Lecture 8A - Accelerometry

MEC219 – EEC246
Mechanical Engineering Department
University of California at Berkeley
Professor Albert P. Pisano
Prepared by: “Trey” Thomas H. Cauley III
Other Contributors: Professor Roger T. Howe
Last Updated: February 9, 2005
Outline

„ Lumped parameter oscillator

{ Definition
{ Free vibration
{ Forced vibration
{ Structural damping
{ Nonlinear oscillations
„ Accelerometry
{ Seismic instruments
{ Accelerometer analysis
{ Elementary accelerometer design
Definition of a Lumped Parameter Oscillator

„ Discrete, “rigid” mass

„ Discrete, “massless” spring
„ Total degrees-of-freedom (DOF) equal
to number of modes
„ Springs deform quasi-statically
„ No resonances in the spring itself
„ Governed by ordinary differential
equations (ODE)
Analysis Methods of a Lumped-Parameter Oscillator

„ Newtonian force summation

„ Lagrange’s equations (energy)
„ D’Alembert (fictitious inertia force)
Single DOF Oscillator
Free Vibration of a Single DOF Oscillator

„ Assumptions
{ No external force, F(t)
„ Equation of motion, from force balance
{ Standard: m&x& + cx& + kx = 0
{ Canonic form, mechanical: &x& + 2ξω n x& + ω n2 x = 0
{ Canonic form, electrical: &x& + ωn x& + ωn2 x = 0
Q
„ Boundary conditions
{ Initial displacement, x(t=0) = xo
{ Initial velocity, v(t=0) = vo
Characteristics of Free Vibration

„ Natural frequency
k
{ ωn =
m
„ Period
{ 2π
τ=
ω
„ Damped natural frequency
{ ωd = ωn 1 − ξ 2
„ Damping factor
c
{ ξ=
ccr
„ Critical damping
{ ccr = 2 km

„ Quality factor
1
{ Q=
2ξ
Characteristics of Free Vibration

„ Free response
{

„ Logarithmic decrement
{

„ Determine decrement envelope

{

„ Use least squares fit to obtain damping ratio

{
Forced Vibration of a Single DOF Oscillator

„ Assumptions
{ Apply a sinusoidal force, F(t) = F sin ωt
„ Equation of motion, from force balance
{ m&x& + cx& + kx = F sin ωt
„ Boundary conditions
{ Initial displacement, x(t=0) = xo
{ Initial velocity, v(t=0) = vo
Forced Vibration of a Single DOF Oscillator

„ Assuming free vibration solution damps

“quickly”
{ x = X sin (ωt − φ )

„ Magnification factor
F /k
{ X=
2
⎡ ⎛ω ⎞ ⎤ 2 ⎛ω ⎞
22

⎢1 − ⎜ ω ⎟ ⎥ + 4ξ ⎜ ω ⎟
⎣ ⎝ n⎠
⎦ ⎝ n⎠

„ Phase angle
ω
{ 2ξ
ωn
φ = arctan 2
⎛ω ⎞
1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ ωn ⎠
Frequency & Phase Response of a Forced
Vibration in a Single DOF Oscillator
Characteristics of Forced Vibration

„ Phase detection requires:

{ a high Quality Factor, Q, or equivalently
{ a low Damping Ratio, C/Ccr
„ Resonance occurs when the natural
frequency and the forced frequency match
„ Higher Quality Factors (Q) or lower
Damping Ratios (C/Ccr) result in higher
Magnification Factors
Sources of Structural Damping

„ Internal, material damping

„ Lattice deflections
„ Thermoelasticity
„ Damping is proportional to
displacement
Structural Damping

„ External damping usually dominates

„ Viscous damping is typically sufficient
for modeling
„ Exception: High-Q systems
{ Ultra low viscous damping
{ Structural damping remains
Structural Damping Model
„ Structural Damping Magnification Factor
F /k
{ X =
2
⎡ ⎛ ω ⎞2 ⎤
⎢1 − ⎜ ω ⎟ ⎥ + γ
2

⎣ ⎝ n⎠
⎦
„ Structural damping factor (very
conservative)
{ Typical range, 0 ≤ γ ≤ 0.05
{ Cast Iron, 0.1
{ Manganese, copper, 0.85
„ Near resonance, structural damping
indistinguishable from viscous damping
„ Structural damping limits ultimate Q
Nonlinear Oscillations

„ Linear theory
{ Constant
coefficients: m, k,
and c
„ Common non-
linearities
{ Softening spring
{ Hardening spring

Figure: Response of three types

of springs (linear, hard, & soft)
 Nonlinear Frequency Response

Figure: Frequency response of systems with a (a) Linear spring, (b) Softening
spring, and (c) Hardening spring.

„ Frequency response is different going up and going down

„ The response is 0-1-2-3 going up and 3-4-5-0 going down
Seismic Instruments

„ Motion
measurement that
relies on inertia
„ Mass stays put,
ground moves
„ x=xm-xb
Vibrometer

„ Large proof mass, m

„ Small spring constant, k
„ Low natural frequency
„ Proof mass remains “stationary”
„ Thus, assume x = xb
Accelerometer

„ Small proof mass, m

„ Large spring constant, k
„ High natural frequency
„ Proof mass tracks the base
„ Thus, assume x = 0
Accelerometer Analysis
„ Newton’s Law holds in
inertial frame
„ Summation of forces
{ m&x&m + c(x& m − x&b ) + k ( xm − xb ) = 0
„ In terms of relative
coordinate, x
{ m&x& + m&x&b + cx& + kx = 0
„ Governing equation
{ m&x& + cx& + kx = −m&x&b
„ Assume base motion
is the forcing function
Reconsider Magnification Factor
Elementary Accelerometer Design

„ Suppose internal damping small, but

unknown
{ Assume high Q
{ Assume 1% accuracy
{ Limit magnification to 1.01
{ Frequency ratio must be less then 0.1
„ Conclusion: Natural frequency of
accelerometer must exceed expected
frequency by a factor of 10
Forced Vibration of a Single DOF Oscillator

„ Assuming free vibration solution damps

“quickly”
{ x = X sin (ωt − φ )

„ Magnification factor
F /k
{ X=
2
⎡ ⎛ω ⎞ ⎤ 2 ⎛ω ⎞
22

⎢1 − ⎜ ω ⎟ ⎥ + 4ξ ⎜ ω ⎟
⎣ ⎝ n⎠
⎦ ⎝ n⎠

„ Phase angle
ω
{ 2ξ
ωn
φ = arctan 2
⎛ω ⎞
1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ ωn ⎠
Elementary Accelerometer Design

„ Suppose internal damping is optimized

{ design Q to be 1.4
{ assume 1% accuracy
{ limit magnification to 0.99
{ frequency ratio must be less then 0.4
„ Conclusion: Natural frequency of accelerometer
must exceed expected frequency by a factor of 2.5
„ Bandwidth extended 4 times!
„ Deleterious effect of low Q was ignored
{ Phase shift of signal further from accelerometer frequency
{ Phase detection methods no longer suitable
Forced Vibration of a Single DOF Oscillator

„ Assuming free vibration solution damps

“quickly”
{ x = X sin (ωt − φ )

„ Magnification factor
F /k
{ X=
2
⎡ ⎛ω ⎞ ⎤ 2 ⎛ω ⎞
22

⎢1 − ⎜ ω ⎟ ⎥ + 4ξ ⎜ ω ⎟
⎣ ⎝ n⎠
⎦ ⎝ n⎠

„ Phase angle
ω
{ 2ξ
ωn
φ = arctan 2
⎛ω ⎞
1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ ωn ⎠
Analog Devices
– The First Accelerometer
ADXL50 - Schematic