Description of Pipe Flow

Applied Multiphase Flow in Pipes
and Flow Assurance

Oil and Gas Production
Eissa M. Al-Safran
Kuwait University
James P. Brill
University of Tulsa
Society of Petroleum Engineers
BK-SPE-AL-SAFRAN_ET_AL-160432-FM.indd 3 22/03/17 7:48 PM

© Copyright 2017 Society of Petroleum Engineers
All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, including electronic
storage and retrieval systems, except by explicit, prior written permission of the publisher except for brief pas-
sages excerpted for review and critical purposes.
Printed in the United States of America.
Disclaimer
This book was prepared by members of the Society of Petroleum Engineers and their well-qualified colleagues
from material published in the recognized technical literature and from their own individual experience and
expertise. While the material presented is believed to be based on sound technical knowledge, neither the Society
of Petroleum Engineers nor any of the authors or editors herein provide a warranty either expressed or implied
in its application. Correspondingly, the discussion of materials, methods, or techniques that may be covered by
patents implies no freedom to use such materials, methods, or techniques without permission through appropriate
licensing. Nothing described within this book should be construed to lessen the need to apply sound engineering
judgment nor to carefully apply accepted engineering practices in the design, implementation, or application of
the techniques described herein.
About the Cover

The cover of this book and its color represent important aspects of multiphase flow in pipes, flow assurance, and
the challenging environment often encountered when producing oil and gas. It shows the geometrical distributions
or flow patterns that can exist when oil and natural gas flow simultaneously in producing vertical wells and risers.
The prediction of multiphase flow patterns in pipes at any inclination angle is always a critical initial step in the
simulation of flow behavior in hydrocarbon production systems. Knowledge of the flow pattern is necessary for
predicting not only pressure drop in pipes, but also many of the flow assurance issues that must be considered
when designing and operating production systems. The blue background of the cover represents deep-sea-water,
which has often been the most challenging operating environment and the reason for many flow assurance issues.
ISBN 978-1-61399-492-4
First Printing 2017
Society of Petroleum Engineers

222 Palisades Creek Drive
Richardson, TX 75080-2040 USA
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Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the petroleum engineering programs at Kuwait University and the University of
Tulsa for their support during the preparation of this textbook. As we taught production and design classes at these
universities, it became increasingly apparent that an undergraduate textbook that includes modern multiphase flow
in pipes technology and its role in flow assurance of production systems simply did not exist.
Much of the technology for predicting the behavior of multiphase flow in pipes and selected areas of flow assur-
ance has been developed over the past 40 years by graduate students, faculty, and staff of the Tulsa University
Fluid Flow Projects (TUFFP). The authors gratefully acknowledge the tremendous support of the 80 domestic and
international oil and gas production, service, consulting, and software companies and government agencies that
provided TUFFP funding for this technology development.
Many close friends and colleagues contributed significantly with independent reviews and discussions of vari-
ous parts of the textbook. Mack Shippen of Schlumberger played a major role as the first SPE technical editor for
the textbook, and also in strongly encouraging us to include a chapter on a new unified model for predicting mul-
tiphase flow behavior. Excellent reviews of all chapters were submitted by SPE committee members Rob Sutton,
Tom Danielson, Norm McMullen, and Shaya Movafaghian. Trevor Hill provided a marvelous independent review
of the flow assurance chapter. Tulsa University professors Holden Zhang, Eduardo Pereyra, and Cem Sarica did
the same for the unified model chapter. Carlos Torres, professor of mechanical engineering at the University of
Los Andes in Merida, Venezuela, and a visiting scholar at TUFFP, played a key role in making improvements in
the computational procedure and in verification of example problems in Chapter 9.
Finally, we are indebted to Mattie Tanner, former SPE senior staff editor, Leah Miller Guindon, former SPE
staff editor, and Jane Eden, SPE editorial services manager, all of whom served as technical editors for the text-
book during the final reviewing and subsequent tasks related to the printing process.
This textbook is dedicated to Al-Safran’s parents and Brill’s family.

Preface
Why This Book?

Since there are several books available on multiphase flow in oil and natural gas production, why have we writ-
ten this textbook? Existing books fall into two groups: older books, which miss the recent advancements in
multiphase flow, and newer books, which focus on the complex mathematical formulations of recent multiphase
flow modeling and are not appropriate for undergraduate students. This textbook responds to the need for a more
current source that is simple to read and understand and also presents recent advancements and applications of
multiphase flow in production engineering. The main characteristics of this textbook are
• A current, yet application-focused and simple-to-read textbook on multiphase flow in pipes.
• A book to equip petroleum engineers with an appropriate understanding of multiphase flow in pipes
necessary to efficiently use the steady-state simulators available in the industry.
• A book that focuses on the fundamental physics of multiphase flow and provides simplified mathematical mod-
els, which makes it a practical book for undergraduate petroleum engineering students and practicing engineers.
Central Idea
The central idea of this textbook is to convey the process of designing and operating the components of a
petroleum production system that involve multiphase flow, as shown in the inner circle of Fig. 1. This requires
determining the multiphase flow pattern, liquid volume (holdup), and pressure gradient along the piping system,
as shown in the middle circle of Fig. 1. The input parameters to determine these three variables are the in-situ fluid
physical properties and flow rates. This textbook takes the reader from the outer circle inward in a step-by-step
and simple approach, providing the conceptual understanding and mathematical tools to carry out a design and/
or operational study.
Fluid Properties
Flow Pattern
Piping System
Design and
Operation
Liquid Pressure
Volume Gradient
In-Situ Flow Rates
Fig. 1—Textbook central idea
vii

viii Preface
Nomenclature and Units

Much of the technology for multiphase flow in pipes was developed outside of the petroleum industry.
Consequently, there will be some confusion in the nomenclature because many of the important publications have
different nomenclature and terminology. Occasionally, it will be necessary to define new symbols or deviate from
those recommended by SPE. As much as possible, this textbook uses the standard symbols adopted in SPE (1986).
SI is the official abbreviation, all languages, for the International System of Units (Le Système International
d’Unités). However, engineering units (SPE 1984) still are used frequently in many parts of the world, as well as
throughout this textbook. Appendix A of this book lists the nomenclature, fundamental dimensions, and SI and/or
engineering systems of units of the variables.
Organization
Predicting flow behavior when multiphase flow occurs in wells and pipelines requires an understanding of con-
cepts that are not part of the curriculum in most engineering disciplines. Before multiphase flow technology can
be mastered, one must first have an adequate knowledge of single-phase flow fluid mechanics, vapor/liquid equi-
librium (VLE), and fluid physical properties for multicomponent hydrocarbon systems. Thus, a significant part of
this textbook will be devoted to a review of these important topics.
Chapter 1 starts with the basic definition of multiphase flow, followed by a brief description of the significance
of multiphase flow during the production and transportation of oil and gas. The overall production system is pre-
sented, together with concepts that must be considered by a production engineer. The future outlook of multiphase
flow technology is then presented. A brief review of the history of multiphase flow is presented in which some
landmark publications are identified that had a lasting influence on our understanding of the total system involved
in flowing fluids from the reservoir to surface storage and processing facilities.
Chapter 2 concentrates on a review of important single-phase, steady-state flow concepts for both incompress-
ible Newtonian and compressible fluids. A description of single-phase non-Newtonian fluid flow is also presented.
Chapter 3 presents homogeneous two-phase flow in pipes. It starts with a physical description, followed by
calculation of homogeneous mixture properties and pressure gradient. The authors present several applications of
homogeneous two-phase flow with practical examples. A brief introduction of the drift flux model is presented at
the end of Chapter 3.
Chapters 4 and 5 are the main chapters of this textbook and present nonhomogeneous, two-phase flow in pipe-
lines and wells, respectively. These chapters start with physical descriptions of the slippage phenomenon and flow
pattern, which are followed by flow pattern, liquid holdup, and pressure gradient predictions using both empirical
and mechanistic modeling approaches.
In Chapter 6, the authors present the physical and theoretical aspects of two-phase flow through restrictions
and piping components for both homogeneous and nonhomogeneous flows. The chapter begins with the p hysical
concepts of single- and two-phase flow through chokes, followed by flow-regime-dependent empirical and
theoretical predictions. Pressure drop and flow rate across chokes for homogeneous and nonhomogeneous flow
are then discussed and shown by examples.
Chapter 7 presents a simple approach for single-phase and homogeneous two-phase heat transfer in a produc-
tion system. This chapter is considered introductory material for multiphase flow assurance.
Chapter 8 is a detailed presentation of flow assurance that includes the definition, significance, types, causes,
predictions, and remedies of the phenomena. Chapter 8 concludes with a presentation of the integrated flow
assurance work flow process, which summarizes the entire chapter. Several examples are presented throughout
the chapter to demonstrate the solution procedures of the presented models.
Chapter 9 is dedicated to the Tulsa University Fluid Flow Projects’ unified mechanistic model. The c hapter
highlights the differences between the comprehensive mechanistic models presented in Chapters 4 and 5, followed
by the theoretical features of the unified model. The calculation procedure of the unified model is demonstrated
in three long-hand solved examples of horizontal and vertical flows.
Chapter 10 combines all material covered in previous chapters into a chapter on the overall production system.
The chapter concludes with a comprehensive design example problem.
Chapter 11 is an introduction to transient multiphase flow in pipes. In this chapter, the concepts and application
of transient flow are presented. A comparison between steady-state and transient flows is also presented, and a
guidance is provided on when to use a steady-state solution to approximate a transient event. The chapter ends
with a simplified transient modeling approach and a description of two commercial, transient, multiphase flow
simulators used in the oil and gas industry.
Appendix A lists the nomenclature used in this book. Appendices B and C contain methods to predict fluid
physical properties and in-situ volumetric flow rates using black-oil and compositional models, respectively.
Appendices B and C contain example problems to demonstrate the solution procedures.

Table of Contents
Acknowledgments�� v
Preface�� vii
Chapter 1 – Introduction to Multiphase Flow in Pipes�� 1
1.1 Definition of Multiphase Flow�� 1
1.2 Significance of Multiphase Pipe Flow in Oil and Gas Production�� 1
1.3 Petroleum Production System�� 2
1.4 Role of Production Engineer�� 3
1.5 Historical Overview of Multiphase Flow in Pipes�� 4
1.6 Future of Multiphase Flow in Pipes�� 6
Chapter 2 – Single-Phase Flow in Pipes�� 9
2.1 Objectives�� 9
2.2 Definitions�� 9
2.3 Conservation of Mass�� 10
2.4 Conservation of Linear Momentum��11
2.5 Pressure Gradient Equation�� 14
2.6 Compressible Single-Phase Flow�� 17
2.7 Non-Newtonian Flow�� 22
2.8 Chapter Key Learnings�� 24
2.9 Problems�� 25
Chapter 3 – Homogeneous Multiphase Flow in Pipes�� 29
3.3 Homogeneous Two-Phase Flow Concept�� 29
3.4 Homogeneous Flow Calculation Procedure�� 31
3.5 Two-Phase Flow Variables�� 32
3.6 Mixture Fluid Properties�� 35
3.7 Pressure Gradient Prediction�� 37
3.8 Homogeneous Model Application�� 39
3.9 Homogeneous Model Limitation�� 40
3.10 Drift Flux Model�� 40
Chapter 4 – Nonhomogeneous Multiphase Flow in Pipelines�� 45
4.3 Nonhomogeneous Flow Calculation Procedure�� 46
4.4 Empirical Correlation vs. Mechanistic Modeling�� 47
4.5 Flow Pattern Concepts in Pipelines�� 47
4.6 What Governs Flow Patterns?�� 49
4.7 Flow Pattern Prediction�� 51
4.8 Liquid Holdup Prediction�� 58
4.9 Pressure Gradient Prediction�� 69
ix

x Contents
Chapter 5 – Nonhomogeneous Multiphase Flow in Wells�� 89

5.2 Vertical vs. Horizontal Flow�� 89
5.3 Flow Pattern Concepts in Wells�� 89
5.4 Flow Pattern Prediction�� 91
5.5 Liquid Holdup Prediction�� 106
5.6 Pressure Gradient Prediction��114
5.7 Problems��117
Chapter 6 – Multiphase Flow Through Restrictions and Piping Components�� 123
6.2 Fluid-Flow-Across-Restrictions Concepts�� 123
6.3 Calculation Procedure�� 124
6.4 Flow Through Wellhead Chokes�� 124
6.5 Critical/Subcritical Flow Regime Boundary�� 124
6.6 Flow Rate Through Wellhead Chokes�� 131
6.7 Flow Through Piping Components�� 135
Chapter 7 – Heat Transfer in Oil and Natural Gas Production Systems�� 141
7.2 Heat Transfer Concepts�� 141
7.3 Heat Transfer Dimensionless Numbers�� 143
7.4 Heat Transfer Coefficients�� 144
7.5 Conservation of Energy�� 156
7.6 Solution Procedure�� 160
7.7 Heat Transfer Across a Restriction�� 162
Chapter 8 – Flow Assurance in Oil and Natural Gas Production�� 169
8.2 Definition, Relevant Phenomena, and Approach�� 169
8.3 Gas Hydrates�� 171
8.4 Wax (Paraffin)�� 184
8.5 Asphaltene�� 189
8.6 Terrain and Severe Slugging�� 194
8.7 Gas-Well Liquid Loading�� 198
8.8 Pipe Erosion�� 202
8.9 Integrated Flow Assurance Work-Flow Process (Putting It All Together)�� 209
8.10 Problems��211
Chapter 9 – Unified Modeling of Multiphase Flow in Pipes�� 215
9.2 Tulsa University Fluid Flow Projects Unified Model�� 215
9.3 Computation Procedure�� 225
9.4 Example Problems�� 225
Chapter 10 – Overall Petroleum Production System Analysis�� 245
10.2 Petroleum Production System�� 245
10.3 NODAL Analysis Applications�� 251
Chapter 11 – Introduction to Transient Multiphase Flow in Pipes�� 259
11.2 Definitions and Significance�� 259
11.3 Transient Flow Applications�� 261
11.4 Transient, Steady-State, and Successive Steady-State Flows�� 263
11.5 Transient Modeling�� 265
11.6 Transient Multiphase Flow Commercial Software�� 269
11.7 Future of Transient Multiphase Flow�� 270

Contents xi
Appendix A – Nomenclature�� 271

Appendix B – Black-Oil Model for Fluid Properties�� 277
B.1 Objectives�� 277
B.2 Significance of Fluid Properties�� 277
B.3 Black-Oil Model�� 277
B.4 Thermal Fluid Properties�� 308
B.5 Undefined Petroleum Fraction Characterization�� 309
B.6 Problems�� 310
Appendix C – Compositional Model for Fluid Properties�� 313
C.1 Objectives�� 314
C.2 Compositional Model�� 314
C.3 Vapor/Liquid Equilibrium�� 314
C.4 Fluid Properties�� 319
C.5 Vapor and Liquid Volumetric Flow Rates�� 324
C.6 Problems�� 333
References�� 337
A Note from the Authors�� 347
About the Authors�� 347
Author Index�� 349
Subject Index�� 353

Chapter 1
Introduction to Multiphase Flow in

Pipes
1.1 Definition of Multiphase Flow

Multiphase flow is the area of fluid mechanics that deals with the simultaneous flow of two or more immiscible
phases of matter (gas, liquid, or solid). Although this phenomenon may occur in many industrial applications, this
textbook focuses on the application of multiphase pipe flow in oil and natural gas production systems, specifically
wells, surface flowlines, and system restrictions such as wellhead chokes. In this book, the terms “multiphase” and
“two-phase” are used interchangeably.
1.2 Significance of Multiphase Pipe Flow in Oil and Gas Production

Multiphase flow technology has become increasingly important for the economic transportation of well streams
from the reservoir to processing facilities. Multiphase flow is a common occurrence in oil and gas production in
wells and transportation through pipelines.
1.2.1 Wells. As the pressure drops in production tubing because of fluid flow and reduction of hydrostatic head,
dissolved gas in the oil evolves, forming a gas/liquid two-phase flow. In addition to oil and gas phases, produced
water and solids, such as sand, introduce multiphase flow in the well tubing, which further complicates the flow
behavior and characteristics. Furthermore, as the temperature drops going up the well, dissolved solids may pre-
cipitate, adding a solid phase to the flow stream, which may be either deposited within or transported along the
well tubing. In the case of gas lift wells, a gas phase is injected into the tubing, causing two-phase flow. Horizontal
well production exhibits a complex, undulated multiphase flow with complex fluid influx geometry, making mul-
tiphase flow even more challenging.
1.2.2 Pipelines. In offshore fields, produced fluids are transported to shore through long, large-diameter export
pipelines for subsequent separation and processing. Tiebacks are often long pipelines that transport untreated
produced fluids from marginal fields to an existing platform. These pipeline systems almost always exhibit mul-
tiphase flow. Onshore flowlines and export pipelines are multiphase flow systems that require proper design and
operation for safe and economic business. Accurate prediction of flow pattern, liquid holdup, pressure drop,
and flow characteristics along these pipeline systems is essential to enhance not only pipeline design, sizing,
and routing, but also design of downstream separation and processing facilities to ensure safe and economic
business operation (see Example 1.1).
1.2.3 Wellhead Chokes. Wellhead chokes and other restrictions are integral parts of an oil and gas production
system. Multiphase flow across these restrictions is common and complex. The diversity of the flow through
restrictions can cause critical or subcritical, as well as homogeneous or nonhomogeneous, multiphase flow. Pre-
dicting the flow regime (i.e., critical vs. subcritical) and the pressure drop is crucial for estimating and controlling
the system flow rate. In addition, restrictions can impose flow assurance problems, among them formation of
emulsions, deposition of solids as a result of sudden cooling, and erosion of pipe caused by high velocities during
flow through restrictions.
BK-SPE-AL-SAFRAN_ET_AL-160432-Chp01.indd 1 22/03/17 12:03 PM

2 Applied Multiphase Flow in Pipes and Flow Assurance
1.2.4 Other System Components. Recent in-line technologies such as multiphase flowmeters, multiphase flow
pumps, water knockout systems, and gas/liquid compact cyclones (GLCCs) have become important parts of
the production system, especially in mature fields. Predicting multiphase flow characteristics upstream of these
devices is critical for their efficiency and integrity. In addition, understanding the flow behavior inside internal
parts improves future design and reliability.
1.3 Petroleum Production System

The petroleum production system consists of two main parts—namely, the porous/permeable rock system (res-
ervoir) and the piping system. The reservoir is where the hydrocarbons are stored, and the piping system is the
means to transport the reservoir fluids from the reservoir to a processing facility. Fig. 1.1 shows a schematic of the
production system with the following primary components:
• Reservoir: porous and permeable rock contains the hydrocarbons.
• Wellbore: vertical, deviated, or horizontal pipe connects the reservoir to the surface.
• Wellhead: combination of valves and chokes controls the flow.
• Flowline: horizontal and slightly inclined pipe transports reservoir fluids.
• Separator: large vessel separates reservoir fluids.
Secondary components such as a gravel pack, a subsurface safety valve, and others may sometimes exist. Export
pipelines (not shown in Fig. 1.1) are single-phase or two-phase large-diameter pipelines used to carry processed
fluids from the processing facility to a final destination, such as a chemical processing plant or export facility. This
book covers multiphase flow in the piping components of the production system—namely, in the wellbore tubing,
flowline/pipeline, and wellhead choke.
In the production system, fluids entering the wellbore from the reservoir can range from an undersaturated oil to
a single-phase gas. Free water can accompany the fluids as a result of water coning, waterflooding, production of
interstitial water, or water condensing in the well. Alternatively, a free-gas saturation in an oil reservoir can result
Wellhead Flowline Separator

Sensor system Gas outlet
Gas
Foam
Oil
Emulsion
Water
Water Oil outlet

outlet
Wellbore
Reservoir
pwf pr pe
Fig. 1.1—Petroleum production system.

Introduction to Multiphase Flow in Pipes 3
in a gas/liquid mixture entering the well. Retrograde condensation can result in hydrocarbon liquids condensing
in a gas/condensate reservoir so that a gas/liquid mixture again enters the wellbore. Even when single-phase gas
or liquid flow exists near the bottom of a well, multiphase flow can occur throughout most of the wellbore. This
is because of the evolution of gas from oil or the condensation of gas with reduction of pressure and temperature
as the fluids flow up the well.
Although many of the wells drilled on land tend to be nearly vertical, current trends are toward pad drilling
and horizontal wells. Wells drilled offshore and in other hostile environments such as the Arctic are normally
directional or deviated. Inclination angles can vary from vertical near the surface to horizontal near the production
zone. Flow rates of gas, oil, and water vary widely. Tubing diameters can be as small as 0.0254 m (1 in.) or as
large as 0.2286 m (9 in.). Flow can also occur in a casing/tubing annulus. Depths can range from a few hundred
meters to more than 6,000 m (≈ 20,000 ft). Pressures can be as small as a few hundred kPa or as high as 150 MPa
(≈22,000 psia). Temperatures can be greater than 200°C (≈400°F) or approach the freezing point of water. Oil
viscosities in wellbores can be less than 0.001 Pa·s (1 cp) or greater than 10 Pa·s (10,000 cp).
Fluids entering the wellbore often flow through a complicated well-completion region consisting of perfora-
tions, fractures, and gravel packs. The effect of this region must be included when coupling the well to the res-
ervoir through inflow performance relationship (IPR) procedures. Most wells contain some type of well-control
device that requires produced fluids to flow through a restriction. This can vary from a bottomhole choke to a
remotely controlled, variable-size surface choke. Wells can be produced by artificial-lift mechanisms involving a
submersible pump or gas injection.
The broad variations in flow variables encountered in producing wells has made the development of predic-
tion methods much more difficult. Techniques that work for gas/condensate wells do not necessarily work for oil
wells. Assumptions that are valid for some wells are totally invalid for others.
1.4 Role of Production Engineer

In general, the role of a production engineer in the petroleum industry is twofold: to safely and economically
design a new production system; and/or, to operate and optimize an existing one. In both cases, the ultimate
objective of the production engineer is to maximize profit by optimizing flow rate in a safe environment. To
achieve this goal, an accurate prediction of flow behavior and characteristics along the production system must be
determined a priori. The three main flow behavior parameters that the production engineer should predict along
the production system on which most of the design and operation aspects depend are
• Flow pattern
• Pressure gradient
• Liquid volume (holdup)
Prediction of the foregoing flow parameters (detailed in subsequent chapters), coupled with both proper under-
standing of the flow behavior and engineering sense and intuition, can lead to an optimal flow rate, maximum
economic profit, and safe operation. The following example illustrates the importance of predicting the foregoing
flow parameters and their relationship to pipeline and separation facility design.
Example 1.1—Two-Phase Pipeline Design. A production engineer is asked to design a two-phase pipeline to
transport 50 million std m3/d of gas with certain liquid loadings from an offshore platform to an onshore process-
ing facility at 7-MPa arrival pressure (Oliemans 1994). The design should consider the following criteria:
• Delivery of 50 million std m3/d of gas at 7-MPa arrival pressure
• Minimum capital cost (CAPEX), minimum operating cost (OPEX), and optimized net present value (NPV)
• Environmentally safe operation
Solution. The production engineer calculated the following parameters along the pipeline:
• Flow pattern
• Pressure gradient
• Liquid volume
Figs. 1.2 and 1.3 illustrate the pressure gradient and liquid volume along a pipeline, respectively. Calculations
were performed for three different pipeline diameters to help select the optimum pipeline size. Note that Fig. 1.2
suggests selection of the largest pipeline diameter of 101.6 cm to minimize the offshore compression capacity
to 11 MPa and thus minimize the cost. However, Fig. 1.3 shows that selection of the 101.6-cm pipeline diameter
results in the largest liquid volume along the pipeline of approximately 4800 m3, which requires a larger and
more expensive slug catcher and more-frequent pigging operations to remove liquid from the line. Therefore, an
economic analysis must be carried out to select the most cost-effective design that reduces CAPEX and OPEX.

14
Pipeline Diam. = 91.4 cm
13
Pipeline Inlet Pressure (MPa)

12
11
10
6
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Gas Flow Rate (106 std m3/d)
Fig. 1.2—Pipeline deliverability plot.
7500
7000
6500 Pipeline Diam. = 101.6 cm

Liquid Volume (m3)
6000
5500
5000
4500
4000
3500
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Gas Flow Rate (106 std m3/d)
Fig. 1.3—Pipeline liquid-volume capacity.
The unusual behavior of increasing liquid volume with increasing gas flow rate is a result of retrograde c ondensation
taking place in the pipeline.
Another important design aspect is flow assurance. For example, it is important to accurately predict flow pat-
tern along the pipeline because it is related to pipeline corrosion. A corrosion inhibitor is often injected at the
platform. The inhibitor is transported in the liquid phase along the pipe to protect the pipeline internal wall from
corrosion. It may be very important for efficient operation to design the pipeline so that the entire pipeline wall is
exposed to the corrosion inhibitor. This can be achieved when the flow pattern is a favorable one where the liquid
phase wets the entire internal diameter (i.e., annular or slug flow and not stratified flow). Failure to consider the
flow pattern in pipeline design may lead to rapid pipeline corrosion.
1.5 Historical Overview of Multiphase Flow in Pipes

Many of the concepts used today for analyzing flowing and gas lift wells were developed by Gilbert (1954).
He divided the production system into three distinct categories: inflow performance from the reservoir, vertical-
lift performance in the well, and bean or choke performance. Graphical techniques were presented for coupling
these categories together to permit analyzing individual-well problems. It is interesting to note that this same pro-
cedure is still followed today under the names of production systems analysis or NODAL™ analysis. However,
the methods for describing the performance of each category have been vastly improved. Gilbert also presented
a clear description of the unsteady flow behavior or “heading” that can exist in a well and how to minimize or
eliminate the phenomenon. The concepts recommended by Gilbert were expanded and clarified by Nind (1964).

The historical background of attempts to improve the prediction of vertical-lift performance for wells has been
especially interesting. Brill and Arirachakaran (1992) divided this history into three partially overlapping periods.
Fig. 1.4 illustrates the three periods in addition to future projections.
1.5.1 The Empirical Period (1950–75). Most early investigators used two-phase flow data obtained from labora-
tory test facilities, with a few researchers using field data. Fluids were treated as homogeneous mixtures. How-
ever, gas and liquid phases were permitted to travel at different velocities, with slippage effects being accounted
for through empirical liquid holdup correlations. Empirical flow pattern maps such as the ones developed by
Baker (1954), Ros (1961), and Beggs and Brill (1973) were used, often based on dimensionless groups. Steady-
state pressure-gradient equations were developed on the basis of conservation of momentum and mass principles
applied to the homogeneous mixtures. Frictional pressure losses relied on single-phase flow equations, resulting
in extensive use of mixture Reynolds numbers, as in the Beggs and Brill (1973) two-phase flow correlation.
In general, the empirical period resulted in a collection of empirical correlations in which accuracy was limited
by the lack of inclusion of basic physical mechanisms. Even when these mechanisms were partially included,
their investigation was severely hampered by the unavailability of sufficiently accurate instrumentation and real-
time data-acquisition systems.
1.5.2 The Awakening Years (1970–85). The empirical correlations for predicting pressure gradient, coupled
with the introduction of the personal computer (PC) in the early 1980s, dramatically improved practical tools
available to petroleum engineers. Procedures for connecting wells to reservoirs through simple IPR techniques
abounded. The true concept of NODAL™ or production system analysis was born (Brown 1980).
Unfortunately, it was quickly recognized that there were many problems with the methods available. Empiri-
cal flow pattern maps were inadequate. Flow pattern transitions, previously thought to be dependent mostly on
flow rates (or superficial velocities), were found to be very sensitive to other parameters, especially inclination
angle. Empirical liquid holdup correlations for each flow pattern were equally inadequate. The assumption of a
homogeneous mixture was oversimplified. It became clear that no matter how much data were gathered either
Empirical Awakening Modeling The Future

Period Years Era
Multiphase flow assurance

Heavy-oil multiphase
Three-phase (OWG)
Transient multiphase
Environmental
considerations
Complexity
Two fluid transient

models (1980s)
Comprehensive models
(1990s)
Unified models (2000+)
Mechanistic models:
Dukler and Hubbard (1975)
Flow pattern map: Taitel and Dukler (1976)
Baker (1954) NODALTM (Brown 1980)
Ros (1961)
Pressure gradient:
Beggs and Brill (1973)
73)
Computational capability
1950 1975 1985 2001

Time
Fig. 1.4—Historical and future overview of multiphase flow in pipes technology.

in laboratory test facilities or from carefully tested field installations, the accuracy of the predictions could not
improve without the introduction of more basic physical mechanisms.
Fortunately, progress in this area had already been made by other industries, particularly the nuclear industry,
several years before. Although the fluids used for these studies (steam/water) were trivial by comparison to those
encountered in the petroleum industry, the methods used to formulate conservation equations were much more
advanced. Therefore, the 1970s saw a trend in the petroleum industry to adopt some basic physical mechanisms
already in use in the nuclear industry. Two classic papers dealing with multiphase flow in horizontal pipes by
Dukler and Hubbard (1975) and Taitel and Dukler (1976) clearly show that mechanistic models for slug flow and
flow pattern prediction had already become available.
1.5.3 The Modeling Era (1980–Present). Petroleum industry challenges in the 1980s required a much bet-
ter understanding of multiphase flow technology, beginning the modeling period. Investigators recognized that
improved understanding of multiphase flow in pipes required a combined experimental and theoretical approach.
Sophisticated test facilities were constructed that used new instrumentation for measuring important variables, and
high-speed PC-based data-acquisition hardware and software. This advancement was transformed into improved
mechanistic models to better describe the physical phenomena occurring.
An important improvement in steady-state mechanistic models was the work on predicting flow pattern tran-
sitions for all inclination angles by Taitel and Dukler (1976), Taitel et al. (1980), Barnea et al. (1982a, 1982b,
and 1985), and Barnea (1986, 1987). This opened the door for designing improved models for each of the flow
patterns and linking the various models together through unified flow pattern transition criteria. Combined or
“comprehensive” mechanistic models were published by Ozon et al. (1987), Hasan and Kabir (1988), Xiao et al.
(1990), Ansari et al. (1994), and Chokshi (1994). Their attempts to evaluate the models with field data confirm
that the modeling approach is more accurate and precise than empirical correlations. Furthermore, it is now pos-
sible to continue improvement of these mechanistic models as experimental research is conducted on the basic
mechanisms of multiphase flow.
At the same time that improved experimental research was being conducted, efforts were expanded in devel-
oping improved theoretical methods. The two-fluid modeling approach pioneered by the nuclear industry was
adopted for the development of transient codes for application to petroleum industry problems by Taitel et al.
(1980), Black et al. (1990), Bendiksen et al. (1991), and Pauchon et al. (1993). This approach involves writing
separate equations for each phase that describe conservation of mass, momentum, and energy, resulting in a
six-equation problem that must be solved simultaneously using numerical simulation techniques. Empirical
correlations and simplified closure relationships were still necessary for some parameters. Improved correla-
tions for these parameters became possible as a result of the experimental research being conducted. The result-
ing transient codes are capable of simulating a variety of applications that are time-dependent, such as pipeline
inlet/outlet flow rates or pressure changes, pipeline pigging, startup/shutdown, and terrain slugging.
A recent improvement in the development of steady-state mechanistic modeling is the “unified” modeling
of multiphase pipe flows (Zhang et al. 2003b). Unified modeling is a new approach in which the predictions
of both flow pattern transition and flow behavior are incorporated into a single model based on slug dynam-
ics. This modeling, which covers the entire inclination-angle range (−90° to +90° from horizontal), eliminates
the discontinuity in flow pattern transition prediction. In addition, the unified modeling approach tends to be
realistic in its assumption that slug flow is the predominant flow pattern existing in a pipe, a pattern from which
other flow patterns develop. It has been found that this is an effective and successful approach for multiphase
flow modeling.
Thus, the current state of the art in multiphase flow in pipes is the emergence of both two-fluid transient
simulators and steady-state mechanistic models that more accurately describe the physical phenomena that occur.
Transient simulators have the capability of analyzing complex time-dependent problems but often suffer from
convergence problems. The improved technology also carries an additional cost. Both transient simulators and
mechanistic models are complex and require specialized training to understand and use. Interpretation of results is
better carried out by engineers with a specialized background who are fully aware of any simplifying assumptions
or limitations that have been included in the developments.
1.6 Future of Multiphase Flow in Pipes

What multiphase production technology developments will evolve in the future? The answer to this question is
closely related to the future challenges that face the upstream petroleum industry.
1.6.1 Petroleum Industry Future Challenges. As existing petroleum reservoirs mature, production of interstitial
and injected water imposes rheology, hydrodynamic, and flow assurance challenges, such as emulsions, complex

three-phase hydrodynamics, and corrosion. These challenges are further exacerbated when production of other
injected fluids used in chemical, thermal, and miscible floods is considered.
Furthermore, sufficient flow energy (pressure) to transport the required flow rates of hydrocarbons from reser-
voirs to processing facilities is a major issue in mature reservoirs. The use of artificial-lift methods such as electri-
cal submersible pumps and gas lift and the use of surface multiphase pumps may introduce flow assurance issues
such as creation of tight emulsions in water-producing wells or organic/inorganic solid formation resulting from
sudden heating and compression of fluids.
Major oil companies and large independent oil companies have sold most of their low-profit onshore fields to
smaller, independent oil companies. Majors are now concentrating on exploration and development of higher-
risk, more profitable reservoirs. Many of these discoveries are in deepwater regions in the Gulf of Mexico and
areas in the world such as Brazil and West Africa. Other target areas are heavy-oil onshore and offshore reser-
voirs with large potential reserves. All these target areas present serious technical challenges. For example, in
order to develop remote, deepwater offshore fields economically, a cost-effective approach often involves flowing
the wells to an existing platform through long multiphase flowlines (Oliemans 1994). In these flowlines, flow
assurance issues such as organic/inorganic solid formation and deposition (hydrates, paraffin, asphaltenes, scale),
high-viscosity cold flow, erosion/corrosion, terrain slugging, and flowline/platform/riser severe slugging become
important.
Onshore heavy-oil production and transportation also introduces several flow assurance issues relating to the
nature of the produced fluids and the recovery techniques used to extract oil from the reservoirs. The flow of
very-high-viscosity oils may impair the economic deliverability of wells as a consequence of complex and poorly
understood flow characteristics and inaccurate predictions using existing two-phase flow models (Gokcal et al.
2006). Emulsion formation with heavy oil complicates the rheology and downstream separation because of large
density and viscosity differences. In addition, heavy-oil production requires special recovery techniques that
affect the production and transportation of the oil. For example, the cold heavy-oil production with sand technique
allows the production of sand to maximize recovery. This, in turn, complicates the flow structure and can result in
eroding and/or plugging the system components. Cyclic-steam-stimulation and steam-assisted-gravity-drainage
recovery techniques result in water production and hot fluids that may cause tight emulsions, system corrosion,
and thermal fatigue. Therefore, heavy-oil system design and operation require appropriate modeling tools based
on sound physical understanding of the flow behavior to ensure environmentally safe and cost-effective design
and operation.
Increasing attention to environmental issues adds a major challenge to multiphase flow technology. For exam-
ple, zero gas flaring and carbon dioxide emission and protection of marine and land environment are required to
address today’s global concerns. Transportation of exhaust gases and unwanted produced fluids is a viable alter-
ative to protect the environment. Furthermore, to ensure system integrity and safety, a low tolerance of uncertainty
must be adopted, and this requires more-accurate and field-validated prediction models.
1.6.2 Multiphase Technology Future Direction. The future issues noted in the preceding subsection challenge
current multiphase technology. Great effort must be devoted to expand the current technology envelope in order
to cope with future challenges. Several technical issues are of high priority to the multiphase flow community. For
example, three-phase flow in pipelines and well tubing is extremely important to future multiphase phase technol-
ogy. Three-phase flow patterns, as well as water holdup and flow characteristics such as emulsions, dispersions,
and dispersed-phase droplet size distribution, are significant in the design of a transport system and downstream
processing facilities.
Mechanistic modeling of heat transfer that is dependent on flow pattern is critical in system thermal man-
agement to overcome flow assurance challenges of organic/inorganic solid formation/deposition. Formation of
asphaltenes, paraffins, hydrates, and scales must be predicted with a high degree of accuracy to design operation-
ally safe and cost-effective systems.
The main issue of heavy-oil multiphase technology is whether current conventional oil modeling is adequate.
Engineers must determine whether accuracies of existing pressure loss and liquid holdup predictions are accept-
able for economic design and reliable operation. A preliminary high-viscosity two-phase flow study by Gokcal et
al. (2006) showed current modeling capabilities to be inadequate. Therefore, existing two-phase flow mechanistic
modeling must be revised for use with heavy oil. For example, current flow pattern maps must be assessed accord-
ing to the hydrodynamics of heavy-oil, two-phase flows. Furthermore, new empirical closure relationships must
be developed to replace existing ones that were developed for conventional oils.
Modeling of both natural and imposed transients in multiphase flow is the least developed technology, yet it
is the highest in economic impact and environmental safety. Improved prediction of liquid slug behavior such as
growth, dissipation, and initiation along extremely long and large-diameter pipelines is required for the design

of slug catchers and separators. Prediction of liquid accumulation along pipelines is crucial for design of pigging
operations and corrosion inhibitor programs. Current transient models may not be capable of predicting severe
slugging for deepwater applications involving very long and large-diameter platform/riser systems. Improvement
of current transient slug-tracking models should be a future priority for safety reasons.
Fortunately, the petroleum industry and the multiphase flow technology community realize the upcoming future
challenges and are vigorously addressing them. Providing technically sound, environmentally safe, and economi-
cally profitable solutions to future challenges is never an easy matter. However, progress can be made and requires
collective efforts. For example, governmental and industrial funding of research is a key issue in this effort. More
importantly, efforts to find solutions require an interdisciplinary research approach. For instance, flow assurance
issues require input from physical chemists, chemical engineers, process engineers, and petroleum engineers
to find a comprehensive solution. Similarly, three-phase flow in pipes requires collaborative efforts of material
scientists, fluid dynamicists, and engineers. Although the future seems challenging and complex, it also looks
interesting and full of adventures. This book is a step toward solving these future challenges.

Chapter 2
Single-Phase Flow in Pipes
The basis for virtually all computations involving fluid flow in pipes is conservation of mass, momentum, and
energy. Application of these principles permits calculating changes in pressure and temperature along pipes. It
is important to understand the fundamentals of single-phase flow in pipes before discussing multiphase flow in
pipes. Therefore, this chapter is considered as an introduction to multiphase flow in pipes.
2.1 Objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to
• Present the fundamentals of single-phase flow in pipes for Newtonian and incompressible fluids
• Present the conservation laws of mass and linear momentum
• Develop a single-phase pressure gradient equation for Newtonian incompressible and compressible fluids
• Present non-Newtonian fluid flow behavior
2.2 Definitions
It is important to understand fluid physical behavior along pipes before predicting its flow parameters. The two
main fluid physical properties related to fluid flow in pipes are viscosity and density. On the basis of fluid viscos-
ity, fluids can be classified into two categories—namely, Newtonian and non-Newtonian. Similarly, fluids can be
classified into incompressible and compressible according to their density behavior.
2.2.1 Newtonian Fluid. A Newtonian fluid (named after Isaac Newton) is a fluid with constant viscosity, regard-
less of the shear force applied on it. This definition indicates that Newtonian fluid viscosity depends only on pres-
sure, temperature, and composition, and not on the shear forces. The constant viscosity behavior of a Newtonian
fluid is represented by the constant slope of a straight line through the origin of a plot of shear stress vs. shear rate.
Newton’s law for this type of (Newtonian) fluid can be written as
dv x
τ yx = − µ ,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.1)
dy
where tyx = shear stress or momentum flux, Pa; dv x dy = shear rate, 1/second; and µ = viscosity, Pa·s. The nega-
tive sign in front of the viscosity indicates that shear stress (τ) transfers from high velocity to low velocity (i.e., in
the direction of velocity decrease). All gases and homogeneous nonpolymeric liquids follow Newtonian behavior.
Conversely, a non-Newtonian fluid is one that has an increasing viscosity trend (shear thickening) or decreasing
viscosity trend (shear thinning) with shear stress. Furthermore, a non-Newtonian fluid may have a constant vis-
cosity but require an initial shear force to flow (plastic flow). Fig. 2.1 shows Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluid
behaviors. A detailed description of non-Newtonian fluid flow is presented in a later section of this chapter. In oil
and gas production, crude oil, formation water, and natural gas are all considered to be Newtonian fluids. Other
fluids, however, such as oil/water emulsions or slurries (i.e., oil and produced solids) are often found to display
non-Newtonian behavior.
2.2.2 Incompressible Fluid. An incompressible fluid is characterized by a constant density with pressure
and temperature. Although there is no truly incompressible fluid, this assumption simplifies the mathematical
formulation and calculation significantly with minor error. Water is the best example of an incompressible fluid,

Plastic flow
Shear thinning flow
Newtonian flow
Shear thickening flow
τ (Pa)
0
dνx /dy (1/s)
Fig. 2.1—Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluid behaviors.
whereas crude oil is considered a slightly compressible fluid. Conversely, natural gas is a compressible fluid
because of its low intermolecular forces that cause a density change with pressure and temperature.
2.2.3 Steady-State Condition. A steady state is a special flowing condition in which the mass, linear momen-
tum, and energy inflow rates in a pipe are equal to outflow rates; in other words, the rate change of mass, linear
momentum, and energy along a pipe is zero. In steady-state condition, the conservation laws are independent of
time. With the exception of Chapter 11, we consider that fluids in an oil and gas production system are Newtonian,
and flowing under steady-state condition.
2.3 Conservation of Mass

2.3.1 Concept. Conservation of mass simply means that for a given control volume such as a segment of pipe, the
mass inflow rate minus the mass outflow rate must equal the mass accumulation rate.
2.3.2 The Continuity Equation. The law of conservation of mass (continuity equation) is shown in Fig. 2.2 and
can be physically written as follows.
( Mass rate ) into CV

(
− Mass rate ) out of CV
(
= Rate of Change of Mass )in CV
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.2)
Eq. 2.2 can be translated to a 1D conservation of mass mathematical statement as follows.
∆
ρ Ap v x − ρ Ap v x + ∆x = ρ∆xAp. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(2.3)
∆t
Dividing Eq. 2.3 by the pipe volume (Ap∆x), Eq. 2.3 becomes
ρ v x − ρ v x + ∆x ∆
= ρ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.4)
∆x ∆t
Reducing the pipe length to a differential element by taking the limit as Dx approaches zero, and using the defini-
tion of derivatives, Eq. 2.4 becomes
∆x
min CV mout
x x+∆x
Fig. 2.2—Conservation of mass in a pipe segment.

Single-Phase Flow in Pipes 11
d ( ρ vx ) dρ
− = .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.5)
dx dt
Eq. 2.5 is the 1D continuity equation that describes the time rate change of fluid density at any time and pipe
length. A special form of the continuity equation can be written for steady-state condition as follows.
d ( ρ vx )
= 0.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.6)
dx
For an incompressible fluid, Eq. 2.6 further reduces to the following.
dv x
= 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.7)
dx
Eq. 2.7 indicates that for a steady-state incompressible pipe flow, the fluid velocity is constant along the pipe.
2.4 Conservation of Linear Momentum

2.4.1 Concept. Linear momentum is the quantity of motion an object possesses as it moves along a straight path.
Therefore, linear momentum is a vector quantity that is expressed as the product of mass and velocity ( mv ). The
time rate of change of linear momentum expressed as the product of mass and acceleration ( ma ) is Newton’s
second law, which shows how much force is in a motion. Therefore, when there is a change in the time rate of
linear momentum of a fluid particle, there will be force acting on the fluid particle that accelerates or decelerates
it. Conversely, when an incompressible fluid flows at a constant velocity (Eq. 2.7), the summation of the external
forces around the object is zero. Linear momentum is then conserved.
2.4.2 Equation of Motion. The general conservation of linear momentum law (equation of motion) can be written
as follows.
( Mom. rate) − ( Mom. rate)

into CV out of CV
+ ( Sum of forces acting on fluid )
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.8)
= ( Rate of mom. accum.) . in CV
For steady-state condition, Eq. 2.6 is applied, resulting in the rate of momentum accumulation in the control vol-
ume becoming zero. Thus Eq. 2.8 reduces to
( Mom. rate ) into CV

(
− Mom. rate ) out of CV
+ ( Sum of forces acting on fluid ) = 0 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.9)
The momentum rate terms in Eq. 2.9 can be mathematically defined as follows.
Momentum rate into CV: Ap ρ v ( v )in

Momentum rate out of CV: Ap ρ v ( v )out
For incompressible flow in the control volume (i.e., Eq. 2.7 is applicable), the change of momentum rate across
the control volume is zero, thus reducing Eq. 2.9 to
( Sum of forces ) = ∑ F = 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.10)

Fig. 2.3 shows a free-body diagram of a pipe segment control volume with all the external forces acting on the
fluid. These forces are defined as follows.
1. Shear force: t w As.

Shear force is a result of fluid shear along the pipe wall and is the product of shear stress and the inner
pipe surface area ( As = π d ∆x ). The shear force is always acting in the opposite direction of the flow (i.e.,
negative).
2. Gravity force: ρ g∆LAp sin θ .

Flow direction
τw
∆L p+∆p
τw
ρgsinθ
ρgcosθ
ρg
p
Fig. 2.3—Conservation of linear momentum free-body diagram.
The gravity force is the weight of fluid and is the product of hydrostatic pressure ( ρ g∆L sin θ ) and pipe
cross-sectional area. The gravity force direction depends on the flow direction as follows:
a. In upward flow the gravity term is negative (i.e., pressure loss because of the positive inclination angle).
b. In downward flow the gravity force is positive (i.e., pressure gain because of the negative inclination
angle, which pulls the fluid in the direction of flow).
c. In horizontal flow, the gravity force is zero.
3. Pressure force: pAp.

The pressure force in a moving fluid is defined by the equation of state ρ = f(p,T) and may increase or
decrease along the pipe depending on the magnitude and direction of the shear and gravity forces.
Substituting the force terms into Eq. 2.10 for the fluid system in Fig. 2.3 gives
−τ w As − ρ g∆LAp sin θ + pAp − ( p + ∆p ) Ap = 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.11)
Simplifying and rearranging Eq. 2.11 to solve for the pressure-drop term gives
( )
∆pAp = ∆L −τ wπ d − ρ gAp sin θ .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.12)
The pressure change across the control volume (pressure gradient) can be solved from Eq. 2.12 as
∆p 4τ
= − w − ρ g sin θ .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.13)
∆L d
Eq. 2.13 determines the change of pressure across the pipe segment. To calculate the pressure change, evaluation
of the wall shear term (tw), which is associated with the kinetic behavior of the fluid, should be predicted first.
This can be accomplished by defining a dimensionless friction factor that is the ratio of the wall shear stress to the
kinetic energy of the fluid per unit volume (Bird et al. 2002), as follows.
τw
fF = , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.14)
ρv2 2

where fF is the Fanning friction factor. Throughout this book, we adopt a Moody (1944) friction factor f, which
is four times larger than the Fanning friction factor. In terms of the Moody friction factor, Eq. 2.14 can be solved
for shear stress as follows.
f ρv2
τw = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.15)
8
Substituting Eq. 2.15 into Eq. 2.13, the final form of the pressure gradient equation is
∆p f ρv2
=− − ρ g sin θ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.16)
∆L 2d
2.4.3 Friction Factor Evaluation. Calculation of frictional pressure gradients requires determining values for
friction factors. Friction factor values depend on Reynolds number, pipe wall roughness, and flow regime in the
pipe (i.e., laminar or turbulent flow). Therefore, the procedure first requires evaluating whether the flow is laminar
or turbulent.
Reynolds Number and Flow Regime. The Reynolds number is a dimensionless number defined as the ratio of
inertial to viscous forces. The Reynolds number is defined as follows.
ρ vd
N Re = , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.17)
µ
where ρ = kg/m3, v = m/s, d = m, and µ = kg/(m × s). Reynolds number is consistent for SI units. However, when
oilfield units are used (ρ = lbm/ft3, v = ft/sec, d = ft, and µ = cp), the units are inconsistent; thus, a unit conversion
coefficient of 1,488 is multiplied by the numerator of Eq. 2.17 to convert cp to lbm/ft-sec. If Reynolds number is
less than 2,000, flow is laminar. Otherwise, the flow regime is turbulent.
Pipe Wall Relative Roughness (ε /d). Relative roughness is the dimensionless roughness of the internal pipe wall
and is a measure of the texture of the surface. It is characterized by the vertical irregularities and deviations of a real
surface from its ideal form, as shown in Fig. 2.4. If these deviations are large, the surface is rough; if they are small,
the surface is smooth. The roughness is often affected by corrosive fluids and solid particles flowing in the pipe; thus,
it is a function of operation time, fluids, and pipe material. The relative roughness is the average actual roughness
divided by the pipe inside diameter. The roughness values of common material are illustrated in Fig. 2.5.
Friction Factor. Friction factor can be determined from the Moody (1944) chart shown in Fig. 2.5, which illus-
trates the flow regime regions and their respective friction factor behavior. Fig. 2.5 shows four flow regimes that
are a function of Reynolds number, pipe wall relative roughness, or both. These regime regions are as follows:
1. Laminar flow (0.1 < NRe < 2,000): characterized by low-velocity flow with the fluid streamlines being
straight lines. The Moody friction factor in the laminar region is a function of NRe only and can be deter-
mined analytically by equating the friction component in Eq. 2.16 to the pressure gradient defined by the
Hagen-Poiseuille equation for flow in a capillary tube (Bird et al. 2002).
64
f= . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.18)
N Re
2. Transition region (2,000 < NRe < 3,500): unstable region in which the laminar friction factor can be extrapolated.
Fig. 2.4—Pipe wall roughness concept.

0.1
0.09
0.08 Laminar Turbulent
Fully Turbulent
0.05
0.07
0.04
0.06 –2
 2ε  0.03
f = 1.74 – 2.0log
0.05 d
Lam
0.02
f =N e
i
nar
0.015
0.04
64
Flow
0.01
R
0.008
d
ε
Relative Roughness,
0.006
Friction Factor,f
0.03
0.004
0.025 –2
 2ε 18.7  0.002
f = 1.74 – 2.0log +
 d NRe f 
0.02 0.001
0.0008
0.0006
0.0004
0.015
Material Roughness (ft)
Smooth pipes 0.0002
Steel 0.003-0.03
Concrete 0.001-0.01 f = 0.184N –0.2 0.0001
Wood 0.0006-0.003 Re
Cast Iron 0.00085
Galvanized Iron 0.0005 0.000,005
Asphalted Cast Iron. 0.0004
0.01 Commercial steel 0.00015
Wrought Iron 0.00015
0.009 Drawn tubing 0.00006
0.008 0.000,001
3 4 5 6 8 108
103 2 3 4 5 6 8 104 2 3 4 5 6 8 105 2 3 4 5 6 8 106 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 107 2
ε
= 0.000,001 ε
d = 0.000,005
ρvd d
Reynolds Number, NRe =
µ
Fig. 2.5—Moody chart of friction factor.
3. Turbulent flow (NRe > 3,500): characterized by high-velocity chaotic flow with random fluid particle
motion. The friction factor in the turbulent flow regime is classified into
a. Smooth-pipe friction factor (modified Blasius 1908)
−0.2
f = 0.184 N Re . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.19)
The original Blasius coefficients were 0.316 and –0.25

b. Rough-pipe friction factor (Colebrook 1939)
−2
  2ε 18.7 
f = 1.74 − 2.0log  +   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.20)
  d N Re f 
4. Fully turbulent flow is when friction factor is no longer a function of NRe and only a function of ε/d. For fully
turbulent flow (very large NRe), Eq. 2.20 degenerates to the Nikuradse (1933) friction factor given by
−2
 2ε 
f = 1.74 − 2.0log    .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.21)
  d 
2.5 Pressure Gradient Equation

Reducing the pipe length in Eq. 2.16 to a differential element expressed in terms of pipe length L, and using the
definition of derivatives, Eq. 2.16 becomes
dp f ρv2
=− − ρ g sin θ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.22)
dL 2d
Eq. 2.22 is the celebrated pressure gradient equation for an incompressible steady-state flow condition. Eq. 2.22
comprises two components—namely, frictional pressure gradient and gravitational pressure gradient.

dp dp dp
= + . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.23)
dL T dL f dL g
The acceleration (kinetic) pressure term is neglected in Eqs. 2.22 and 2.23 because of the assumption of zero
change of momentum rate across the control volume (i.e., there is constant velocity and density) in the derivation
of the linear momentum conservation equation. The acceleration term is important in low-pressure systems (<100
psi), which are rarely encountered in petroleum production systems. Therefore, throughout this book, the assump-
tion of zero acceleration pressure term is adopted. For details on the acceleration term, refer to Shoham (2006).
2.5.1 Concept. The pressure gradient is the change of pressure per unit pipe length and is used to calculate the
pressure at any point along the pipe. The total pressure gradient can be negative, positive, or zero, depending on
the pipe inclination angle (θ) and the magnitude of the frictional and gravitational pressure-loss components. For
example, if the flow is horizontal or upward, the pressure gradient is negative, as in Eq. 2.22. However, if the flow
is downward (i.e., negative inclination angle) and the magnitude of the gravitational term is greater than or equal
to the frictional term, the pressure gradient is positive or zero, respectively.
2.5.2 Application. Fig. 2.6 shows a segment of a pipe with diameter d, length dL, and inclination angle θ. Assum-
ing isothermal conditions, and given flow rate, fluid properties, and the pressure at point 1, the pressure at point 2
can be determined by the pressure gradient as follows.
 dp 
p2 = p1 +   dL = p1 + dp.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.24)
 dL 
For incompressible, isothermal, and steady-state flow conditions with a constant θ, the pressure gradient is con-
stant along the pipe because the density and velocity are constants. Therefore, evaluation of the pressure gradient
at point 1, where the pressure is known, can be applied all along the pipe with reasonable accuracy. Therefore,
dp dp dp
≈ ≈ ≈ constant.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.25)
dL 1 dL 2 dL
In this case, the pressure change along the entire pipe length is
dp
∆p2 −1 =   L .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.26)
 dL 
Example 2.1—Single-Phase Liquid Pressure Gradient in a Pipeline. 4000 m3/d of water are flowing in a
9-km-long smooth pipeline. The pipeline inner diameter (ID) and inclination angle are 152 mm and +7°, respec-
tively. The pipeline outlet pressure is 2.07 MPa (300 psi). Determine the pipeline inlet pressure if the water viscos-
ity and density are 0.001 Pa·s and 1000 kg/m3, respectively.
Solution 2.1
1. Gravitational and frictional pressure gradients.
 dp   kg   m
  = − ρ g sin θ = −  1,000 3   9.8 2  ( sin 7 )
o
dL g m s
 kg 
= −1.194 kPa m  Pa=1 .
 m ⋅ s2 
2
L
dL
q θ
Fig. 2.6—Pressure gradient concept.

 m3 
4,000 
q  d 
v= = = 2.55 m s.
s
Ap
(π 4 ) ( 0.152 m )  86,400 
2
ρ vd (1000 )( 2.55)( 0.152 )

N Re = = = 387,600 (Turbulent flow).
µ 0.001
= ( 0.184 )( 387,600 )
−0.2 −0.2
f = 0.184 N Re = 0.01403.
 dp  f ρv2 ( 0.01403)(1,000 )( 2.55) 2
  = − =− = −0.30 kPa m .
dL f 2d 2 ( 0.152 )
2. Total pressure gradient and inlet pipe pressure.
 dp   dp   dp 
  =   +   = −1.194 − 0.30 = −1.49 kPa m.
dL T dL g dL f
 dp 
pinlet = poutlet −   L p
 dL  T
= 2070 − ( −1.49 )( 9,000 )
= 15,480 kPa ( 2,245 psi ) .
Example 2.2—Single-Phase Liquid Pressure Gradient in Hilly-Terrain Pipeline. A single-phase incompress-

ible crude oil (rο = 883 kg/m3) is flowing through a hilly-terrain pipeline, as shown in Fig. 2.7. The pipeline ID is
101.6 mm, and the downward and upward inclination angles are −20° and +10°, respectively. The elevation of the
pipeline entrance from datum is 15 m. The measured pressure drop across the entire pipeline is 860 kPa. Given
the friction factor of 0.02 (constant), determine the flow rate (m3/d).
Solution 2.2
1. Determine the length of the pipeline (A–C).
15
L A− B = = 44 m.
sin ( 20 o )
15
LB − C = = 86 m.
sin (10 o )
2. Determine the total pressure gradient along the pipeline.
∆p 860
= = 6.6 kPa m.
∆L 130
Since the change in pipeline elevation from the entrance to the exit of the pipeline is zero, the gravitational pres-
sure drop along the pipeline is zero. Thus, the total pressure drop reduces to the frictional pressure component.
 dp   dp  f ρv2
  =   = − = −6.6 kPa m .
dL T dL f 2d
A C
q
15 m
θ1 θ2
B
Fig. 2.7—Hilly-terrain pipeline (Example 2.2).

3. Determine the oil velocity and flow rate.
2 d ( dp dL ) f
v= .
fρ
( 2 )( 0.1016 )( 6.6 )
v= = 0.275 m s.
( 0.02 )(883)
Ap = (π 4 ) ( 0.1016 ) = 0.0081 m 2 .
2
q = vA = ( 0.275)( 0.0081)(86,400 ) = 192.5 m 3 d.
2.6 Compressible Single-Phase Flow

For compressible single-phase flow in pipes, the pressure gradient cannot be determined from simplified single-
phase incompressible flow. When a compressible fluid (such as gas) flows in a pipe, the density, velocity, and,
consequently, the pressure gradient all vary with pressure. Thus, the flow conditions at point 2 of the pipe segment
shown in Fig. 2.6 is different from the flow conditions at point 1 (r1 ≠ r2 and v1 ≠ v2). Thus,
dp dp
≠ ≠ constant = f ( p, T ).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.27)
dL 1 dL 2
Therefore, to determine the pressure gradient in an isothermal, compressible, single-phase flow, the pressure
gradient must be integrated with respect to pressure along the pipe. There are two common methods—namely,
Cullender and Smith (1956) and the average pressure method. In this book, the average pressure method is used
to numerically integrate the gradient equation. Cullender and Smith’s (1956) method was developed before com-
puter programs were available for these calculations and is no longer used in practice. For details on Cullender
and Smith (1956), refer to Brill and Mukherjee (1999).
2.6.1 Average Pressure Method. The average pressure method requires dividing the pipe into small increments,
as shown in Fig. 2.8. The average pressure, fluid properties, flow rates, and pressure gradient are assumed constant
in each increment, given that the length of each increment is relatively small.
In addition, the average pressure method requires a known temperature in each increment for the calculation of
fluid properties. The temperature in each increment can be predicted assuming that
1. The temperature distribution function along the pipe is isothermal (constant), or known
2. Or, a heat transfer model (energy equation) is coupled with the pressure gradient (momentum equation) to
predict the temperature gradient along the pipe.
In this part of the book, the first approach is adopted for its simplicity, leaving the heat-transfer model discussion
for Chapter 7. The average pressure method requires an iterative approach in each increment to determine the
pressure drop across each increment. Thus, the pressure drop is the sum of incremental pressure drops along a
pipe as follows.
n
 dp 
∆p2 −1 = ∑   dLi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.28)
i =1  dL  i
i=n
L
3
1 2
i=1 dLi
q θ
Fig. 2.8—Compressible flow calculation scheme.

Eq. 2.28 assumes a pipe segment with constant geometrical parameters (d and θ) and constant mass flow rate.
However, in the case of more complex pipe geometry, as shown in Fig. 2.9, the pipeline can be divided into pipe
sections with constant geometrical parameters and mass flow rate. Eq. 2.28 is applied for each pipe section, and
the pressure drop of each section is summed over the entire pipeline as follows.
m  n 
 dp 
∆pT = ∑  ∑   dLi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.29)
 i =1  dL  i 
j =1 
Calculation Procedure. Fig. 2.10 shows one pipe increment over which the calculation procedure for com-
pressible single-phase flow pressure gradient is carried out.
The calculation steps are listed as follows.
1. Read input data: geometrical parameters (d and θ), standard condition flow rate (qsc), fluid specific gravity
or composition, pipe inlet pressure (pi), and increment average temperature ( T ).
2. Guess pipe increment outlet pressure (pi + 1(G)) and calculate increment average pressure p = pi + pi +1(G ) 2. ( )
3. Calculate fluid physical properties, in-situ flow rate, and velocity at average pressure and average tem-
perature (Appendix B or C).
4. Determine friction factor (Fig. 2.5), average pressure gradient (Eq. 2.22), and increment outlet pressure
(Eq. 2.24).
5. Compare the guessed and calculated outlet pressures by calculating convergence criterion as
 pi +1(G ) − pi +1(C )  pi +1(C ) ≤ ε , where ε is a small predefined value. Three cases will result:
a. Convergence is achieved: set pi + 1(C) as the inlet pressure (pi) of the next increment and march forward.
b. Convergence is not achieved: set calculated outlet pressure pi+ 1(C) as the new outlet pressure pi + 1(G) and repeat
Steps 2–5 until convergence is achieved. Convergence should be achieved in less than 10 iterations.
c. Number of iterations exceeds 10, and no convergence is achieved: numerical problem occurs; stop
iteration and proceed with unconverged pressure gradient value in this increment.
6. When convergence is achieved, march forward to the next increment. Take the outlet pressure of the previ-
ous increment as the inlet pressure of the new increment and repeat Steps 2–5. Repeat this procedure for
all pipe increments in a pipe section.
7. Repeat Steps 1–6 for each pipe section in the piping system to determine the pressure distribution along
the entire system.
q2
q1 j=4
i=1 2 n
j=3
j=1 j=2
Fig. 2.9—Pressure gradient application in complex pipeline system.
dL
p
pi pi+1
T
Fig. 2.10—Compressible flow in single increment.

Fig. 2.11 is a flow chart summarizing the compressible flow calculation procedure for one pipe increment.
Start
Read input data

(γg, d, θ,qsc, pi )
Li, dL, & T

are known
Guess pi+1(G)
Calculate
increment p
Calculate fluid
properties, in-situ
flow rate and
velocity at
p and T
Calculate (dp / dL) (Eq. 2.22)

and pi+1(C) (Eq. 2.24)
Convergence No
pi+1(G) = pi+1(C)
on pi+1
Yes
Next Incrementt
Fig. 2.11—Marching computational algorithm flow chart for one pipe increment.
Example 2.3—Compressible Single-Phase Flow in a Vertical Pipe. Calculate the flowing bottomhole pressure
in a vertical gas well using the average pressure method with two equal pipe increments. The following data are
known.
gg = 0.75 L = 3048 m (10,000 ft)

Tbh = 118.3°C (245oF) pwh = 13.83 MPa (2,000 psia)
Twh = 43.3°C (110 F)
o
ε = 0.0213 mm (0.00007 ft)
d = 62 mm (2.441 in.) qsc = 0.14 million std m3/d (4.915 MMscf/D)
Assume linear temperature distribution.

Solution 2.3 Twh = 43.3 °C
Preliminary Calculation
T = 62 °C
Ap = (π 4 ) d 2 = (π 4 ) ( 0.062 ) = 0.003 m 2 .
2
T1 = 62 °C (143.7°F).
T2 = 99.5°C (211°F).
T = 99.5 °C
Tbh = 118.3 °C

Upper Half of Well
1. Guess pipe increment outlet pressure and calculate average pressure.

A good initial guess of pressure gradient in a vertical gas well is 1.134 kPa/m (0.05 psi/ft). This gives an
increment outlet pressure, pi + 1(G), of 15.56 MPa (2,250 psia). The average increment pressure is
13.83 + 15.56
p= = 14.7 MPa (2,125 psia)
2
2. Calculate fluid physical properties, in-situ flow rate, and velocity at p and T .
Z = 0.766.
pM w
ρ= = 149 kg/m 3.
ZRT
µ = 0.000018 Pa·s.
ZT ( 0.766 )( 62 + 273)
Bg = 352.3 = 352.3 = 0.00615 m3/std m3.
p (14.7 × 10 6
)
q = qscBg = 861 m3/d.
861
v= = 3.32 m s .
( 0.003)(86,400 )
3. Calculate friction factor, average pressure gradient, and increment outlet pressure.
ρ vd (149 )( 3.32 )( 0.062 )

N Re = = = 1.7 × 10 6 (Turbulent).
µ 0.000018
ε = 0.0213 = 0.000344.
d 62
f = 0.0145 (from Fig. 2.5).
dp f ρv2
=− − ρ g sin θ = −192 − 1460 = −1,652.2 Pa m.
dL 2d
 dp 
∆p =   L = ( −1,652.2 )(1,524 ) = −2.5 MPa.
 dL 
p2 = 13.83 + 2.5 = 16.3 MPa (Not close enough to initial guess).
4. Set p2(C) = p2(G) = 16.3 MPa and repeat Steps 1–3 as a second iteration.
p = 15.06 MPa (2,176 psia).
Z = 0.766.
pM w
ρ= = 153 kg/m 3 .
ZRT
µ = 0.000018 Pa·s.
ZT ( 0.766 )( 335)
Bg = 352.3 = ( 352.3) = 0.006 m3/std m3.
p (15.06 × 106 )
q = qscBg = 840 m3/d.
v = 3.24 m/s.
ρ vd (153)( 3.25)( 0.062 )
N Re = = = 1.71 × 10 6.
µ 0.000018
f = 0.0149 (from Fig. 2.5).
dp f ρv2
=− − ρ g sin θ = −193 − 1,499 = −1,692 Pa m.
dL 2d

 dp 
∆p =   L = ( −1,692 )(1,524 ) = −2.58 MPa.
 dL 
p2 = 13.83 − ( −2.58 ) = 16.4 MPa (close enough to previous guess).
Lower Half of Well
1. Increment inlet pressure is 16.41 MPa. Using the initial guessed pressure gradient of 1.134 kPa, the
guessed increment outlet pressure is 18.14 MPa, which gives
p = 17.27 MPa (2,498 psia),

Z = 0.837,
pM w
ρ= = 144 kg/m 3,
ZRT
µ = 0.000018 Pa·s,
ZT ( 0.837 )( 372 )
Bg = 352.3 = ( 352.3) = 0.0063 m3/std m3,
p 17.27 × 10 6
q = qscBg = 889 m3/d,
v = 3.34 m/s,
ρ vd (144 )( 3.34 )( 0.062 )
N Re = = = 1.7 × 10 6 ,
µ 0.000018
f = 0.0145 (from Fig. 2.5),
dp f ρv2
=− − ρ g sin θ = −188 − 1,411 = −1,599 Pa m,
dL 2d
 dp 
∆p =   L = ( −1,599 )(1,524 ) = −2.44 MPa, and
 dL 
p2 = 16.41 − ( −2.44 ) = 18.85 MPa (2,726 psia) (not close enough to previous guess).
2. Set p2(C) = p2(G) = 18.85 MPa and repeat Step 1 as a second iteration.
p = 17.63 MPa (2,549 psia).

Z = 0.847.
pM w
ρ= = 146 kg m 3 .
ZRT
µ = 0.000018 Pa·s
ZT ( 0.847 )( 372 )
Bg = 352.3 = ( 352.3) = 0.0063 m3/std m3.
p 17.63 × 10 6
q = qscBg = 882 m3/d.
v = 3.4 m/s.
ρ vd (146 )( 3.4 )( 0.062 )
N Re = = = 1.71 × 10 6.
µ 0.000018
f = 0.0149.
dp f ρv2
=− − ρ g sin θ = −203 − 1431 = −1,634 Pa m.
dL 2d
 dp 
∆p =   L = ( −1,634 )(1,524 ) = −2.49 MPa.
 dL 
p2 = 16.41 − ( −2.49 ) = 18.90 MPa (close enough to previous guess).
The flowing bottomhole pressure is 18.9 MPa (2,733 psia).

2.7 Non-Newtonian Flow

Some of the fluids encountered in the petroleum industry act as non-Newtonian fluids. These include most drill-
ing muds, cement slurries, fracturing fluids, and spacers used during well-completion activities, as well as poly-
mers injected during enhanced oil recovery projects. In addition, produced oil/water mixtures, crude oils as the
temperature approaches the pour point, and oil/solid mixtures often display a non-Newtonian fluid behavior.
Non-Newtonian fluids exhibit different flow behavior from Newtonian fluids and thus require different rheology
calculations.
The design of piping systems for non-Newtonian fluids becomes complicated because the use of conventional
friction factor correlations is not directly applicable. These non-Newtonian fluids may assume any type of rhe-
ological behavior depending on such factors as shear rate, temperature, and fluid composition. The types of
rheological behavior that can be encountered are described in Fig. 2.1. The following discussion is limited to non-
Newtonian rheological behavior of oil/water mixtures encountered in hydrocarbon production systems.
2.7.1 Non-Newtonian Fluid Characterization. A general correlation to predict the viscosity of a non-Newtonian
fluid is difficult to obtain because of the unique characteristics of each non-Newtonian fluid. Therefore, to accu-
rately determine the viscosity behavior of a non-Newtonian fluid, a laboratory experimental measurement must
be conducted on the fluid using an appropriate viscometer. Dispersed oil/water flow in pipes can be treated as a
non-Newtonian fluid with the following assumptions:
1. The mixture is homogeneous (slippage is neglected). Thus, in-situ liquid holdups are the same as their
respective input volume fractions (no-slip liquid holdup).
2. The rheological behavior of the oil/water mixture is suitably described by the Ostwald–de Waele power
law model (Bird et al. 2002) as follows.
τ = Kγ n.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.30)
If n is unity, Eq. 2.30 describes Newtonian behavior, and K will be equal to the constant viscosity, µ. For a typi-
cal oil/water mixture, n will usually be less than unity, and Eq. 2.30 will describe pseudoplastic (shear-thinning)
behavior. It is also possible for an oil/water mixture to have n greater than unity, resulting in dilatant (shear-thick-
ening) behavior. The type of behavior that a fluid system will follow is normally unknown and can be determined
from laboratory experiments using an appropriate viscometer. To determine n and K, a logarithmic plot of wall
shear stress τ w = ( dp dL ) d 4  vs. nominal shear rate (γ w = 8 v d ) is required, where the slope is n′ and intercept
is K ′. The nominal shear is the true shear rate at the pipe wall or the shear rate for a Newtonian fluid. It is used here
instead of the true wall shear rate for scaling up from small- to larger-diameter pipelines, given that the laminar
flow regime exists and no “wall-slip” occurs, which is rarely significant for d > 50 mm. It is important to note that
the n′ and K ′ determined from the characteristic curve correspond to wall shear stress and shear rate, not to the
true shear stress and shear rate. It has been shown from analogy between the power law and non-Newtonian true
shear rate/shear stress relationship that n = n ′and K = K ′ [( 3n + 1) 4 n ] .
n
Non-Newtonian Reynolds Number. Metzner and Reed (1955) introduced the concept of a generalized Reyn-
olds number for non-Newtonian flow. The final expression of their generalized Reynolds number in terms of n
and K is as follows.
ρ v 2− n d n  4n 
n
′ =
N Re   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.31)
8n −1 K  1 + 3n 
If n is unity, Eq. 2.31 reduces to the usual Reynolds number definition with K as µ.
Laminar-Turbulent Flow Transition. A number of methods have been presented in the literature to predict the
critical value of Reynolds number at which transition to turbulent flow occurs. For a power law fluid, Ryan and
Johnson (1959) proposed the following expression for the transition from laminar to turbulent flow in terms of
flow behavior index n.
( 6,464 ) ( n ) ( n + 2 )[(n + 2) (n +1)]

′c =
N Re
(1 + 3n )2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.32)
If the Reynolds number calculated from Eq. 2.31 is less than the critical Reynolds number from Eq. 2.32, the flow
regime is laminar; otherwise, the flow is turbulent.

Non-Newtonian Friction Factor. In general, the procedure for calculating friction factors for non-Newtonian
fluids is similar to that for a Newtonian fluid. Several friction factor equations are presented here with respect to
flow regimes and pipe wall roughness.
1. Laminar flow. Using the non-Newtonian Metzner and Reed (1955) generalized Reynolds number, the
laminar non-Newtonian Moody friction factor is as follows.
64
f′= .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.33)
′
N Re
2. Turbulent flow through smooth pipes. Dodge and Metzner (1959) proposed the following implicit Moody
friction factor equation.
{ }
−2
4.0 0.4
fs′ = 4.0  0.75 log N Re
′ fs′  ( ) − 1.2  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.34)
1− n 2
n n 
3. Turbulent flow through rough pipes. Govier and Aziz (1972) suggested the following Moody friction fac-
tor for power law pseudoplastic fluids flowing in rough pipes.
 fr 
f ′ = fs′ Newtonian  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.35)
 fsNewtonian 
where fs′ = friction factor calculated from Eq. 2.34, frNewtonian = friction factor for rough pipe calculated from
Eq. 2.20 at the same generalized Reynolds number, and fsNewtonian = friction factor for smooth pipe calculated from
Eq. 2.19 at the same generalized Reynolds number.
4. Fully turbulent flow through rough pipes. Govier and Aziz (1972) recommended the following expression.
−2
 d 2.65 
f ′ = 4  4.06 × log   + 6.0 − . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.36)
  2ε  n 
2.7.2 Non-Newtonian Frictional Pressure Gradient. Once the friction factor is determined for the non-Newto-
nian fluid system, the pressure gradient can be calculated from Eq. 2.22, which is slightly modified in the friction
factor term as follows.
dp f ′ρv2
=− − ρ g sin θ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.37)
dL 2d
Example 2.4—Non-Newtonian Oil/Water Mixture Pressure Drop. A horizontal pipe discharges a dispersed
oil/water mixture at atmospheric pressure. Determine the pressure at the inlet of the pipe required to maintain
a constant volumetric flow rate of the dispersion for input water fraction fw = 0.2. The following are also given:
q = 73 397 m3/d (2,592,000 ft3/D) d = 0.508 m (20 in.)

ε = 0.305 mm (0.001 ft) L = 3050 m (10,000 ft)
ro = 863 kg/m3 (53.74 lbm/ft3) rw = 999 kg/m3 (62.23 lbm/ft3)
n = 0.8589 K’ = 0.34322 Pa·sn
Solution 2.4
1. Calculate the mixture density, using

rm = ro fo + rw fw = 890 kg/m3.
2. For the given flow rate and water fraction, calculate the generalized Reynolds number:
K = 0.33156.

ρ v 2− n d n  4n 
n
′ =
N Re  
8n −1 K  1 + 3n 
890 × 4.22 − 0.8589 × 0.5080.8589  4 × 0.8589 
0.8589
=   .
80.8589 −1 × 0.33156 1 + 3 × 0.8589 
= 9,995.
3. Calculate the laminar-turbulent boundary.
( 6,464 ) ( n ) ( n + 2 )[(n + 2) (n +1)]

′c =
N Re
(1 + 3n )2
6,464 × 0.8589 ( 0.8589 + 2 )[(
0.8589 + 2 ) ( 0.8589 +1)]
=
(1 + 3 × 0.8589 )2
= 3,312.
′ > 3,312, the flow regime is turbulent.
Since N Re
4. Compute the friction factor for turbulent flow of pseudoplastic fluids in rough pipes using Eq. 2.35. The
turbulent smooth-pipe friction factor is calculated iteratively from Eq. 2.34.
−2

fs′ = 4.0 
4.0
 ( 0.8589 )
{
0.75 Log 9,995 × f s′
1− ( 0.8589 2 ) 
− }
0.4 
( 0.8589 )1.2 
.
Using a trial-and-error procedure to solve the implicit friction factor, a final answer is found as
fs′ = 0.02278 .
To determine the rough-pipe friction factor from Eq. 2.35, the Newtonian smooth- and rough-pipe friction factors
from Eqs. 2.19 and 2.20, respectively, are calculated using the generalized Reynolds number.
fsNewtonian = 0.03073.
frNewtonian = 0.03477.
 fr 
f ′ = fs′ Newtonian  = 0.02278 (1.1315) = 0.02577.
 fsNewtonian 
5. Calculate the pipe inlet pressure, p1.
dp f ′ρv2 0.02577 × 890 × 4.22

=− =− = −0.398 kPa/m.
dL 2d 2 × 0.508
 dp 
p1 = p2 −   dL
 dL 
= 101.325 − ( −0.398 )( 3,050 ) (191.4 psia).
= 1,315.22 kPa.
2.8 Chapter Key Learnings
• Single-phase incompressible and steady-state fluid flow in a pipe has a constant fluid velocity along the pipe.
• Conservation of mass and linear momentum laws can be coupled to derive the incompressible, steady-state,
single-phase pressure gradient equation in pipes.
• An incompressible, steady-state, single-phase pressure gradient equation is used for compressible flow in
pipes using the average pressure method to account for variation in fluid properties along the pipe.
• A non-Newtonian fluid has a nonlinear viscosity trend, which requires a special characterization to deter-
mine flow behavior parameters. A generalized Reynolds number and friction factor are determined for the
non-Newtonian fluids to calculate frictional pressure gradient.

2.9 Problems
Problem 2.1—Flow Regime Determination. What is the flow regime (i.e., laminar or turbulent) for 0.0019 m3/s
of fresh water flowing in a 76-mm-ID pipeline?
Problem 2.2—Reynolds Number. Derive an expression for Reynolds number in terms of q, d, and ν (kinematic
viscosity).
Problem 2.3—Crude Oil Pressure Gradient. A crude oil flows at a velocity of 1.524 m/s through a 50.8-mm-ID
pipeline with a head loss of 5.5 m in 30.5 m. What will be the head loss when the velocity is increased to 3.05 m/s,
given that the oil specific gravity and kinematic viscosity are 0.92 and 9.3 × 10–5 m2/s, respectively?
Problem 2.4—Water Pressure Gradient. The mean velocity of water flowing in a 300-mm-ID and 0.002-rela-
tive-roughness pipeline is 3 m/s. Given that the kinematic viscosity of water is 9 × 10–7 m2/s, determine the pres-
sure drop in kPa along a 300-m-long pipe.
Problem 2.5—Pipeline Sizing. A smooth 61-m-long pipeline is to transport water at 0.003 m3/s between two
tanks open to the atmosphere and with a surface elevation difference of 1.5 m. What is the required pipe diameter?
Problem 2.6—Pipeline Capacity. Calculate the flow rate for fresh water flowing through a 6-m-long, 50-mm-ID
horizontal smooth pipe with a head loss of 0.3 m.
Problem 2.7—Liquid Viscosity Determination. A liquid (go = 0.85) flows in a 101.6-mm-ID commercial steel
pipe at a rate of 0.0043 m3/s. If the pressure gradient over a 61-m-long horizontal pipe is 1.73 kPa, determine the
liquid viscosity.
Problem 2.8—Relative Roughness Estimation. Fresh water flows in a smooth pipeline at a Reynolds number of
106. After several years of operation, it is observed that one-half the original flow rate produces the same pressure
gradient as the original flow rate. Estimate the relative roughness of the deteriorated pipeline.
Problem 2.9—Pipeline Leaking. Water flows in a 0.3-m-ID pipeline with a constant friction factor of 0.025. The
pipeline is found to leak water at a point where the upstream and downstream pressure gradients of the leaking
location are 7 and 6.5 kPa/m, respectively. Determine the water-leakage rate.
Problem 2.10—Non-Newtonian Flow Pressure Gradient. A non-Newtonian incompressible (ρ = 850 kg/m3)

fluid flows in a horizontal 50.8-mm-ID pipe at 250-m3/d flow rate. The fluid is characterized experimentally using
a pipe viscometer that consists of a 2.1-m-long, horizontal, 7.06-mm-ID section, and the data in Table 2.1 are
acquired. Calculate the frictional pressure gradient along the pipe for the following cases:
1. Smooth pipe (ε/d = 0.0)
2. Rough pipe with ε/d = 0.001
Problem 2.11—Flow in Wells. Well 1 and Well 2 are identical wells and are producing from the same reservoir.
Well 1 produces through the tubing, whereas Well 2 produces through the casing/tubing annulus, as shown in
Fig. 2.12. Given that the cross-sectional area of the production tubing in Well 1 and the annulus in Well 2 are equal
(AT = Aan), determine which well has the higher flow rate? Support your answer.
q (m3/min) Dp (kPa)
0.047 16.389
0.249 25.793
0.711 35.059
1.304 40.314
2.394 47.990
4.100 55.735
6.020 61.129
7.382 67.352
Table 2.1—Viscometer data (Problem 2.10).

Tubing Tubing
Casing Casing
Well 1 Well 2
Fig. 2.12—Well schematics (Problem 2.11).
Problem 2.12—Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) Storage in Salt Cavity. Salt cavities are often used for storage
of liquid petroleum gas (LPG) (Fig. 2.13). There are two possible salt cavity operating configurations: compen-
sated (with brine) and uncompensated (without brine). Weep holes are used to detect the presence of LPG in the
brine for compensated storage cavities. Anytime LPG is being injected into the cavity under normal conditions,
brine is produced up the tubing, with some of the brine entering the tubing at the tubing shoe and the remainder
entering the tubing through the weep hole. The amount of brine entering the tubing through the weep hole is small
and depends on the size of the hole and the pressure difference across the weep hole. Estimate the pressure differ-
ence across the weep hole for the following case, assuming the LPG level is above the weep hole.
LPG injection rate = 3180 m3/d ρB = 1027 kg/m3
dt = 0.203 m f = 0.02
Tubing shoe to weep hole length = 30.5 m.
Assume the LPG and brine velocities in the salt cavity are very small (negligible).
Brine surface pipeline LPG
Brine
LPG
Tubing
LPG LPG
Weep hole
Brine
Tubing shoe
Brine
Fig. 2.13—Compensated salt cavity storage system (Problem 2.12).

Problem 2.13—Giraffe Blood Circulatory System. The circulatory blood system of the giraffe is unique and
scientifically interesting. A giraffe’s heart can weigh more than 11 kg, is 0.61-m long, and must generate approxi-
mately double the blood pressure required for a human to maintain an average blood flow rate to the brain at 10
L/m. It is also known that a giraffe’s blood density and viscosity average approximately 1060 kg/m3 and 0.0018
Pa·s, respectively, and its heart and brain are connected by a smooth 3-cm-ID and 2.74-m-long blood vessel
(because of the long neck). Amazingly, the giraffe’s upper neck has several valves to prevent excessive blood flow
and pressure in the brain when the giraffe bends its neck below its heart level. Using single-phase fluid mechanics
principles, answer the following questions:
1. If the required average blood pressure in a giraffe’s brain is 120 mm-Hg, determine the required average
blood pressure that the giraffe’s heart must supply as the giraffe extends it neck vertically to eat from a
tree. Assume the giraffe’s heart is located just below its neck.
2. Determine the required pressure drop across a giraffe’s upper neck valve to maintain the blood pressure in
its brain at 120 mm-Hg when the giraffe bends its 2.74-m-long neck to drink from a water pond. Assume
the giraffe bends its neck in a ∩-shape with 0.61-m vertical upward and 2.13-m vertical downward neck
segments to reach the water pond.
Problem 2.14—Mass Balance in Expanded Pipe. A single-phase compressible mixture is flowing in a horizontal
expanding pipe from a small diameter to a large diameter, as shown in Fig. 2.14. Given the following information,
and neglecting the accelerational pressure gradient component at Point 2, determine the pipe diameter at Point 1.
Point 1 Point 2
vg = 5.5 m/s dp/dL = 113.3 Pa/m
rg = 220 kg/m 3
rg = 125 kg/m3
d1 = ? f = 0.02
1 2
d2 = 76 mm
Fig. 2.14—Expanded pipe (Problem 2.14).

Description of Pipe Flow

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Applied Multiphase Flow in Pipes

and Flow Assurance

Society of Petroleum Engineers

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Printed in the United States of America.

About the Cover

First Printing 2017

Society of Petroleum Engineers

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Why This Book?

In-Situ Flow Rates

Fig. 1—Textbook central idea

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Nomenclature and Units

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Chapter 5 – Nonhomogeneous Multiphase Flow in Wells������������������������������������������������������������� 89

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Introduction to Multiphase Flow in

1.1 Definition of Multiphase Flow

1.2 Significance of Multiphase Pipe Flow in Oil and Gas Production

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1.3 Petroleum Production System

Wellhead Flowline Separator

Water Oil outlet

Fig. 1.1—Petroleum production system.

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1.4 Role of Production Engineer

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Pipeline Inlet Pressure (MPa)

Fig. 1.2—Pipeline deliverability plot.

6500 Pipeline Diam. = 101.6 cm

Fig. 1.3—Pipeline liquid-volume capacity.

1.5 Historical Overview of Multiphase Flow in Pipes

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Empirical Awakening Modeling The Future

Multiphase flow assurance

Two fluid transient

1950 1975 1985 2001

Fig. 1.4—Historical and future overview of multiphase flow in pipes technology.

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1.6 Future of Multiphase Flow in Pipes

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Single-Phase Flow in Pipes

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Shear thinning flow

Shear thickening flow

Fig. 2.1—Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluid behaviors.

2.3 Conservation of Mass

( Mass rate ) into CV

Eq. 2.2 can be translated to a 1D conservation of mass mathematical statement as follows.

Fig. 2.2—Conservation of mass in a pipe segment.

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2.4 Conservation of Linear Momentum

( Mom. rate) − ( Mom. rate)

( Mom. rate ) into CV

Momentum rate into CV: Ap ρ v ( v )in

( Sum of forces ) = ∑ F = 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.10)

1. Shear force: t w As.

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Chapter 5 – Nonhomogeneous Multiphase Flow in Wells�� 89