MINOR PROJECT

Super-Critical Carbon Dyeing

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the

Requirements for the award of

Degree of Bachelor of Technology

In
Environmental Engineering
(Batch: 2014-2018)
 Under the supervision of

Dr. Munendra Kumar

Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
By:

Ashwini Kumar, 2K14/EN/011

Prateek Singh, 2K14/EN/040

Vivek Dabas, 2K14/EN/060

To,

Department of Environmental Engineering

Delhi Technological University

(Formerly Delhi College of Engineering)

Shahbad Daultpur, Bawana Road, Delhi-110042

 DECLARATION

I hereby certify that the work which is presented in the Minor project entitled “Super-Critical
Carbon Dyeing” in fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of
Technology and submitted to the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Delhi
Technological University (Formerly Delhi College of Engineering), New Delhi is an authentic
record of my own, carried out during a period from August 2016 to December 2016, under the
supervision of Dr. Munendra Kumar, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil
Engineering, Delhi Technological University.

The matter presented in the report has not been submitted by me for the award of any other
degree of this or any other Institute/University.

Signature

Ashwini Kumar, 2K14/EN/011

Prateek Singh, 2K14/EN/040

Vivek Dabas, 2K14/EN/060

 SUPERVISOR CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that ASHWINI KUMAR, 2K14/SE/011 , VIVEK DABAS,2K14/EN/060 and

PRATEEK SINGH, 2K14/EN/040 , the bonafide students of Bachelor of Technology in
Environmental Engineering of Delhi Technological University (Formerly Delhi College of
Engineering) , New Delhi of 2014-2018 batch has completed their minor project entitled
“SUPERCRITICAL CARBON DYEING” under the supervision of Dr. Munendra Kumar,
Assistant Professor, Department of Environmental Engineering.

It is further certified that the work done in this dissertation is a result of candidate’s own efforts.

I wish him/her all success in his /her life.

DATE: 5th December, 2016 DR. MUNENDRA KUMAR

Assistant Professor

Delhi Technological University

(Formerly Delhi College of Engineering)

Shahbad Daultpur, Bawana Road, New- Delhi-110042

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
“The successful completion of my work would be incomplete without accomplishing the people
who made it all possible and whose constant guidance and encouragement secured us the
success”.
First of all, we are grateful to the Almighty for establishing us to complete this minor project.
We are grateful to Prof. A.K. Gupta, HoD, Department of Environmental Engineering,
Delhi Technological University (Formerly Delhi College of Engineering), New Delhi and all
other faculty members of our department, for their astute guidance, constant encouragement and
sincere support for this project work.

We owe a debt of gratitude to our guide, Dr. Munendra Kumar, Department of

Environmental Engineering for incorporating in us the idea of a creative Minor Project,
helping us in undertaking the project and also for being there whenever we needed for assistance.

I also place on record, my sense of gratitude to one and all, who directly or indirectly have lent
their helping hand in this venture. We feel proud and privileged in expressing my deep sense of
gratitude to all those who have helped me in presenting the project.

Last but never the least, we thank our parents for always being with us, in every sense.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1) ABSTRACT
2) CONVENTIONAL DYEING

i) Introduction

ii) Procedure of Conventional Dyeing

iii) Hazards of Conventional Dyeing

iv) Environmental Impacts

3) SUPERCRITICAL CARBON DYEING

i) Introduction

ii) Procedure of Supercritical Carbon Dyeing

iii) Environmental Impacts

4) CONCLUSION

1) ABSTRACT

Increasing consideration of ecologic consequences of industrial processes as well as

legislation enforcing the avoidance of environmental problems have caused a
reorientation of thinking and promoted projects for replacement of conventional
technologies. Quality standards to be met by industrial wastewaters will certainly be
raised in the future which will in turn cause unpredictable increases in costs, in particular
those incurred by having to dispose of dye house effluents. It is, therefore, an important
aim of industrial fundamental research to develop new technologies, not only to optimize
conventional processes but also to solve respective problems by basically novel concepts.
During the last three decades, supercritical fluids, which are characterized by exceptional
physical-chemical properties, have to an increasing extent been used in extraction
processes. Another field, where it is used is the extraction of natural substances for the
production of drugs, cosmetics, spices etc.

A German patent was granted in 1994 for a process in which a dye, free of additives is
dissolved in a supercritical fluid and the substrate to be dyed is suffused with this.
Research of supercritical fluids as reaction medium and as a solvent medium has seen
recent resurgence, driven by needs to satisfy environmental regulations using efficient
processing and separation techniques. From solid-fluid to liquid-fluid extractions,
polymerization to particle formation, alkylation to hydrogenation to nitration,
chromatographic separation to chiral separation, polymer cleaning to parts cleaning,
potentially, all aspects of chemical processing will be touched by supercritical fluids in
future. Carbon dioxide is the most investigated and used supercritical fluid. It is a
naturally occurring fluid that is chemically inert, physiologically compatible, and
relatively inexpensive and is readily available for industrial consumption.

2) CONVENTIONAL DYEING

i) INTRODUCTION

Dyeing is a method which imparts beauty to the textile by applying various

colors and their shades on to a fabric. Dyeing can be done at any stage of the
 manufacturing of textile- fiber, yarn, fabric or a finished textile product
including garments and apparels. The property of color fastness depends upon
two factors- selection of proper dye according to the textile material to be
dyed and selection of the method for dyeing the fiber, yarn or fabric.

ii) PROCEDURE OF CONVENTIONAL DYEING

The procedure for conventional dyeing is an environmentally unfriendly process. The procedure
of conventional dyeing is toxic and wasteful. The process can discharge polluted water and
chemicals, killing aquatic life , ruining soil and poisoning drinking water. It also uses too much
energy, which contributes to global warming.
The procedure for conventional dyeing mainly includes the following steps;

STEP 1: RAW COTTON

Raw cotton is grown, harvested and ginned to remove impurities. The raw fibers are then spun
into yarn. A mill knits or weaves the yarn into fabric, and that fabric enters the dyeing process.

STEP 2:DYE

Dye colors are created by mixing different amounts of red, blue, and yellow into a solution that
is then poured into the dye bath. The dye is then fixed onto the cotton fabric.

3 ) CHEMICALS

The dyeing process requires extensive use of chemicals. In order for the dye to bond and adhere
to the fabric, salt and alkali must be used to force a reaction.
4)WATER

Dye houses typically use two sources of water: local municipal water and/or ground water,
otherwise known as well water. There are many different steps needed steps needed to fix dye
onto cotton including extensive washing. This means the dye bath is filled and drained six or
more times for a conventional dye cycle. The wastewater ultimately ends up in streams, rivers
and lakes.

iii) HAZARDS OF CONVENTIONAL DYEING

Air Pollution :

Most processes performed in textile mills produce atmospheric emissions.

Gaseous emissions have been identified as the second greatest pollution
problem( after effluent quality) for the textile industry. Speculation
concerning the amounts and types of air pollutants emitted from textile
operation has been widespread but generally air emission data for textile
manufacturing operations are not readily available. Air pollution is the most
difficult type of pollution to sample, test and quantify in audit.

Water Pollution :

The textile industry consumes a substantial amount of water in manufacturing

processes used mainly in the dyeing and finishing operations of the plants.
The wastewater from textile plants is classified as the most polluting of all the
industrial sectors, considering the volume generated as well as the effluent
composition.

In the textile industry, up to 200,000 tons of these dyes are lost to effluents
every year during the dyeing and finishing operations due to the inefficiency
of the dyeing process.

In addition, the increased demand for textile products and the proportional
increase in their production, and the use of synthetic dyes have together
contributed to dye wastewater becoming one of the substantial sources of
severe pollution problems in current times.
Unfortunately, most of the dyes escape conventional wastewater treatment
processes and persist in the environment as a result of their high stability to
light, temperature , water , detergents, chemicals , soap and other parameters
such as bleach and perspiration. Dyes can remain in the environment for an
extended period of time, because of high thermal and photo stability to resist
bio degradation.

Dyes lead to number of environmental and health hazards which are as

follows:
1) The greatest environment concern with dyes is their absorption and
reflection of sunlight entering the water. Light absorption diminishes the
photosynthetic activity of algae and seriously influences the food chain.

2) Many dyes and their breakdown products are carcinogenic, mutagenic

and/or toxic to life. Dyes are almost introduced into the environment
through industrial effluents.
 3) Triple primary cancers involving kidney, urinary bladder and liver or dye
workers have been reported.

4) Textile dyes can cause allergies such as contact dermatitis and respiratory
diseases, allergic reaction in eyes, skin irritation and irritation to mucous
membrane and the upper respiratory tract.

5) Reactive dyes form covalent bonds with cellulose, woolen and PA fibres.
Certain reactive dyes have caused respiratory sensitization of workers
occupationally exposed to them .

6) The presence of very small amounts of dyes in the water, which are
nevertheless highly visible, seriously affects the quality and transparency
of water bodies such as lakes, rivers and others, leading to damage of
aquatic environment.

7) The highly toxic and mutagenic dyes decrease light penetration and
photosynthetic activity, causing oxygen deficiency and limiting
downstream beneficial uses such as recreation , drinking water and
irrigation.

SUPERCRITICAL CARBON DYEING

Supercritical Fluid
Any gas above its critical temperature retains the free mobility of the gaseous state but
with increasing pressure its density will increase towards that of a liquid. Supercritical
fluids are such high compressed gases and as such they combine valuable properties of
both liquid and gas.

Thus we can say that: -

1) A supercritical fluid is a substance under pressure above its critical temperature. Under
these described conditions the distinction between gases and liquids does not apply and
substance can only be described as fluid.

3) Supercritical fluids have properties intermediate between those of gases and liquids,
controlled by the pressure.

3) They do not condense or evaporate to form a liquid or a gas. Fluids such as

supercritical xenon, ethane and carbon dioxide offer a range of unusual chemical
possibilities in both synthetic and analytical chemistry.

4) Supercritical fluids have solvent power similar to a light hydrocarbon for most
solutes. However, fluorinated compounds are often more soluble in carbon dioxide
than in hydrocarbons; this increased solubility is important for polymerization

5) Solubility increases with increasing density (i.e. with increasing pressure). Rapid
expansion of supercritical solutions leads to precipitation of a finely divided solid.
The fluids are completely miscible with permanent gases (e.g. N2 or H2) and this
leads too much higher concentrations of dissolved gases than can be achieved
in conventional solvents. This effect has been exploited in both organ metallic
reactions and hydrogenation

Supercritical fluids offer advantages in textile processing as they combine the

valuable properties of both gas and liquid. The solvating power of supercritical fluid
is proportional to its density, whereas its viscosity is comparable to that of a normal
gas. Such a combination leads to highly remarkable penetration properties. The
increased power of solvation with the increase in density is desirable in the dyeing
process as it has a decisive effect on the dissolution of disperse dye in the
supercritical carbon dioxide medium.
Supercritical Fluid-Carbon Dioxide
A supercritical fluid may be characterized best by referring to a phase diagram as
shown for carbon dioxide in Figure 1. A liquid can be converted to a supercritical
fluid by increasing its temperature (T) (and consequently its vapor pressure) and
simultaneously increasing pressure (p). A closed system thus reaches critical values
where no boundary between the liquid and gaseous state can be distinguished, i.e., the
supercritical state.
Further increases in pressure, for example, will greatly increase the dielectric constant of such
system, thus imparting dissolving powers even to a system that under normal condition of p and
T has almost none (Figure 2).

The critical values of T and p for some selected compounds and typical properties of
supercritical fluids are compared to those of gases and liquids in Table 1.
Carbon dioxide is the best choice .It is non-toxic, it is used in the food and beverage industry, it
is nonflammable, it is supplied in large amounts either from combustion processes or volcanic
sources without the need of producing new gas and it can be recycled in a closed system.

The low viscosity of supercritical fluids and the rather high diffusion properties of the dissolved
molecules are especially promising aspects for dyeing processes. A supercritical dyeing fluid
should easily dissolve solid dyestuffs and should penetrate even the smallest pores without the
need of vigorous convection procedures.

Reasons for the Preference of Carbon Dioxide:

Carbon dioxide is frequently used as a solvent because of its special and unique properties: -

1)Virtually inexhaustible resources (atmosphere, combustion processes, natural geologic

deposits).

2) Since carbon dioxide is a constituent of natural metabolic processes occurring in the biosphere
it is consumed by assimilation and is returned to the natural circuit by dissimilation .It is not only
biodegradable as nutrient promoting the growth of plants, but is an essential element of natural
processes.

3) Carbon dioxide does not affect the edibility of foodstuffs and will only have toxic effects at
extremely high concentrations.
4) It is produced on the commercial scale and is readily available together with the necessary
logistics.

5) No disposal problems. It is recovered from the process in the form of an uncontaminated gas
and can be reused.

6) Being easy to handle and combustible, carbon dioxide does not cause problems at working
places.

7) The critical point of the carbon dioxide is within the range which is readily manageable by
technical means( 31C and 73 bar )

8)It in non-toxic, non-hazardous and has low cost.

9) It is nonflammable and non-corrosive

10) Processing with supercritical carbon dioxide often generates no waste effluent stream.

11) Maintenance and running cost for wastewater treatment and drying process is not necessary.

Description of a Supercritical Dyeing System:

The dyestuff/supercritical carbon dioxide/fiber system will in this respect, represents a three-
component/ three-phase system. The three components are the gas, the dyestuff and the fiber
polymer. In their solid state, dyestuff and polymer are present in the form of three separate
phases besides the supercritical mixture. The dyestuff is dissolved in the supercritical fluid,
transferred to, absorbed by and diffused into the fiber. In the first approximation the system is
described as the distribution equilibrium of the dyestuff between fluid and fibers. A more exact
definition of the thermodynamic processes involved in this system will have to consider the
solubility of carbon dioxide in the polymer and in the solid dyestuff as well as the solubility of
the polymer in the fluid. For the sake of simplification, the dyestuff will be considered as pure
component, whereas the solubility of carbon dioxide and polymer in the solid dyestuff can be
neglected. The solubility if the polymer in the fluid is so low that it can be neglected as well. All
other mixtures can, however, significantly affect the dyeing process.

Model of the Dyeing Process:

In the following we shall discuss the principle underlying the dyeing by supercritical media
drawing on the example of a theoretical dyeing of polyester (PES). In the first instance, the
supercritical fluid performs the two essential functions of aqueous liquor, namely the transfer of
the dyestuff and of the heat to the fibers. The model is subdivided into four steps:

1. Dissolution of the dyestuff

2. Transfer to the fiber
3. Absorption of the fiber surface
4. Diffusion into the fiber.

The solubilizing power of carbon dioxide in the supercritical state corresponds to that of the
weekly polar solvents. In contact to the conditions governing dyeing in an aqueous liquor, the
disperse dyestuff is transferred to the fiber out of a molecularly disperse solution and not by
micelles which will then allow it to molecularly disperse liberation. In this respect, there exists a
certain similarity to solvent dyeing techniques which, some times ago, were frequently discussed
as an option to dye polyester fibers, which, however, did not gain acceptance for environmental
and toxicological reasons Other reasons for discarding this option included high prices and
unfavorable energy balances in the case of recovery of the solvents. All these shortcomings are
avoided in this case of carbon dioxide. On the other hand, potential merits of solvent dyeing
techniques are surpassed in many respects.

As will be noted from table 1, the density and thus the dissolvability of the supercritical fluid is
more or less similar to relative properties of liquids, whereas the viscosity is similar to that of a
gas. This has an impact on the dyestuff transfer.

Due to its low viscosity, the fluids will ore readily enter pores and capillaries of fibers and/or
fiber bundles. The penetration, for instance of yarn packages, by the supercritical fluid will cause
a substantially lower pressure drop. In a practical case, this means high degrees of solved
molecules such as for dyestuff are higher by more than three powers of ten compared to those of
liquids. This will allow a faster mass transport and, therefore, significantly higher dyeing rates.
Due to the favorable diffusion properties of the supercritical fluid, even the times needed for the
dissolution of the solid dyestuff will be cut to a negligible minimum.

The state of the dyestuff in a super critical solution can virtually be described as gaseous. This
means that it will be absorbed by the fiber at a rate comparable to the high diffusion rates
corresponding to that of a gas. In addition, the dissolved dyestuff will be quickly available for
diffusion into the boundary layers. This results in high degrees of levelness and low convection
in spite of high absorption rates. In addition, the absorption equilibrium will be achieved very
quickly, which in turn will favorably influence the degree of levelness. In this connection, we
would like to mention that in the case of using dyestuff free carbon dioxide and changing of
processing parameters it is possible to extract dyestuff from the fiber.

A crucial difference to dyeing process using a liquid phase is to be seen in the fact that the
solubility of the dyestuff in a supercritical fluid can be continuously changed across a wide
range. The distribution balance dyestuff-fluid/dyestuff-polymer can in fact be continuously
shifted in favor of the polymer until after expansion of the gas to standard pressure the solubility
in the fluid will be equal to zero, where a theoretical exhaustion level of 100 percent is reached.
In the case of using liquid media this would only be possible by evaporation of the solvent.
Spectrophotometric measurements in a supercritical medium during stepwise reduction of the
density have shown that short-time over saturated solutions will be formed which accelerate the
absorption of the dyestuff molecules lack other condensation nuclei during the gaseous phase.

Supercritical carbon dioxide will be partly dissolved in the polymer. It has a softener-like effect
which accelerates the diffusion processes by increasing the chain mobility of the polymeric
molecules. This indicates possibilities of cutting dyeing times and/or an option to use lower
dyeing temperatures.

As soon as the fluid expanded to the atmospheric pressure again it will completely lose its
capacity to dissolve the dyestuff. Any unfixed dyestuff will drop out during the expansion phase
in the form of a dry powder and can be disposed of. The textile goods leave the dyeing
equipment in a dry state and do not contain any solvent because the carbon dioxide is completely
eliminated.

Concepts for Dyeing Equipment Using Supercritical

Fluids:
A prospective dyeing apparatus for supercritical liquors, a plant which can be variated to meet
special criteria. The machine is an extraction plant modified for processing with the supercritical
fluids. In contrasts to conventional extraction plants the dyestuff are applied to the substrate
instead of being removed, i.e. the fluid will have to be loaded with dyestuff prior to coming in
contact with the goods to be dyed. This can be done in two manners: The dyestuff is filled into
the pressure vessel in defined quantities; the dyestuff is filled into an additional small autoclave
in the desired (surplus) quantity regulating the carbon dioxide content via pressure, temperature
and/or flow control instruments. The absorption of the dyestuff by the fibre, i.e. the diffusion into
the inner parts of the fibre, has to meet high levelness standards.

The necessary convection of the liquor can be achieved by an agitator within the dyeing
autoclave or by moving the substrate. Another option is to penetrate the goods, either by the
circulation of the liquor or by utilizing the current produced by continuous replenishment of
carbon dioxide. In the latter case, the flow of replenished carbon dioxide will have to be
continuously loaded with dyestuff. Residues of dyestuff or fiber admixtures to be extracted prior
to dyeing will be collected in a conventional separator. The separation of phase will in this case
be initiated by expansion or by raising the temperature.

Dyeing Apparatus:
An apparatus for dyeing in supercritical carbon dioxide is consists of a temperature controller, a
vessel heater which surrounds the vessel, a stainless steel dyeing vessel of 50ml capacity (with a
quick release
cap), a manometer, a Varex HPLC carbon dioxide pump and a cooler for cooling the head of the
carbon dioxide pump. The apparatus was pressure-tested for use up to 350 bars and 100 degree
Celsius. A side arm connects the top and the bottom of the cell outside the heater to allow the
supercritical carbon dioxide to circulate by thermal convection.

Principle - Dyeing Procedure:

The sample to be dyed (usually 10-25 cm) is wrapped around a perforated stainless steel tube and
mounted inside the autoclave (1) around the stirrer (as shown in figure). The autoclave is then
closed, evacuated and cooled with ice water. Liquid carbon dioxide (8) is filled into the
autoclave in condensed form, weighing the filled-in quantity. As soon as the autoclave has
reached room temperature again, poly glycol, a heat carrier, is added to the tempering bath. The
pressure rises to 250 bars within about 7 minutes, an isochoric process achieved by heating the
glycol bath to 130 C. Following a dye time of 10 minutes the pressure within the autoclave is
reduced to atmospheric temperature within about 2-3 minutes, the carbon dioxide being routed
through a separating vessel in order to recuperate precipitated residual dye stuff. Dyestuff order
is placed in the bottom of the vessel; the apparatus is sealed, purged with gaseous carbon
dioxide, and preheated. When it reaches working temperature, carbon dioxide is isothermally
compressed to the chosen working pressure under constant stirring. Pressure is maintained for a
dyeing period of 0-60 minutes and after wards released.

Procedure for SC-CO2 Fabric Dyeing:

The fabric sample to be dyed (size= 10 to 25cm) is wrapped around a perforated stainless steel
tube and mounted inside the auto clave around the stirrer. Dyestuff without auxiliary chemicals
was placed on the bottom of the vessel and closed & purged with gaseous CO2 and preheated.
On reaching working temperature CO2 was compressed to the working pressure under constant
stirring. Pressure maintained during the dyeing period of 0 to 60 min and afterwards the fabric is
rinsed with acetone to remove residual dyestuff. Technical parameters are given in Table 2.

Procedure for Yarn Packages:

The process developed for the yarn package dyeing as shown in table 3. Dyeing temperatures
and volume flow rates are similar with conventional dyeing while actual time required is
typically less.
Advantages of Dyeing in Supercritical Carbon
Dioxide:
The possible advantages to be claimed of this process are:

1)Contaminated waste water streams are not produced.

2) Dispersants are not required to solubilise a disperse dye in water.

3) Solubilities are controllable by pressure, allowing control of the dyeing intensity and colour.

4) Diffusivities in the fluid are higher, making mass transfer in the fluid faster.

5) Take up of carbon dioxide by the polymer fibre causes it to swell slightly giving faster
diffusion within the polymer.

6) Viscosities are lower making the circulation of the dye solutions easier.

7) Penetration of voids between fibres is fast because of the absence of the surface tension and
the miscibility of air with carbon dioxide under pressure.

8) No preparation of processing water (by desalting).

9) No effluents.

10) Low energy consumption for heating up the liquor.

11)Energy preservation because drying processes are no longer required (conventional dyeing
processes consume about 3,800 kJ per Kg of water evaporated).

12) No air pollution due to recycling of the carbon dioxide (the gas is not contaminated by the
processes).

13)Substantially shorter dyeing times.

14)Environmentally acceptable formulations of dyestuff - no dispersants or adulterants are

necessary.

15)No chemicals such as leveling agents, pH regulations etc. have to be added.

16)Non-exhausted dyestuff is recuperated in the form of a powder-no waste.

17)Reductive after treatments can be dispensed with, i.e. a whole processing step consuming
water and energy can be eliminated.

18)No need for auxiliary agents, disposing agents, adulterants, etc.

Demerits Sc-Co2 for Commercialization:
1) Dyeing of multiple packages in the same bath.

2) High pressures required for dye solubility

3) Impact of dyeing machine weight is related to circulation

4)During polyester dyeing ,the trimer is produced .this is removed using aqueous
cleaning ,waterless SC-CO2 as a problem to eliminate

5) There is little data about dyestuff solubility in SC-CO2.

Thus research work is under progress to eliminate these demerits .

Future Prospects of Super Critical Carbon
Dioxide System:
The investigation to study possibilities of using supercritical system for textile finishing
processes have in the first instance been performed with the aim of finding an
ecologically acceptable alternative to conventional high-temperature dyeing of polyester,
as such media are particularly suited for dyeing with disperse dye stuffs. Moreover, it
turned out that, besides polyester, number of other fiber material can be dyed with
disperse dye stuffs.

Since autoclaves required for " supercritical dyeing processes ", i.e. equipment permitting
operation at the require temperature and pressures with holding capacities up to one
cu.m., are considered state of the art and the employed for high pressure extraction
processes, many step towards an industrial-scale application in textile plant already being
accomplished. The overwhelming international resonance gained by the new method has
emphasized the high, existential significance of problem met with the treatment of waste
waters in the textile finishing industries. Esp. smaller units allowing short setting-up and
dyeing times, i.e. assuring the high degree of flexibility, were in the center of interest.

Other field for application of supercritical fluid system such as extraction processes is at
present being considered, for instance preparation plants for the removal of spinning oils
etc. In other words the use of carbon dioxide in textile finishing plants is by no means
limited to the dyeing of synthetic fibres. It might, for instance be possible to use
supercritical ammonia for mercerizing operation, or super critical carbon dioxide could
be employed to replace chlorinated hydrocarbons in dry cleaning processes.
Conclusion:
Dyeing in super critical carbon dioxide has been identified as one of the best alternatives to
water-based dyeing and the same has been dealt in detail in this paper. But, this favourable
concept is waiting for its commercial implementation. The Successful commercialization of the
above said concept will definitely improve the economics of dyeing by the way of elimination of
wastewater discharges.