, the friction along the trench walls will relieve the pipe
of some of its soil burden. The Vertical Arching Factors in this case will be less than those
used for embankment design. The backfill load on pipe installed in a trench condition is
computed by the equation:

-------(2)
Trench load coefficient Cd

where:
Bd = width of trench, (ft)
K = ratio of active lateral unit pressure to vertical unit pressure
μ' = tan ø', coefficient of friction between fill material and sides of trench
Typical values of Kμ' are:
Kμ' = .1924 Max. for granular materials without cohesion
Kμ' = .165 Max for sand and gravel
Kμ' = .150 Max. for saturated top soil
Kμ' = .130 Max. for ordinary clay
Kμ' = .110 Max for saturated clay

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As the trench width increases load reduces due to the action of frictional forces will not work
and eventually load acting on the pipe increases because it will act as a embankment
condition. the settlement of soil is more at the sides of pipe instead of backfill soil if exceeds
certain width then support giving around soil will reduce and more load will come on to the
pipe like embankment.trench width is the width of trench at a particular depth where the
trench load equals the embankment load. Once transition width is reached, there is no longer
any benefit from frictional forces along the wall of the trench. Any pipe installed in a trench
width equal to or greater than transition width should be designed for the embankment
condition.to know the transition width in this manual they provide tables for different dia
pipes w.r.t height of fills for four standard installations
2.1.4 Negative Projection Embankment Soil Load. The fill load on a pipe installed in a
negative projecting embankment condition is computed by the equation:

-------------- (3)
The embankment load coefficient Cn is further defined as

2.2 Determination of Live Load

Live load calculation is same in the case of both direct and indirect methods

2.3 Selection of Bedding

Soil provided as bedding is very significant to support loads

2.3.1Bedding factor
The bedding factor is the ratio of the strength of the pipe under the installed condition of
loading and bedding to the strength of the pipe in the plant test .Bedding factors for
embankment condition Bfe

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2.3.2 Determination of Bedding Factor. Active lateral pressure increases as trench width
increases to the transition width, provided the side fill is compacted. A SIDD parameter study
of the Standard Installations indicates the bedding factors are constant for all pipe diameters
under conditions of zero lateral pressure on the pipe. These bedding factors exist at the
interface of the pipe wall and the soil and are called minimum bedding factors

Live load bedding factor for HS20 loadings (Bfll)

A conservative linear variation is assumed between the minimum bedding factor and the
bedding factor for the embankment condition, which begins at transition width

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For variable bedding factor

--------- (4)
Bdt = transition width at top of pipe, feet
Bfe = bedding factor, embankment
Bfo = minimum bedding factor, trench
Bfv = variable bedding factor, trench
2.3.3 Application of Factor of Safety.. In the indirect method, the factor of safety is defined
as the relationship between the ultimate strength D-load and the 0.01inch crack D-load. This
relationship is specified in the ASTM Standards C 76 and C 655 on concrete pipe. factor of
safety of 1.0 should be applied if the 0.01 inch crack strength is used as the design criterion
rather than the ultimate strength. The required three-edge bearing strength of circular reinforced
concrete pipe is expressed as D-load and is computed by the equation:

---------------- (5)
ASTM Standard C 76 for reinforced concrete culvert, storm drain and sewer pipe specifies
strength classes based on D-load at 0.01-inch crack and/or ultimate load. The 0.01-inch crack
D-load (D0.01) is the maximum three-edge-bearing test load supported by a concrete pipe
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before a crack occurs having a width of 0.01 inch measured at close intervals, throughout a
length of at least 1 foot. The ultimate D-load (Dult) is the maximum three-edge-bearing test
load supported by a pipe divided by the pipe’s inside diameter. D-loads are expressed in pounds
per linear foot per foot of inside diameter
3. Ece Erdogmus, M.ASCE1 (2010)
He published paper on Recommendations for Design of Reinforced Concrete Pipe .In this paper
he collected all information about both the methods and studied about which method is best for
designing of concrete pipes. As we know there are two methods for design i.e indirect design
and direct design method. Direct design method is developed from the basic knowledge of
indirect design method. Designers are using both the methods at present and latest developed
standard installations for direct design method and its bedding factors using in indirect method
with replacing traditional bedding factors and while calculating earth load considering vertical
arch factor(VAF) in both methods. Actually VAF is accounting for the consideration of earth
pressures around the pipe which are neglected in indirect design method. There is some
confusions among the designers which method to use.in the indirect design method traditional
bedding factors are used in that earth pressure is only considered in embankment factors not in
trench factors. bedding factor in embankment installation is depends on earth pressure acting
on pipe wall and it will develop bending moment which is opposite to the vertical bending
moment so it will reduce the load and reduce the size of pipe required. His paper was given the
complete history of development of both these methods and its considerations, limitations so
that designers can have the clear idea about these methods so that they will choose the best
method accordingly. The followings points are mainly observed from the paper
(i) Selection of Traditional bedding factors developed for indirect design method is
complex because bedding factor relates to the strength of pipe at the field to the test.it is
not correct the load applied in test is concentrated load but in the case of field load
subjected to the pipe is load acting more portion on the arch and they not considered the
earth pressures around the pipe in the trench installation .but in the direct design method
standard installation developed by considering earth pressures, soil pipe interaction,
compaction effort ,type of soil in this case we will get clear idea to select type of
installation later they developed bedding factors based on this standard installations
those are used in the indirect design method replacing traditional bedding factors in
which earth pressure considered in both the installations
(ii) In the direct design method they considered lateral earth pressure. Lateral earth pressure
develops bending moment on the pipe wall these are opposite to the vertical bending
moments so that diameter of pipe required is less. due to the lateral earth pressure axial
thrust will act at invert where maximum bending moment occurs it is very significant in
the load carrying capacity in the case of arch concrete pipes this axial force and flexure
induces compressive stresses in the cross section and axial thrust reduces the tensile
stresses developed in the pipe wall this is not considered previously in the direct method
of design later they realised the importance of axial thrust and considered

24
 By using direct design software they calculated revised bedding factors under
consideration of axial thrust shown in table 2

(iii) He compared the indirect design method traditional bedding factors with standard
bedding factors

The standard installation bedding factors are larger than the traditional bedding factors. Since
bedding factor is inversely proportional to the D Load. Load required will reduce and the
increase in bedding factor, which corresponds to a decrease in the required D load, is due to
the inclusion of beneficial axial thrust in the expression for the field moment in the latest
formulation of the bedding factor
(iv) The analysis and design of RCP by the direct design method is much more rigorous but
very much accurate than the indirect design procedure

25
(v) From the above figure he observed that according to direct design method area of
reinforcement required is a function of height of fill and in the indirect design method
reinforcement does not vary linearly with height of fill since this method is developed
based on empirical test results
(vi) Comparison between direct and indirect design methods should not be made according
to reinforcement point of view because indirect design method is some times more
conservative for some height than direct design and at the same time for other heights of
backfill it is less conservative than direct design method
(vii) Since indirect design method is developed on the basis of three edge bearing test results
but in actual field loading conditions are entirely different from test and as in test
condition is very critical under load we will use more reinforcement that is un
economical and that provided reinforcement may not useful for actual field condition as
compare to the direct method of design it gives the realistic values of reinforcement
since we considering limit state conditions.
(viii)From this understanding writer concluded that direct design method of buried concrete
pipe is superior than the in direct design method
4. Ian D. Moore (2014)
He published paper on Establishment of Appropriate Guidelines for Use of the Direct
and Indirect Design Methods for Reinforced Concrete Pipe. He conducted number of
experiments and concluded following points
(i) For lesser diameter concrete pipes direct design method gives the more
reinforcement than the indirect design method so direct design method is
economical and reasonable for larger diameter concrete pipes and indirect design
method is economical for smaller diameter concrete pipes.
(ii) He considered 48 inch concrete pipe for testing .He observed that For low fill
heights, flexure controls, for medium depths of fill there is a small region where
crack control governs, and at deeper fill heights, shear strength controls the pipe
design shown in fig 1.
(iii) As concrete strength increases, flexural capacity increases
(iv) At deeper fill heights, where crack control and shear govern pipe design, increasing
concrete strength allows a reduction in the required steel area shown in fig 2.
(v) Crack control factor ranges from 0.7 to 1.3 .from the above figure if we use the
crack control factor minimum value 0.7 crack control will govern for all fill
heights above 14ft.if we approaching the usage of max value 1.3 it eliminates the
regions where crack control govern the fill heights shown in fig 3

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Fig 1

27
Fig 2

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 Fig 3

5. Gireesh Mailar1, Mallesh M2 et.al (2014): They did modelling the seismic behaviour of
buried pipes in SAP2000 software under various loads and considered soil as springs and
pipe as shell element with thin membrane. They calculated displacements, accelerations,
and stresses in zones II, III, IV, and V under the empty, half full and full conditions. From
the comparison of results they concluded that
(i) As the capacity of pipe increases time period increases

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(ii) As the water level of the pipe increases the frequency decreases

(iii) both the horizontal displacement (X direction) and lateral displacement (Y

direction) are highly susceptible to seismic forces with increasing water levels for
all the seismic zones

(iv) both the horizontal acceleration (X direction) and lateral acceleration (Y direction)
are highly vulnerable to seismic forces with increasing water levels in the pipe for
all the seismic zones.

30
(v) Base shear along X and Y directions is higher for full and half water level
conditions, compared to empty condition, and also it is observed that base shear
keeps on ascending in higher seismic zones for all water level conditions.

(vi) It is observed that, the longitudinal stresses and hoop stresses are high in full and
half water level conditions, compared to empty pipe condition, and also it is
observed that stresses keeps on increasing in higher seismic zones.

31
Scope of project from the above information
1. Analysis and design of direct and indirect method of buried concrete pipes
2. By comparing both the methods evaluating the performance of both the methods
under various characteristics
(i) Showing that how direct design method is economical for large diameter pipes
and high loading conditions
(ii) While considering trench installations if trench width exceeds transition width
trench load equal to embankment load so in that case we have to design like
embankment installation evaluating differences between both the installation
conditions
(iii) In direct design method how flexural reinforcement is the design criteria for
low fill heights and crack control for moderate heights and shear strength for
height fills
(iv) How minimum thickness consideration according to various selection of
classes given in astm c76 code effects the design calculations while designing
with indirect method and derive the condition on which basis to select the wall
thickness.
(v) Study about how the Positive embankment condition is the conservative
installation for the all type of buried condition.
(vi) Study about the effect of increasing strength of concrete on flexural strength.
(vii) How crack control factor govern the design criteria

3. There are four types of standard installations from that for the indirect design method
we will consider bedding factor depend on the type of installation how the design results
varies and similarly in the direct design method coefficients of moments,thrust,shear
selecting depend on the type of standard installation only so have a study to
understanding the results obtaining from the various types of standard installations
4. Studying the issue To get the minimum load, trench shall be equal to pipe outside.
diameter if it is increased it will act as embankment installation then settlement of side
soil is more than the back fill so load taken by surrounding soil transfer load to the
pipe.
5. Evaluate the relation between the height of fill and reinforcement in the case direct
design method.

6.AMERICAN SPIRAL WELD PIPE COMPANY

It published manual to design the steel pipes
The basic criterion for the design of a steel pipe is resistance to internal pressure. Once that
criterion has been met, the resulting wall thickness is verified for adequacy with respect to
other performance criteria such as:
• External loads
• Handling
• Buckling (external pressure)
General Principles
Typically, water pipe should be designed based on the internal working and transient pressure
service conditions to which it will be subjected during its lifetime. For the same pressure
requirements, the increase in cost for using a higher strength material is typically less than the
costs associated with the increased wall thickness required for a lesser strength steel. The use
of higher strength steel normally has little benefit, though, for lower pressure, buried

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applications. In low-pressure designs, handling or other considerations — rather than internal
pressure — will most often govern the selection of the pipe wall thickness.
Internal Pressure

t = PD/2S ---------- (1)

Where:
t = minimum, nominal specified wall thickness in inch (mm)
P = pressure, psi (MPa)
D = steel cylinder outside diameter* in. (mm)
S = allowable design stress psi, (MPa)

*Note: Use of the outside diameter is a conservative design approach

The wall thickness should first be calculated based on the maximum sustained internal
operating (working) pressure, and then calculated based on the larger of the maximum
sustained operating plus transient pressure, or the field-test pressure. As noted in the AWWA
Manual M11, when calculating thickness due to the operating pressure, the design stress should
be limited to 50% of the minimum yield strength of the steel. In addition, when calculating
thickness due to the operating plus transient, or test pressure, the design stress should be limited
to 75% of the minimum yield strength of the steel.
Handling
For pipe with shop-applied cement mortar lining, the minimum required wall thickness based
on handling should be limited by a Dn/t (nominal diameter/thickness) ratio of 240. For pipe
with a spray-applied flexible lining or no lining at all, the minimum required wall thickness
based on handling should be limited by a Dn/t ratio of 288.
External Loading
For buried pipe, resistance to external loading is a function of pipe stiffness and passive soil
resistance under and adjacent to the pipe
The estimated horizontal deflection of a buried pipe can be calculated by the Iowa deflection
formula, as follows: Δx =
𝐷𝑖𝐾𝑊𝑟 3
𝐸𝐼 + 0.061𝐸′𝑟 3
------------------- (2)
Where
Δx= horizontal deflection of pipe inch (mm)
Di = deflection lag factor
K = bedding constant
r = mean radius of the pipe shell inch.(mm)
W = external load per unit length of pipe (WE + WL) lb. /in. (N/mm)
WE = earth load (dead load)
WL = live load
EI = pipe wall stiffness, in-lb. (mm-N)*
Where: E = modulus of elasticity [30x106 psi (207x103 MPa) for steel and 4x106 psi (27.6x103
MPa) for cement mortar]
I = transverse moment of inertia per unit length of pipe wall, in.3 (mm3)
E′ = modulus of soil reaction, lb./in.2 (N/mm2)
*Under load, the individual components of the pipe wall (steel, mortar lining and, when
applicable, mortar coating) act together as laminated rings. The combined action of these
elements increases the overall moment of inertia of the pipe, over that of the steel cylinder
alone. The total stiffness, EI, is equal to the sum of all individual values: EsIs + ElIl + EcIc.

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As noted above, the stiffness of the pipe/backfill system – pipe stiffness and passive soil
resistance of the backfill – plays the key role in predicting deflection. The system is the
denominator of the Iowa deflection equation, where pipe stiffness is the EI term and passive
soil resistance of the backfill is the 0.061E′r3 term. History has shown that, in general, the most
effective improvement in the system’s ability to resist loading comes from increasing the
passive soil resistance of the backfill and not the pipe stiffness. When the calculated deflection
exceeds the allowable, improvement of the backfill material or level of compaction should be
the prime consideration versus an increase of the steel wall thickness.
Explanation of terms
Δx, Predicted Deflection – Because steel pipe is designed as a flexible conduit, significant
deflection can occur without damaging the product. Common practice has limited the
calculated deflection to 5%, although larger deflections may not affect pipe performance.
Deflection limitations are a function of the rigidity of the specific lining and coating being
used.
In summary:
Cement Mortar Lining x Cement Mortar Coating = 2% of pipe diameter
Cement Mortar Lining x Flexible Coating = 3% of pipe diameter
Spray applied Flexible Lining x Flexible Coating = 5% of pipe diameter
Dl, Deflection Lag Factor – The deflection lag factor is a subjective multiplier used to define
the projected long-term deflection of a pipe as a function of the calculated deflection at time of
installation. With a well compacted backfill around the pipe cylinder, it is common practice to
use a factor of 1.0
K, Bedding Constant – The bedding constant is a reflection of the influence of the bedding
angle on the pipe’s resistance to external load. (The bedding angle is a measurement in degrees
of the circumferential contact of the bottom of the pipe with the trench bedding material.) With
improved bedding below the spring line (50% of pipe outside diameter), support to the pipe is
improved resulting in decreased deflection. The range of K is from 0.110 for pipe laid on a flat
trench bottom (no bedding) to 0.083 for the pipe bedded to the spring line. For typical
conditions encountered with the installation of steel pipe, a conservative design value of K is
0.10.
WE Earth Load (Dead Load) – When buried in an embankment or wide trench, the settlement
ratio for a flexible conduit such as steel pipe is assumed to be zero. As such, the prism of soil
directly over the pipe is used as the resultant earth load. The prism dimensions are represented
as a width equal to the pipe outside diameter, a height equal to the depth of cover over the top
of the pipe, and a unit length of 1 in.
WL Live Load – Live loads are typically a result of vehicle wheels, equipment wheels or tracks,
or railroad car wheels. The accepted values for vehicle and railroad induced live loads (standard
HS-20 highway and E-80 railroad loading) are listed in Table 1

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EI, Pipe Stiffness – As noted previously, the pipe stiffness EI is equal to the sum of all
individual stiffness values for each of the laminar rings of the pipe structure; that is E sIs plus
ElIl plus EcIc, for the cylinder, cement mortar lining, and cement mortar coating respectively.
The stiffness of each of the rings is calculated using the modulus of elasticity of the component,
in psi, and the moment of inertia as a per unit length value, defined as t3/12.
E′, Modulus of Soil Reaction – The modulus of soil reaction is an empirical measurement of
a given compacted soil’s resistance to movement. Modification of the value of E′,
accomplished by improving the backfill material and/or improving the level of compaction, is
the most common and most cost effective way to improve the stiffness of the pipe/backfill
system. In recent years, designers have taken note of the inherent increase in the E′ value
relative to increased depth of cover. The contribution of lateral support to external load carrying
capacity of pipelines is estimated by the modulus of soil reaction, E'. The E' value of the backfill
material is related to its type and degree of compaction. Values of E given in table 2.

As compaction of the backfill material is the single most important factor in developing
resistance to external loads for the pipe, a minimum AASHTO Standard relative compaction
of 85% is recommended for all steel pipe installations

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An obvious conclusion that can be drawn from this figure is that there is no economic
justification for increasing the steel thickness to enable the pipe/backfill system to accept
additional cover. The appropriate approach is to increase the quality of the soil embedment
envelope.
External Pressure or Vacuum
ABOVE GROUND OR SUBAQUEOUS UNBURIED INSTALLATION
When pipelines are installed above ground, and the pipe is subject to vacuum, the wall
thickness must be designed to withstand collapse due to the vacuum. Analysis should be based
on the pipe functioning in the open atmosphere, absent of support from any backfill material.
The collapsing pressure should be determined based on an adaptation of Timoshenko’s theory
for collapse of a round steel pipe, as follows:
Pc = 2Es(ts/dn)3/(1-vs2) + 2El(tl/dn)3/(1-vl2) + 2Ec(tc/dn)3/(1-vc2)
Where: Pc =collapsing pressure, psi (MPa)
ts =steel cylinder wall thickness, in. (mm)
tl =cement lining thickness, in. (mm)
tc =cement coating thickness, in. (mm)
dn =diameter to neutral axis of shell, in. (mm)
Es =modulus of elasticity for steel, 30x106 psi (207x103 MPa)
El & Ec =modulus of elasticity for cement mortar, 4x106 psi (27.6x103 MPa)
vs =Poisson’s ratio for steel 0.30
vl & vc =Poisson’s ratio for cement mortar 0.25
BURIED INSTALLATION
History has shown that buried pipelines supported by a well-compacted, granular backfill will
not buckle due to vacuum. When confirmation of this stability is desired, analysis of the
external loads relative to the pipe stiffness can be performed. The sum of external loads should
be less than or equal to the pipe’s allowable buckling pressure, qa, which is determined by the
following
(32𝑅𝑊 𝐵′ 𝐸 ′ (𝐸𝐼))⌃1/2 1
qa = 𝑋
𝐷3 𝐹𝑆

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 Where: qa = allowable buckling pressure, psi
FS = design factor = 2.0
Rw = water buoyancy factor
1-0.33(hw/H), 0<hw<H, but not <0.67
where H = height of fill over pipe, ft
hw = height of water over pipe, ft
B′ = empirical coefficient of elastic support, dimensionless
1
= 1+4𝑒 −0.065 𝐻
E′ = modulus of soil reaction, psi
EI = pipe wall stiffness, in-lb.
Where E = modulus of elasticity (30x106 psi for steel and 4x106 psi for cement mortar)
I = transverse moment of inertia per unit length of pipe wall, in.3
D = outside diameter, in.
To determine the external loads on a pipe, the following equation applies:
ϒwhw + RwWc/D + Pv < qa
Where: qa = allowable buckling pressure, psi
ϒw = specific weight of water (0.0361 lb./in.3)
hw = height of water above pipe, in.
Rw = water buoyancy factor
Wc = vertical soil load on pipe per unit length, lb./in.
D = outside diameter, in.
Pv = internal vacuum pressure, psi
At times, live loads may need to be addressed when analysing potential buckling. Simultaneous
application of both live loads and internal vacuum are not normally considered. When
addressing live loads, the following equation applies:
ϒwhw + RwWc/D + WL/D < qa
Where: WL = live load on pipe per unit length, lb./in.
In either of the above cases, when the qa is not adequate to resist the buckling loads, the soil
envelope should first be investigated to increase the allowable E’.
Trench Configuration
An accepted industry standard suggests that the minimum trench width be no less than the
outside diameter of the pipe plus 24 in. (D + 24 in.). This recommended trench width provides
the minimum, practical space on each side of the pipe to compact the embedment material as
required to obtain the necessary degree of relative compaction
7. Ali Abolmaali, M.ASCE and Anupong Kararam (2011) : they published paper on
nonlinear finite element modelling analysis of soil pipe interaction.in this paper their main
objective was determining the effect of compaction process on concrete pipes and significant
depth to diminishes the compaction stresses by comparing the test results and abacus software
results. Finally they concluded that the following points.
(i) The increase in backfill height decreases the deformation of the pipe’s cross section in
both the vertical and horizontal directions shown in fig 1
(ii) The effect of backfill height on the pipe’s deformation becomes minimized as the pipe
size increases shown in table 1.
(iii) Under compacting force, the use of 15-cm (6-in.) backfill height yielded the most critical
condition, whereas the 61-cm (24-in.) backfill height provided the safest condition. The
higher the backfill soil, the more the effect of the compacting force was alleviated and the
less crack that occurred on the pipe wall.

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 Fig 1

Table 1
(iv) Backfill height has the greatest effect on the reduction of tensile stresses for the 61-cm
(24-in.) pipe, and it has the smallest effect for the 1.37-m (54-in.) pipe. The bigger the pipe
size, the less effect of the backfill height in stress reduction
(v) Before the compaction process is started, the minimum backfill height for the 61-cm-
diameter (24-in.-diameter) pipe shall be 61 cm (24 in.) high for Wall B and 46 cm (18 in.) high
for Wall C. The minimum backfill height for the 91-cm-diameter (36-in.-diameter) pipe shall
be 61 cm (24 in.) high for both Walls B and C. The minimum backfill height for the 1.22-m-
diameter (48-in.-diameter) pipe shall be 61 cm (24 in.) high for Wall B and 46 cm (18 in.) high
for Wall C. The minimum backfill height for the 1.37-m-diameter (54-in.-diameter) pipe shall
be 31 (12 in.) and 15 cm (6 in.) high for Walls B and C, respectively.

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REFERENCES

1. ASCE “Standard Practice for Direct Design of Buried Precast Concrete Pipe Using
Standard Installations (SIDD)” (2000)
2. ACPA “CONCRETE MANUAL” (2011) Design of concrete pipe by indirect design
method with standard installations.
3. Ece Erdogmus, M.ASCE (2010) Recommendations for Design of Reinforced Concrete
Pipe
4. Gireesh Mailer (2014)“Modelling the seismic response of buried Hume pipe using
finite element analysis “
5. Ian D. Moore (2014) “ Establishment of Appropriate Guidelines for Use of the Direct
and Indirect Design Methods for Reinforced Concrete Pipe”
6. Ali Abolmaali, M.ASCE and Anupong Kararam (2011) “Nonlinear finite element
modelling analysis of soil pipe interaction”.
7. American steel weld pipe company design manual

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