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Automotive Sounds
Norm Otto and Scott Amman, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan
Chris Eaton, Ericsson, Inc., Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
Scott Lake, General Motors Corporation, Milford, Michigan
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defined as the threshold. 10 Difficult detection tasks require
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Quiet
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Loud
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extensive subject training.
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Evaluative Tasks: In this method, subjects make relative judg-
ments (pick A or B) on sounds presented to them in pairs based
on some evaluative criterion. The criterion for these paired
judgments can be virtually anything. Preference is often used Subjects choose whichever gradation best fits their impres-
as the basis for judgment. If all the samples are unpleasant, sion of the sound. In choosing the semantic pairs, it is very
preference seems inappropriate and annoyance is often used. important that they are appropriate to the application. This can
Attributes like loudness and roughness can be used but care be done in several ways. Newspapers and magazines are often
must be taken to insure that subjects can readily distinguish good sources of semantic descriptors for consumer product
the attribute among the different sounds being evaluated. This sounds. Focus groups are another source. In general, techni-
pair judgment process is repeated until all possible pairs have cal engineering lingo is not good because customers are usu-
been evaluated (complete block design). Very often, a replicate ally not familiar with these terms. Finally, pairs chosen for
experiment is conducted. A variation on this procedure is to Americans are probably not ideal for Europeans or Japanese.
include scaling information as part of the judgment.11 An ex- Of course, the converse is also true. It is also important to avoid
ample might be both to pick which sound in the pair you pre- pairs that are closely associated with each other (associative
fer and to rate how much more you prefer that sound on a 1-10 norms). For example, quiet/loud and peaceful/noisy will al-
scale. The scaling is generally unnecessary because PC mod- most always be correlated. Thus, there is no value in using the
els like Bradley-Terry (see the Analysis section) will give you second pair since quiet/loud will serve the same purpose. By
the same information with much less work. Since judgments using both, you are ‘wasting’ a pair, which could be better used
are relative, not absolute, subjects never have to worry about for other, unique descriptors. This is especially important when
previous or future judgments. The PC method is very natural you consider that the practical limit of semantic pairs is 8-12.
and easy for untrained subjects to use because it reflects some- Magnitude Estimation. Magnitude estimation is a method
thing they do in everyday life, make comparisons. A number where subjects assign a number to some attribute of the sound
of successful studies using the paired comparison method have (how loud or how pleasant it is). There is generally no limit to
been conducted.13-15 One disadvantage of the paired compari- the range of numbers a subject may use. Magnitude estimation
son method is that the number of pairs can be quite large since is basically a scaling task without a bounded scale. This
they grow as the square of the number of sounds. More spe- method may offer some advantages over bounded response
cifically, the number of pairs in a full paired comparison is t(t– scale methods (numbered or semantic) in that the subject need
1)/2, where t is the number of sounds. This means that the never run out of scale. A major disadvantage of this method is
evaluation can be quite tedious if there is a large number of that different subjects may give wildly different magnitude
sounds. An incomplete block design can sometimes alleviate estimates. Thus, a key element of this technique is subject train-
this problem. In this design, only some of the pairs are evalu- ing. Magnitude estimation is more difficult, initially, for sub-
ated and these results used to infer how the other pairs would jects to accomplish. They must be given a period of experimen-
have been judged. This approach will work well only if one tation and practice in the technique before the actual data
chooses the presented pairs appropriately. This is best done gathering exercise. This is accomplished by providing the sub-
adaptively, where the next pair presented is based on the cur- jects with a series of practice sounds and asking them to per-
rent results. form the magnitude estimation upon those sounds. There is no
Similarity Tasks: Unlike detection and evaluation, similar- general rule to the amount of practice that is appropriate, al-
ity is not forced choice but a scaling task. Sounds are again though subject progress can be monitored. Subjects with prior
presented in pairs, but instead of choosing one of the sounds, experience in magnitude estimation often require less training
an estimate of their similarity is made. Similarity judgment is and, thus, this technique is probably more appropriate for ‘ex-