Case Study Bioresources Utilization

Solar Energy

Thursday June 5, 2008 The Star

Petrol price up by 78 sen - and will

be reviewed monthly

PUTRAJAYA: The Government announced yesterday an increase in petrol and

diesel prices, stating that it can no longer continue to subsidise fuel.

Prime Minister Datuk Seri Abdullah Ahmad Badawi said the new prices were still
at a 30-sen per litre discount from market prices.

In other words, if the market price is RM3 per litre, Malaysians will be charged
RM2.70 at the pump. He said the price would be adjusted monthly based on the
global oil price….

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RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES

SOLAR ENERGY

The sun is the ultimate renewable energy source. Every day for about ten billion years, the sun
has poured out unimaginable amounts of energy. The Earth, orbiting at a distance of 150 million
kilometers from the sun, intercepts a tiny fraction of this solar output. At the Earth's surface,
incoming energy from the sun is absorbed by the land, water and atmosphere, and converted into
measureable heat. This heat acts like a giant engine, creating winds and currents in our
atmosphere, oceans, and rivers.

Most of the sun’s energy is emitted as visible light. To harness the sun as a source of energy
source, we need to convert it from visible light into heat or electricity.

SOLAR POWER TECHNOLOGY

Solar or photovoltaic solar cells are electronic devices that essentially convert the solar energy of
sunlight into electric energy or electricity. The physics of solar cells is based on the same
semiconductor principles as diodes and transistors, which form the building blocks of the entire
world of electronics.

Solar cells convert energy as long as there is sunlight. In the evenings and during cloudy
conditions, the conversion process diminishes. It shops completely at dusk and resumes at dawn.
Solar cells do not store electricity, but batteries can be used to store the energy.

One of the most fascinating aspects of solar cells is their ability to convert the most abundant and
free form of energy into electricity, without moving parts or components and without producing
any adverse forms of pollution that affect the ecology, as is associated with most known forms of
nonrenewable energy production methods, such as fossil fuels, hydroelectricity or nuclear energy
generating plants.

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SOLAR CELL ELECTRONICS

An electrostatics field is produced at a PN junction of a solar cell by impinging photons that

creates 0.5 volts (V) of potential energy, which is characteristics of most PN junctions and all
solar cells. This miniscule potential resembles in function a small battery with positive and
negative leads. These are then connected front to back in series to achieve higher voltage.

For example, 48 solar cell modules connected in series will result in 24V of output. An increase
in the number of solar cells within the solar cell bank will result in higher voltage. The voltage is
employed to operate inverters, which convert the dc power into a more suitable ac form of
electricity.

In addition to the previously discussed PN-junction device, solar cells contain construction
components, for mechanical assembly purposes, that are laid over a rigid or flexible holding
platform or a substrate, such as glass or a flexible film, and are interconnected by micron thin,
highly conductive metals. A typical solar panel used in photovoltaic power generation is
constructed from a glass supportive plate that houses solar PV modules, each formed from
several hundreds of interconnected PN devices. Depending on the requirements of a specific
application, most solar panels manufactured today produce an output of 6, 12, 24, or 48 V dc.
The amount of power produced by a solar panel, expressed in watts, represents an aggregate
power output of solar PN devices. For example, a manufacturer will express various panel
characteristics by voltage, wattage, and surface area.

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Figure 1.3

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SOLAR PANEL ARRAY

Serial or parallel interconnections in solar panels are called solar panel arrays (SPA). Generally,
a series of solar panel arrays are configured to produce a specific voltage potential and collective
power production capacity to meet the demand requirements of a project.

Depending on the size of the mounting surface, solar panels are secured on tilted structures
called stanchions. Solar panels installed in the northern hemisphere are mounted facing south
with stanchions tilted to a specific degree angle. In the southern hemisphere solar panels are
installed facing north.

Solar panel arrays feature a series of interconnected positive (+) and negative(-) outputs of solar
panels in a serial or parallel arrangement that provides a required dc voltage to an inverter.

The average daily output of solar power systems is entirely dependent on the amount of exposure
to sunlight. This exposure is dependent on the following factors. An accurate noth-south
orientation of solar panels( facing the sun), as referred earlier, has a significant effect on the
efficiency of power output. Even slight shadowing will affect a module’s daily output. Other
natural phenomena that affect solar production include diurnal variations (due to the rotation of
Earth about it axis), seasonal variations (due to the tilt of Earth’s axis,) annual variation (due to
the elliptical orbit of Earth around the sun) solar flares, solar sunspots, atmospheric pollution,
dust and haze.

Photovoltaic solar array installation in the vicinity of trees and elevated structures, which may
cast a shadow on the panels, should be avoided. The geographic location of the project site and
seasonal changes area also significant factors that must be taken into consideration.

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Figure 1.4

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Figure 1.5 A

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Figure 1.5 B

In order to account for the average daily solar exposure time, design engineers refer to world
sunlight exposure maps. Each area is assigned an “area exposure time factor,” which depending
on the location may vary from 2 to 6 hours.

A typical example for calculating daily watt-hours(Wh) for a solar panel arrays consisting of 10
modules with power rating of 75W in an area located with a multiplier of 5 will be (10 X 75 W)
X 5h = 3750 Wh of average daily power.

SOLAR POWER SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS

Photovoltaic modules only represent the basic element of a solar power system. They work only
in conjunction with complementary components, such as batteries, inverters, and transformers.
Power distribution panels and metering complete the energy conversion process. Figure 1.6
represent essential components of a solar power system used in a wide variety of applications.

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Figure 1.6

Figure 1.7

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STORAGE BATTERIES

As mentioned previously, solar cells are devices that merely convert solar energy into a dc
voltage. Solar cells do not store energy. To store energy beyond daylight, the dc voltage is used
to charge an appropriate set of batteries.

The reserve capacity of batteries is referred to as system, autonomy. This varies according to the
requirements of specific application. Batteries in applications that require anatomy form a critical
component of a solar power system. Battery banks in photovoltaic applications are designed to
operate at deep-cycle discharge rates and are generally maintenance-free.

The amount of required autonomy time depends on the specific application. Circuit loads such as
telecommunication and remote telemetry stations may require two weeks of autonomy, whereas
a residential unit may require no more than 12 hours. Batteries must be properly selected to store
sufficient energy for the daily demand. When calculating battery ampere-hours and storage
capacity, additional derating factors, such as cloudy and sunless conditions, must be taken into
consideration.

CHANGE REGULATORS

Charge regulators are electronic devices designed to protect batteries from overcharging. They
are installed between the solar array termination boxes and batteries.

INVERTERS

Photovoltaic panels generate direct current, which can only be used by a limited number of
devices. Most residential, commercial, and industrial devices and appliances are designed to
work with alternating current. Inverters are devices that convert direct current to alternating
current. Although inverters are usually designed for specific application requirements, the basic

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conversion principles remain the same. Essentially, the inversion process consists of the
following.

Wave formation process Direct current, characterized by a continuous potential of positive and
negative references, is essentially chopped into equidistant segments, which are then processed
through circuitry that alternately eliminates positive and negative portions of the chopped
pattern, resulting in a waveform pattern called a square wave.

Wave shaping or filtration process A square wave, when analyzed mathematically consist of a
combination of a very large number of sinusoidal wave patterns called harmonics. Each wave
harmonic has a distinct number of cycles (rise and fall pattern within a time period).

An electronic device referred to as a choke (magnetic coils) or filter discriminates passes through
60 cycle’s harmonics, which form the basis of sinusoidal current. Solid state inverters use a
highly efficient conversion technique known as envelope construction. Direct current is sliced
into fine sections, which are then converted into a progressive rising(positive) and falling
(negative) sinusoidal 60-cycle waveform pattern. This chopped sinusoidal wave is passed
through a series of electronic filters that produce an output current, which has a smooth
sinusoidal curvature.

Protective relaying systems In general, most inverters used in photovoltaic applications are built
from sensitive solid-state electronic devices that are very susceptible to external stray spikes,
load short circuits, and overload voltage and currents. Tp protect the equipment from harm,
inverters incorporates a number of electronic circuitry:

 Synchronization relay

 Undervoltage relay

 Overcurrent relay

 Ground trip or overcurrent relay

 Overvoltage relay

 Overfrequency relay

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 Underfrequency relay

Most inverters designed for photovoltaic applications are designed to allow simultaneous
paralleling of multiple units. For instance, to support a 60-kW load, outputs of three 20-kW
inverters may be connected in parallel. Depending on the power system requirements, inverters
can produce single or three phase power at any required voltage or current capacity. Standard
outputs available are single phase 120 V ac and three phases 120/208 and 277/480 V ac. In some
instances step-up transformers are used to convert the output of 120/208 V ac inverters to higher
voltages.

Input and output power distribution systems To protect inverters from stray strikes resulting from
lightning or high-energy spikes, dc inputs from PV arrays are protected by fuses, housed at
junction box located in close proximity to the inverters. Additionally, inverter dc input ports are
protected by various types of semiconducting devices that clip excessively high voltage spikes
resulting from lightning activity.

To prevent damage resulting from voltage reversal, each positive output (+) output lead within a
PV cells is connected to a rectifier, a unidirectional element. Alternating-current output power
from inverters is connected to the loads by means of electronic or magnetic-type circuits
breakers. These serve to protect the unit form external ovecurrent and short circuits.

SOLAR POWER APPLICATION

The simplest solar power applications require output from a PV cell or an array to supply power
to dc motors or circuit devices requiring dc power. An example of a rudimentary application is
pump driven by a dc motor that provides a continuous stream of water from a well. This
application is quite prevalent in remotely located cattle ranches. Other examples of simple PV
cells applications include remotely located communications transmitters, repeater stations,
highway signs, roadside emergency telephones, telephones booths, landscape fixtures,
surveillance cameras, and a large variety of commercial equipment and appliances.

To prevent damage from power surges resulting from strong magnetic field interference and
lightning, most of this equipment incorporates appropriate power input surge protection,

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lightning arresters, and ground-fault protection devices. Equipment that requires specific
autonomy time is provided with battery backup systems that provide adequate power sustenance.
In applications requiring ac power, the dc output of a solar array is connected to an inverter
system. Likewise, depending on the application, PV systems can be equipped with battery-
backed systems and wide variety of distribution and voltage transformation equipment.

ROOF-MOUNT INSTALLATION

Roof-mount solar power installation is made of either tilted or flat-type roof support structures or
a combination of both. Installation hardware and method also different depending on whether the
building already exists or is a new construction. Roof attachment hardware material also varies
for wood-based and concrete constructions. Figure 2.2 depicts a prefabricated PV module
support railing system used for roof-mount installations.

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Figure 2.1 & 2.2

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APPLICATIONS TO CAR

SOLAR CAR

A solar vehicle is an electric vehicle powered by solar electricity. This is obtained from solar
panels on the surface (generally, the top or window) of the vehicle or using a solar jacket in
electric bicycles. Photovoltaic (PV) cells convert the sun's energy directly into electrical energy.

Solar vehicles are not sold as practical day-to-day transportation devices at present, but are
primarily demonstration vehicles and engineering exercises, often sponsored by government
agencies. However indirectly solar-charged vehicles are widespread and solar boats are available
commercially.

Solar cars combine technology typically used in the aerospace, bicycle, alternative energy and
automotive industries. The design of a solar vehicle is severely limited by the amount of energy
input into the car. Most solar cars have been built for the purpose of solar car races. Exceptions
include solar-powered cars and utility vehicles.

Solar cars are often fitted with gauges as seen in conventional cars. In order to keep the car
running smoothly, the driver must keep an eye on these gauges to spot possible problems. Cars
without gauges almost always feature wireless telemetry, which allows the driver's team to
monitor the car's energy consumption, solar energy capture and other parameters and free the
driver to concentrate on driving.

Solar cars depend on PV cells to convert sunlight into electricity. In fact, 51% of sunlight
actually enters the Earth's atmosphere. Unlike solar thermal energy which converts solar energy
to heat for either household purposes, industrial purposes or to be converted to electricity, PV
cells directly convert sunlight into electricity. When sunlight (photons) strikes PV cells, they
excite electrons and allow them to flow, creating an electrical current. PV cells are made of

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semiconductor materials such as silicon and alloys of indium, gallium and nitrogen. Silicon is the
most common material used and has an efficiency rate of 15-20%.

SOLAR CELL

A solar cell converts solar energy to electrical energy. Photons in sunlight provide the energy
that moves electrons from one layer of a semi-conducting metallic wafer to another. The
movement of the electrons creates a current.

Solar cells are devices which convert solar energy directly into electricity. The most common
solar cells function by the photovoltaic effect. Photo- means light and -voltaic means electrical
current or electricity. A solar cell supplies direct current (DC) electricity that can be used to
power DC motors and light bulbs among other things. Solar cells can even be used to charge
rechargeable batteries so that electricity can be stored or transported for later use when the sun is
not available.
There are primarily two types of cells used today, silicon and gallium arsenide, which come in
several different grades and varying efficiencies. The satellites that orbit the earth typically use
gallium arsenide, while silicon is more commonly used for Earth based (terrestrial) applications.

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Stock class solar cars use commercially available terrestrial grade silicon cells. Numerous
individual cells (approaching 1000) are combined to form the "solar array". Depending on the
electric motor used to drive the car, these arrays generally work between 50 and 200 volts, and
can provide up to around 1000 watts of power. The intensity of the sun, cloud cover, and
temperature affect the array's output.

Open class solar cars can use any type of solar cell and many teams use the space grade cells.
These cells are generally smaller and much more expensive than the conventional silicon cells.
They also are more efficient. Photovoltaic cells are a relatively technology. Their development
and use has come about as part of the technology developed for space travel and satellite
communication systems.

HOW DOES A SOLAR CELL WORK IN SOLAR CAR

Solar cells are composed of various semiconducting materials. Semiconductors are materials,
which become electrically conductive when supplied with light or heat, but which operate as
insulators at low temperatures.

Over 95% of all the solar cells produced worldwide are composed of the semiconductor material
Silicon (Si). As the second most abundant element in earth`s crust, silicon has the advantage, of
being available in sufficient quantities, and additionally processing the material does not burden
the environment. To produce a solar cell, the semiconductor is contaminated or "doped".
"Doping" is the intentional introduction of chemical elements, with which one can obtain a
surplus of either positive charge carriers (p-conducting semiconductor layer) or negative charge
carriers (n-conducting semiconductor layer) from the semiconductor material. If two differently
contaminated semiconductor layers are combined, then a so-called p-n-junction results on the
boundary of the layers.

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At this junction, an interior electric field is built up which leads to the separation of the charge
carriers that are released by light. Through metal contacts, an electric charge can be tapped. If the
outer circuit is closed, meaning a consumer is connected, then direct current flows. Silicon cells
are approximately 10 cm by 10 cm large (recently also 15 cm by 15 cm). A transparent anti-
reflection film protects the cell and decreases reflective loss on the cell surface.

PHOTOVOLTAICS: Solar Electricity and Solar Cells in Theory and Practice

The word Photovoltaic is a combination of the Greek word for Light and the name of the
physicist Allesandro Volta. It identifies the direct conversion of sunlight into energy by means of
solar cells. The conversion process is based on the photoelectric effect discovered by Alexander
Bequerel in 1839. The photoelectric effect describes the release of positive and negative charge
carriers in a solid state when light strikes its surface.

Photovoltaic cell construction

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CHARACTERISTICS OF A SOLAR CELL

The usable voltage from solar cells depends on the semiconductor material. In silicon it amounts
to approximately 0.5 V. Terminal voltage is only weakly dependent on light radiation, while the
current intensity increases with higher luminosity. A 100 cm² silicon cell, for example, reaches a
maximum current intensity of approximately 2 A when radiated by 1000 W/m².

The output (product of electricity and voltage) of a solar cell is temperature dependent. Higher
cell temperatures lead to lower output, and hence to lower efficiency. The level of efficiency
indicates how much of the radiated quantity of light is converted into useable electrical energy.

DIFFERENT CELL TYPES

One can distinguish three cell types according to the type of crystal: monocrystalline,
polycrystalline and amorphous. To produce a monocrystalline silicon cell, absolutely pure
semiconducting material is necessary. Monocrystalline rods are extracted from melted silicon
and then sawed into thin plates. This production process guarantees a relatively high level of
efficiency.

The production of polycrystalline cells is more cost-efficient. In this process, liquid silicon is
poured into blocks that are subsequently sawed into plates. During solidification of the material,
crystal structures of varying sizes are formed, at whose borders defects emerge. As a result of
this crystal defect, the solar cell is less efficient.

If a silicon film is deposited on glass or another substrate material, this is a so-called amorphous
or thin layer cell. The layer thickness amounts to less than 1µm (thickness of a human hair: 50-
100 µm), so the production costs are lower due to the low material costs. However, the efficiency
of amorphous cells is much lower than that of the other two cell types. Because of this, they are
primarily used in low power equipment (watches, pocket calculators) or as facade elements.

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Level of efficiency in % Level of efficiency in %

Material
Lab Production
Monocrystalline
approx. 24 14 to17
Silicon
Polycrystalline
approx. 18 13 to15
Silicon
Amorphous Silicon approx. 13 5 to7

FROM CELL TO MODULE

In order to make the appropriate voltages and outputs available for different applications, single
solar cells are interconnected to form larger units. Cells connected in series have a higher
voltage, while those connected in parallel produce more electric current. The interconnected
solar cells are usually embedded in transparent Ethyl-Vinyl-Acetate, fitted with an aluminum or
stainless steel frame and covered with transparent glass on the front side.

The typical power ratings of such solar modules are between 10 Wpeak and 100 Wpeak. The
characteristic data refer to the standard test conditions of 1000 W/m² solar radiation at a cell
temperature of 25° Celsius. The manufacturer's standard warranty of ten or more years is quite
long and shows the high quality standards and life expectancy of today's products.

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SOLAR CAR ARRAY

The solar array is the vehicle's only source of power during the cross-country Rayce. The array is
made up of many (often several hundred) photovoltaic solar cells that convert the sun's energy
into electricity. Teams use a variety of solar cell technologies to build their arrays. The cell types
and dimensions of the array are restricted by the Regulations, depending on the vehicle size and
class.

The cells are wired together to form strings. Several strings are often wired together to form a
section or panel that has a voltage close to the nominal battery voltage. There are several
methods used to string the cells together, but the primary goal is to get as many solar cells
possible in the space available. The solar cells are very fragile and can be damaged easily. Teams
protect the cells from both the weather and breakage by encapsulating them. There are several
methods used to encapsulate cells and the goal is to protect the cells while adding the least
amount of weight.

The power produced by the solar array varies depending on the weather, the sun's position in the
sky, and the solar array itself. On a bright, sunny day at noon, a good solar car solar array will
produce well over 1000 watts (1.3 hp) of power. The power from the array is used either to
power the electric motor or stored in the battery pack for later use.

Solar Car Array - or cells arrangement

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Toyota Solar Prius

The solar array consists of hundreds of photovoltaic solar cells converting sunlight into
electricity. In order to construct an array, PV cells are placed together to form modules which are
placed together to form an array. The larger arrays in use can produce over 2 kilowatts (2.6 hp).

The solar array can be mounted in several ways:

• Horizontal - This most common arrangement gives most overall power during most of
the day in low latitudes or higher latitude summers and offers little interaction with the
wind. Horizontal arrays can be integrated or be in the form of a free canopy.
• Vertical - This arrangement is sometimes found in free standing or integrated sails to
harness wind energy. Useful solar power is limited to mornings, evenings, or winters and
when the vehicle is pointing in the right direction.
• Adjustable - Free solar arrays can often be tilted around the axis of travel in order to
increase power when the sun is low and well to the side. An alternative is to tilt the whole
vehicle when parked. Two-axis adjustment is only found on marine vehicles, where the
aerodynamic resistance is of less importance than with road vehicles.
• Integrated - Some vehicles cover every available surface with solar cells. Some of the
cells will be at an optimal angle whereas others will be shaded.

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• Trailer - Solar trailers are especially useful for retrofitting existing vehicles with little
stability, e.g. bicycles. Some trailers also include the batteries and others also the drive
motor.
• Remote - By mounting the solar array at a stationary location instead of the vehicle,
power can be maximized and resistance minimized. The virtual grid-connection however
involves more electrical losses than with true solar vehicles and the battery must be
larger.

The choice of solar array geometry involves an optimization between power output, aerodynamic
resistance and vehicle mass, as well as practical considerations. For example, a free horizontal
canopy gives 2-3 times the surface area of a vehicle with integrated cells but offers better cooling
of the cells and shading of the riders. There are also thin flexible solar arrays in development.

Solar arrays on solar cars are mounted and encapsulated very differently from stationary solar
arrays. Solar arrays on solar cars are usually mounted using industrial grade double-sided
adhesive tape right onto the car's body.

Some solar cars use gallium arsenide solar cells, with efficiencies around thirty percent. Other
solar cars use silicon solar cells, with efficiencies around twenty percent.

CONCLUSION

Renewable energy resources offer many advantages to an energy-hungry world. They can be
used in many ways, offer minimal environmental problems, and can be harnessed with
appropriate technology.

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REFERENCES

 R .A Hinrichs and M.Kleinbach. Energy its use and the environment. 4th Edition.
Thomson, Brooks/Cole US: 2006: 160-195
 http://www.ccisolar.caltech.edu

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