TECHNICAL R E P O R T S S E R I E S No.

120

Monitoring
of Radioactive Contamination
on Surfaces

^INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, VIENNA,1970

 MONITORING
OF R A D I O A C T I V E CONTAMINATION
ON SURFACES
 The f o l l o w i n g States are M e m b e r s of the International A t o m i c Energy A g e n c y .

AFGHANISTAN GREECE NORWAY

ALBANIA GUATEMALA PAKISTAN
ALGERIA HAITI PANAMA
ARGENTINA HOLY SEE PARAGUAY
AUSTRALIA HUNGARY PERU
AUSTRIA ICELAND PHILIPPINES
BELGIUM INDIA POLAND
BOLIVIA INDONESIA PORTUGAL
BRAZIL IRAN ROMANIA
BULGARIA IRAQ SAUDI ARABIA
BURMA IRELAND SENEGAL
BYELORUSSIAN SOVIET ISRAEL SIERRA LEONE
SOCIALIST REPUBLIC ITALY SINGAPORE
CAMBODIA IVORY:COAST SOUTH AFRICA
CAMEROON JAMAICA SPAIN.
CANADA JAPAN SUDAN
CEYLON JORDAN 1 ! SWEDEN"'
CHILE KENYA. SWITZERLAND
CHINA KOREA, REPUBLIC OF SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC
COLOMBIA KUWAIT THAILAND
CONGO, DEMOCRATIC LEBANON TUNISIA
REPUBLIC OF LIBERIA TURKEY
C O S T A RICA LIBYAN' ARAB REPUBLIC UGANDA
CUBA LIECHTENSTEIN UKRAINIAN SOVIET SOCIALIST
CYPRUS LUXEMBOURG REPUBLIC
C Z E C H O S L O V A K SOCIALIST MADAGASCAR UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST
REPUBLIC MALAYSIA REPUBLICS
DENMARK MALI UNITED ARAB REPUBLIC
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC MEXICO UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT.
ECUADOR MONACO BRITAIN AND NORTHERN
EL SALVADOR MOROCCO IRELAND
ETHIOPIA NETHERLANDS UNITED S T A T E S OF AMERICA
FINLAND NEW ZEALAND URUGUAY
FRANCE NICARAGUA VENEZUELA
GABON NIGER VIET-NAM
GERMANY, FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF NIGERIA YUGOSLAVIA
GHANA ZAMBIA

T h e A g e n c y ' s Statute was approved on 23 O c t o b e r 1956 by the C o n f e r e n c e on the Statute of the IAEA
h e l d at United N a t i o n s Headquarters, New Y o r k ; it entered i n t o f o r c e on 2 9 July 1 9 5 7 . T h e Headquarters of
the A g e n c y are situated in V i e n n a . Its p r i n c i p a l o b j e c t i v e is " t o a c c e l e r a t e and e n l a r g e the c o n t r i b u t i o n o f
a t o m i c energy to p e a c e , health and prosperity throughout the w o r l d " .

© IAEA, 1970

Permission to r e p r o d u c e or translate the i n f o r m a t i o n c o n t a i n e d in this p u b l i c a t i o n m a y b e o b t a i n e d by

writing to the International A t o m i c Energy A g e n c y , Karntner Ring 11, P . O . Box 5 9 0 , A - 1 0 1 1 V i e n n a , Austria.

Printed by the IAEA in Austria

August 1970
 T E C H N I C A L R E P O R T S SERIES No. 120

MONITORING
OF RADIOACTIVE CONTAMINATION
ON SURFACES

A manual p r e p a r e d by
R. F. C L A Y T O N
Health Physics and M e d i c a l Division,
A t o m i c Energy Research Establishment,
United K i n g d o m A t o m i c Energy Authority,
Harwell, Berks, United Kingdom

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY

•VIENNA-, 1970
MONITORING OF RADIOACTIVE CONTAMINATION ON SURFACES
IAEA, • VIENNA, 1970
STI/DOC/10/1-20
 FOREWORD

The a s s e s s m e n t of radioactive s u r f a c e contamination f o r m s an i m -

portant part of the application of safety standards to work involving the
use of unsealed radiation sources'.
This manual is intended to help those concerne.d with the i m p l e m e n t a -
tion of these standards to s e l e c t and apply suitable p r o c e d u r e s and t e c h -
niques. .It has been p r e p a r e d on behalf o f t h e A g e n c y by M r . _R. F . Clayton
of the Health P h y s i c s and M e d i c a l Division, A t o m i c E n e r g y R e s e a r c h
Establishment, United Kingdom A t o m i c E n e r g y Authority, Harwell,
Berks.
The manual outlines the o b j e c t i v e s of s u r f a c e contamination m o n i t o r -
ing and d i s c u s s e s the relative advantages and disadvantages of various
available methods. E x a m p l e s of derived working limits of s u r f a c e conta-
mination at present in use are quoted. The f a c t o r s to be c o n s i d e r e d in
s e l e c t i n g contamination monitoring instruments .are also d i s c u s s e d and
a few instruments c o m m o n l y used in the United Kingdom are illustrated
by way of e x a m p l e .
In a manual of this type it i s difficult to give a balanced exposition
of p r a c t i c e s adopted by different countries throughout the w o r l d . An
attempt to do so would result in a text of bewildering c o m p l e x i t y . It is
acknowledged'that the present text is l a r g e l y based on the approach adop-
ted in the United Kingdom A t o m i c Energy Authority. A bibliography is
provided, h o w e v e r , which m a y to s o m e extent counteract this bias by
directing attention to publications dealing with p r a c t i c e s adopted in other
countries.
 CONTENTS

•GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS , : i".'...-.:..'.'.'

1. 1. P u r p o s e and s c o p e
,1,. 2. '. Definitions . ' .
1. 3. The undesirability of s u r f a c e contamination
.1. 4. Derived working limits of s u r f a c e contamination
1.5. Monitoring techniques
.1.6. Recordkeeping

DERIVED WORKING LIMITS .....' ;......;'...

2.1. Health considerations
2.2.. Limits derived from'inhalation risk
2. 3.- Limits derived f r o m external'.radiation hazard
2.'4. . Limits derived f r o m ingestion r i s k
2. 5. Examples of derived working limits currently in use
2..6. . Relaxation of derived working limits, .

SURFACE MONITORING TECHNIQUES

'3. 1. • General-
3. 2. Selection of method

DIRECT METHODS OF SURFACE MONITORING'

4. 1. Alpha contamination monitoring
4. 2. Beta contamination monitoring — general techniques
4.3. - Beta contamination monitoring — l o w - e n e r g y emitters

INDIRECT METHODS OF SURFACE MONITORING

5.1. : General .
5. 2. . . Dry s m e a r s
5.3. Wet s m e a r s
5.4. L a r g e area swabs
5. 5. Adhesive tape s a m p l e s
5. 6. ' S m a i r ! sampling
5: 7. ^Sniffing 1 techniques
5. 8. Examination of rinsing and washing solutions
5. 9. Tritium s m e a r s
5 . 1 0 . Skin and wound monitoring
5 . 1 1 . Instruments used f o r indirect methods
6. SUPPLEMENTARY TECHNIQUES 16

6. 1. Autoradiography
6. 2. Thermoluminescent dosimetry
6. 3. Radiation s p e c t r o m e t r y
6. 4. A i r monitoring
6. 5. Deposition trays
6. 6. Overshoe and cleaning material monitoring
6. 7. Personnel dosimetry
6. 8. B i o l o g i c a l monitoring
6. 9. Pinhole c a m e r a s

7. CALIBRATION AND P E R F O R M A N C E CHECKING

OF SURFACE MONITORING EQUIPMENT 20

8. INSTRUMENTATION' ." ; .. 23
8. 1. C r i t e r i a f o r selection of instruments
8. 2. Detailed a s s e s s m e n t f o r c h o i c e of instruments
8. 2. 1. Mechanical p e r f o r m a n c e
8 . 2 . 2 . Electrical performance • • ' .
8. 2. 3. R a d i o l o g i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e
8. 3. Examples of instruments in use .

REFERENCES • : 30

BIBLIOGRAPHY 32
 1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

1.1. P u r p o s e and s c o p e

The manual is intended as a p r a c t i c a l handbook on methods of m o n i -

toring the working environment, f o r health p h y s i c i s t s and other p e r s o n s
using r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l s . Section 2 deals b r i e f l y with the derivation of
working limits of contamination.
The applications, advantages and disadvantages of d i r e c t and indirect
monitoring methods a r e d i s c u s s e d , and useful supplementary techniques
to a s s i s t the health p h y s i c i s t in his interpretation of m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e
^ described.
The manual d o e s not d i s c u s s monitoring of s u r f a c e contamination in
the environment of nuclear installations. This aspect of monitoring has
already been dealt with in two IAEA manuals, one c o v e r i n g n o r m a l o p e r -
ations and the other e m e r g e n c y situations [1, 2],
Although the manual is not p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d with the detection of
contamination in o r on humans, p e r m i s s i b l e l e v e l s of skin contamination
a r e quoted. Many of the methods d e s c r i b e d f o r s u r f a c e contamination
monitoring can b e applied to m e a s u r i n g the amounts of r a d i o a c t i v e c o n -
tamination on skin, but internal p e r s o n n e l contamination monitoring
r e q u i r e s s p e c i a l techniques not within the s c o p e of this manual.
The s u r f a c e monitoring techniques d e s c r i b e d a r e m o r e applicable to
situations in which one is c o n c e r n e d with preventing o r controlling a
r a d i o l o g i c a l hazard rather than to those in which experimental or o p e r - •
ational inconvenience can a r i s e . In these latter c a s e s , permitted l e v e l s
m a y b e l o w e r and g r e a t e r p r e c i s i o n in monitoring a s s e s s m e n t s may b e
required than in the c a s e of r a d i o l o g i c a l protection.

1.2. Definitions

Monitoring. C o m m i t t e e 4 of the International C o m m i s s i o n of R a d i o l o g i c a l

P r o t e c t i o n has defined monitoring as 'the m e a s u r e m e n t of radiation o r
radioactivity f o r r e a s o n s related to the a s s e s s m e n t o r control of e x p o s u r e
to radiation o r r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l ' and quotes the principal objects of a
s u r f a c e contamination monitoring p r o g r a m [3, 4],

Radioactive s u r f a c e contamination [5] is unwanted r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l

deposited in an uncontrolled manner in o r on animate o r inanimate o b j e c t s ,
i r r e s p e c t i v e of their situations, in such concentrations that either o p e r -
ational inconvenience o r r a d i o l o g i c a l hazard is caused.

C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of r a d i o a c t i v e contamination. Several ways a r e used to

c l a s s i f y r a d i o a c t i v e contamination: by the type of radiation emitted, by
the availability f o r o r ease of t r a n s f e r to other o b j e c t s , o r by the p h y s i c a l
f o r m of the contaminant.
(a) C l a s s i f i c a t i o n by e m i s s i o n is p r i m a r i l y into alpha, beta and l o w -
energy beta e m i t t e r s . F o r s u r f a c e monitoring t e c h n i q u e s , - X - and g a m m a -
ray e m i s s i o n s a r e of s e c o n d a r y importance, although the radiation hazard
due to their p r e s e n c e must n e v e r b e ignored.
(b) Contamination is further c l a s s i f i e d as being ' f i x e d ' o r ' l o o s e ' .
' F i x e d ' contamination is that which is not t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m a contaminated

1
s u r f a c e to an uncontaminated s u r f a c e when the two s u r f a c e s accidentally
touch; c o n v e r s e l y , ' l o o s e ' contamination is that which may b e readily
t r a n s f e r r e d under these c i r c u m s t a n c e s .
(c) Contamination of s u r f a c e s by solid m a t e r i a l m a y o c c u r by spillage
of p o w d e r s , by contact between the s u r f a c e and r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l , by
the drying of radioactive liquids and solutions on the s u r f a c e of the m a t e r i a l ,
o r b y deposition f r o m a i r b o r n e radioactive material. Surface contamination
m a y a l s o o c c u r by sorption of radioactive gas such as tritium, o r vapour
such as tritiated water.

A c t i v e a r e a s . T h e r e a r e a r e a s in which p e r s o n s may be exposed to r a d i o -

active contamination, radiation, o r the risk of inhaling o r ingesting r a d i o -
active m a t e r i a l f r o m a i r b o r n e o r s u r f a c e r a d i o a c t i v e contamination at
l e v e l s in e x c e s s of those r e c o m m e n d e d by the International C o m m i s s i o n
on R a d i o l o g i c a l P r o t e c t i o n o r the International A t o m i c Energy A g e n c y ;
these m a y include change r o o m s and o f f i c e s as well as l a b o r a t o r i e s and
p r o c e s s areas.

Inactive areas, a r e all areas other than those c l a s s i f i e d as active a r e a s as

defined above. j

1. 3. The undesirability of s u r f a c e contamination

A potential r a d i o l o g i c a l hazard a r i s e s f r o m the p r e s e n c e of r a d i o -

active s u r f a c e contamination. It can b e c o m e a i r b o r n e and subsequently
m a y b e inhaled, o r it m a y b e t r a n s f e r r e d by contact to the hands and
subsequently to food and ingested, o r it m a y penetrate the intact skin o r •
enter an open wound giving r i s e to an internal r a d i o l o g i c a l hazard. In the
c a s e of beta and gamma emitters an external radiation hazard m a y a l s o
exist. •
If the contaminated a r t i c l e is portable, it might b e m o v e d to an i n -
active a r e a where, as the p r e s e n c e of r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l s is not expected,
it would b e handled without the precautions n o r m a l l y taken in active a r e a s .
The p r e s e n c e of r a d i o a c t i v e contamination at levels, which m a y not be
a health hazard may i n t e r f e r e with experimental work, leading to e r r o n e o u s
l o w - l e v e l counting r e s u l t s , o r c r o s s - c o n t a m i n a t i o n of r a d i o c h e m i c a l
experiments.
B e c a u s e of the undesirability of r a d i o a c t i v e contamination the r i s k of
its occurring, should b e m i n i m i z e d by c a r e f u l design of l a b o r a t o r i e s and
r a d i o a c t i v e plants. The c h o i c e of p r o p e r equipment f o r handling r a d i o -
active m a t e r i a l s and the selection of correct- operating p r o c e d u r e s together
with the s t r i c t management and disposal of r a d i o a c t i v e waste all s e r v e to
reduce'this risk.

1;4. Derived working l i m i t s , o f s u r f a c e contamination

D e r i v e d working limits (DWL) have been set as an indication of the

l e v e l of s u r f a c e contamination which can be tolerated. T h e s e l e v e l s a r e
such.that the risk of exposure to radiation f r o m contamination within, o r
without the body in e x c e s s of the m a x i m u m p e r m i s s i b l e l e v e l is m i n i m a l .
In this manual derived working limits of s u r f a c e contamination (which
a r e d i s c u s s e d in g r e a t e r detail in Session 2) a r e b a s e d on r a d i o l o g i c a l

2
p r o t e c t i o n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s only. I n t e r f e r e n c e with sensitive m e a s u r e m e n t s ,
o r the prevention of c r o s s - c o n t a m i n a t i o n between experiments m a y i m p o s e
m o r e stringent l i m i t s . It is not p o s s i b l e in a manual such as this to attempt
to give f i g u r e s f o r these c a s e s as each must b e individually a s s e s s e d .
Methods of m e a s u r e m e n t a r e too s p e c i a l i z e d , involving the.use of low
background counting equipment in p r o p e r l y equipped l a b o r a t o r i e s .

1.5. Monitoring'techniques

Monitoring techniques may b e b r o a d l y divided into ' d i r e c t ' and

' i n d i r e c t ' methods. D i r e c t methods a r e those in' which a radiation detector
is presented d i r e c t l y to the s u r f a c e ' u n d e r examination o r v i c e v e r s a .
When direct methods a r e inapplicable b e c a u s e o f unfavourable g e o m e t r y ,
o r b e c a u s e of i n t e r f e r e n c e by other radiations, o r when it is n e c e s s a r y to
determine whether o r not contamination i s ' f i x e d ' , indirect methods a r e
used. T h e s e usually involve taking s a m p l e s of the s u r f a c e contamination,'
e. g. on s m e a r s , . which a r e then examined f o r radioactivity. In .many
c i r c u m s t a n c e s the two methods a r e c o m p l e m e n t a r y and both must be. used
to attain a c o m p l e t e p i c t u r e of the state .of a s u r f a c e under examination.
The points to be c o n s i d e r e d which govern the choice, of.technique to be-
employed, and the relative advantages and limitations of the methods a r e
d e s c r i b e d in Section 3. . . . . . .

1. 6. ' R e c o r d keeping • •

R e c o r d s of monitoring p r o v i d e a check that monitoring is being done

c o r r e c t l y and at the r e q u i r e d f r e q u e n c y ; they enable the r e s p o n s i b l e
organization to maintain a c l o s e s u r v e i l l a n c e of hazardous operations so
that the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of control m e a s u r e s can b e - a s s e s s e d . They also
f o r m the b a s i s f r o m which a health physicist m a y make r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s
f o r altering c o n t r o l p r o c e d u r e s . In the event of litigation, r e c o r d s of
conditions during operations may be related to r e p o r t e d o r alleged e x p o s u r e s
to r a d i o l o g i c a l hazard. . ' '
The type and extent of r e c o r d s of s u r f a c e contamination monitoring
and their period' of retention must depend l a r g e l y on l o c a l conditions and
relevant administrative and legal r e q u i r e m e n t s .

2. DERIVED WORKING LIMITS

2. 1. Health c o n s i d e r a t i o n s

R a d i o l o g i c a l safety c o n t r o l s must always b e related to the m a x i m u m

p e r m i s s i b l e .exposure of w o r k e r s to radiation whether arising f r o m radior
active m a t e r i a l s outside or inside the body.
T.o r e s t r i c t the d o s e to the p e r s o n f r o m internally deposited r a d i o -
nuclides, the concept of the m a x i m u m . p e r m i s s i b l e body burden [6] ,is used.
Mathematical m o d e l s [6, 7] to d e s c r i b e the behaviour of radionuclides in-
the body following.an intake have been p r o p o s e d and f r o m these, data the
maximum p e r m i s s i b l e concentrations of radionuclides in air and water have

3
been calculated [6, 8], F r o m these p r i m a r y l e v e l s it is p o s s i b l e to d e r i v e
l e v e l s of s u r f a c e contamination which should result in these p r i m a r y l e v e l s
not being exceeded [9],
Calculations on the b a s i s of the m a x i m u m p e r m i s s i b l e a i r b o r n e c o n -
centrations of individual, radionuclides result in a range of derived working
l i m i t s . Additionally the amount of activity r e m o v e d f r o m a s u r f a c e depends
upon the type of s u r f a c e , the operations being p e r f o r m e d and the physical
f o r m of the contaminant. It would not be r e a l i s t i c to attempt to tabulate
DWLs to c o v e r every contingency. T o a r r i v e at a rational solution, the
worst conditions likely to be encountered must be a s s u m e d , i. e. that the
m o s t hazardous radionuclide likely to be present is s p r e a d o v e r a wide
area in a condition in which it will b e c o m e readily available f o r inhalation
o r ingestion.

2.2. L i m i t s derived f r o m inhalation risk 1

T o estimate the amount of s u r f a c e contamination which m a y b e c o m e

a i r b o r n e under a variety of conditions, resuspension f a c t o r s , defined as
the ratio of the air contamination (/uCi/m 3 ) to the s u r f a c e contamination
( p C i / m 2 ) , have been determined [10-14], Values quoted v a r y f r o m
3 X 10" 3 /m to 2 X 10" 6 /m; a mean value of 5 X 10" 5 /m appears to b e a p -
p r o p r i a t e f o r general conditions. F r o m this f i g u r e and the'occupational
mpCjjj f o r plutonium-239 (2 X 10"12 / j C i / c m 3 ) , the m o s t toxic alpha emitter
n o r m a l l y encountered which is likely to b e inhaled, the derived working
limit f o r contamination by this radionuclide is calculated to be
4 X 10"6 f i C i / c m 2 .
W i d e s p r e a d uniform contamination is not usually found in p r a c t i c e ,
the r e s u s p e n s i o n f a c t o r can b e reduced by careful selection of suitable
s u r f a c e s and footwear, and all the resuspended material is not of r e s p i r a b l e
s i z e . B e c a u s e of these mitigating f a c t o r s , a relaxation to 1 0 - 5 f i C i / c m 2 is
r e c o m m e n d e d . Under s o m e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , when l a r g e areas of s u r f a c e
contamination at this level o c c u r , the permitted air concentration m a y b e
exceeded.
By applying s i m i l a r c r i t e r i a , the derived working limit f o r c o n t a m i -
nation by strontium-90, the m o s t toxic beta emitter normally encountered,
is calculated to b e 2 X 10"3 ( j C i / c m 2 .

2. 3. L i m i t s derived f r o m external radiation hazard

A l l beta emitters a r e a s o u r c e of external radiation. The d o s e - r a t e

at a planar s o u r c e of beta p a r t i c l e s of m a x i m u m energy in the range
0. 5 to 3. 0 MeV is about 7 r a d / h per/LiCi/cm 2 [15]. B a c k - s c a t t e r i n g f r o m
a contaminated s u r f a c e may i n c r e a s e this f i g u r e by a f a c t o r of 1. 5. The
hands a r e the m o s t likely part of the body to b e exposed to contaminated
s u r f a c e s and the m a x i m u m p e r m i s s i b l e d o s e to these extremities is
7 5 r e m / y r o r l . 5 r e m / w e e k . Since it is d e s i r a b l e to r e s t r i c t the d o s e due
to contamination alone to l / l O t h of this, and assuming continuous e x p o s u r e
during a 4 0 - h o u r working week, the derived working l e v e l f o r beta c o n -
tamination should not exceed 4 X 10"4 p C i / c m 2 (i. e. ~ 3 m r a d / h ) .
A relaxation f a c t o r of 10 can b e applied f o r s o m e l o w - e n e r g y beta
emitters (0. 2 MeV max. ).

4
2. 4. L i m i t s derived f r o m ingestion r i s k

A s safety regulations governing p r o c e d u r e s in active a r e a s , e. g.

banning the consumption of food, drink, and t o b a c c o therein, and good
supervision should r e d u c e the risk of d i r e c t ingestion to negligible p r o -
p o r t i o n s , derived working limits can b e b a s e d on indirect ingestion r i s k s .
The m o s t likely route f o r indirect ingestion is via contaminated hands.
No quantitative data a r e available f o r relating skin contamination l e v e l s
to the rate of ingestion but it has been assumed that a p e r s o n m a y ingest
all the contamination f r o m 10 c m 2 of skin every day. F r o m this assumption,
combined with the m a x i m u m p e r m i s s i b l e daily intake f o r radiation w o r k e r s
of r a d i u m - 2 2 6 , which is m o r e hazardous than plutonium-239 when ingested
(mpc w a t e r 2 2 6 R a = 4 X 1 0 " 7 / u C i / c m 3 ; mpc w a t e r 2 3 9 Pu = 10"4 AJCi/cm 3 ), and of
strontium-90 and l e a d - 2 1 0 , the m o s t hazardous beta emitters likely to be
ingested (mpc w a t e r 9 0 Sr = 10"5 M C i / c m 3 ; mpc w a t e r 2 1 0 P b = 4 X 10"6 ,uCi/cm 3 ),
the derived working limits f o r skin contamination have been set at
10"5 / u C i / c m 2 and 10"4 |UCi/cm 2 f o r alpha and beta contamination, r e s p e c t i v e l y .
At these l e v e l s , the intake should b e about l / l O t h of the m a x i m u m p e r m i s -
s i b l e concentration r e c o m m e n d e d by ICRP. B e c a u s e of the additional r i s k s
of irradiating the basal l a y e r of the skin and percutaneous absorption into
the blood s t r e a m [16], c a r e f u l consideration must b e given b e f o r e allowing
any relaxation of these l e v e l s . In addition, the s o c i o l o g i c a l and dietary
habits of w o r k e r s must be c o n s i d e r e d when determining derived working
l e v e l s of hand contamination [17].

2. 5. Examples of derived working l i m i t s currently in u s e

The above sections show that the greatest risk f r o m alpha c o n t a m i -

nation is inhaling resuspended radioactive m a t e r i a l , and f o r beta activity
the limiting f a c t o r is the external radiation hazard. If the relevant derived
working l i m i t s a r e applied, then the risk due to ingestion of r a d i o a c t i v e
m a t e r i a l f r o m s u r f a c e contamination is virtually eliminated. The l e v e l s
f o r skin contamination c o i n c i d e with those derived f o r the inhalation and'
external radiation r i s k s . T a b l e s I and II give examples of derived working
l e v e l s at p r e s e n t in u s e in the United Kingdom and the United States of
A m e r i c a , r e s p e c t i v e l y . Other examples appear in ICRP Publication 5 [19]
and in IAEA Safety S e r i e s No. 1 [20], T a b l e s III and IV c o m p a r e the
p e r m i s s i b l e l e v e l s of s u r f a c e contamination in u s e in different atomic
energy establishments [17-24],
It is r e c o m m e n d e d by the International A t o m i c Energy A g e n c y [25] that
radioactive contamination on the outside s u r f a c e s of containers used f o r
transporting r a d i o a c t i v e material should not e x c e e d the l e v e l s quoted in
Table V.
Other national c o d e s of p r a c t i c e r e q u i r e that the r a d i o a c t i v e c o n t a m i -
nation on the outside of sealed therapeutic or industrial s o u r c e s should not
exceed 0. 5 ^ C i . .
The contamination on the inside s u r f a c e s of r e s p i r a t o r f a c e - p i e c e s , .
air hoods, p r e s s u r i z e d suit helmets o r other types of breathing apparatus
should never e x c e e d the derived working limit f o r skin. At these l e v e l s ,
and with intermittent u s e , the m a x i m u m p e r m i s s i b l e inhaled daily intake ,
f o r plutonium-239 and s t r o n t i u m - 9 0 should not b e exceeded. F o r l o n g - t e r m
and regular u s e it m a y b e advisable ;to work to a, l o w e r level.

5
T A B L E I. DERIVED WORKING LIMITS F O R SURFACE CONTAMINATION
[18]a

1 2 3 4

Principal alpha Low-toxicity Low-energy

' Beta^ emitters
' T y p e o f area emitters ^ alpha e m i t t e r s c beta emitters •
(|iCi/cmz) (fjCi/cmz) (fjCi/cm2) < 0 . 2 MeV- m a x .
(jrCi/cm2)

•Inactive and low

activity areas 10-5 10" 4 10" 4 10"3

1 A c t i v e areas 10~ 4 10"3 10"3 ' 10" 2

Personal clothing 10" 5 10"4 • 10" 4 10"3

Clothing not
normally worn in 10-4 10"3 10" 3 10" 2
i n a c t i v e areas

Skin 10" 5 10"5 10" 4 10" 3

a Averaging is permitted over inanimate areas of up to 300 c m 2 or, for floors, walls and c e i l i n g ,
100 c m 2 . Averaging is permitted over 100 c m 2 for skin or, for the hands, over the whole area of the
hand, n o m i n a l l y 300 c m 2 .
b A l l alpha emitters other than those listed under c.
0 Uranium isotopes ( e x c e p t separated isotopes o f mass numbers 230, 2 3 2 or 2 3 3 ) ; natural, enriched
and depleted uranium; natural thorium; thorium-232; thorium-228 and t h o r i u m - 2 3 0 when diluted to a
s p e c i f i c activity o f the same order as that o f natural uranium and natural thorium; - short-lived nuclides,
such as astatine-211, r a d i u m - 2 2 4 and daughters o f the isotopes o f radon.
d T h e relaxation for low-energy beta emitters does not apply to beta-emitting plutonium isotopes.

The r e s u s p e n s i o n f a c t o r of r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l f r o m contaminated
clothing during changing has been determined to be 10" 4 /m,to 10" 3 /m [12],
The greatest inhalation risk to p e r s o n n e l f r o m contaminated clothing o c c u r s
during r e m o v a l of the clothing and during the p r o c e s s i n g of clothing at a
laundry b e f o r e it has been washed. Contaminated clothing should b e
laundered b e f o r e being r e - w o r n , when any residual contamination m a y b e
c o n s i d e r e d to b e fixed. The contamination l e v e l s on clothing should not
e x c e e d those p e r m i t t e d f o r skin contamination. A.relaxation f a c t o r of 10
may b e applied to c o v e r a l l s and l a b o r a t o r y coats worn only in active a r e a s .

2. 6; Relaxation of derived working limits

Some relaxations of these b a s i c derived working limits m a y b e allowed.

In addition to the mitigating f a c t o r s d e s c r i b e d in Section 2. 2 ( s e c o n d p a r a -
graph), others m a y be c o n s i d e r e d . The inhalation r i s k s f r o m s u r f a c e
contamination s o f a r c o n s i d e r e d a s s u m e l o o s e contamination u n i f o r m l y
distributed o v e r at least s e v e r a l . s q u a r e m e t r e s . In p r a c t i c e this r a r e l y
o c c u r s ; even in c a s e s of w i d e s p r e a d contamination it is usually patchy
with a few l i m i t e d areas' o r d i s c r e t e spots p e r square m e t r e . . If l i m i t e d •
a r e a s a r e defined as those which do not e x c e e d 100 c m 2 / m 2 , the r i s k f o r
this type of contamination is f a r l e s s than general contamination [9, 18].

6
If a relaxation f a c t o r of 10 is applied in these c i r c u m s t a n c e s , no a p p r e c i a b l e
i n c r e a s e in risk to p e r s o n n e l should o c c u r . Such general relaxations a r e
only applied in active a r e a s ; in other c i r c u m s t a n c e s , each c a s e r e q u i r e s
individual a s s e s s m e n t .
If the contamination is p r e s e n t as d i s c r e t e p a r t i c l e s which m a y have
a high s p e c i f i c activity resulting in high s u r f a c e d o s e r a t e s , f u r t h e r c o n -
sideration is n e c e s s a r y b e f o r e permitting relaxation of the d e r i v e d
working l i m i t s , e s p e c i a l l y in the c a s e s of skin o r clothing contamination.
T y p i c a l d o s e rates to 1 c m 2 of skin f r o m particulate contamination on
clothing [26] a r e approximately 2. 5 r a d / h f r o m 1. 0 ^ C i s t r o n t i u m / y t t r i u m - 9 0 ,
and 4 r a d / h f r o m about 1. 0 txCi of t w o - y e a r - o l d f i s s i o n p r o d u c t s . B e c a u s e
of the unfavourable g e o m e t r y a contamination m o n i t o r m a y indicate that
the activity of a spot of contamination is l o w e r than it actually is.

T A B L E II. PRESCRIBED VALUES OF SURFACE CONTAMINATION [18]

(Oak R i d g e National L a b o r a t o r y )

Site Method Contamination value

Skin — hands - Direct reading a 150 dpm per 100 c m 2 , or

6. 7 x 1 0 " 7 f i C i / c m 2

B-y 0. 3 m r a d / h

Skin ~ general body Direct reading - a 150 d p m per 100 c m 2 , or

6. 7 X ' 1 0 - 7 f i C i / c m 2

8-y 0.06 mrad/h

Clothing (other than Direct reading a 150 dpm p e r ' l O O ' c m 2 , or'
contaminated z o n e ) 6. 7 x - 1 0 " ' ( i C i / c m 2 '

B-y 0.25 mrad/h

Clothing •Direct reading a 150 d p m per 100 c m 2 , or

(contaminated z o n e ) 6. 7 x 1 0 " 7 ( i C i / c m 2

B-y 0. 75 m r a d / h

Non-contamination Direct reading a 300 dpm per 100 c m 2 , or

z o n e areas 1. 3 x 1 0 - 6 ( i C i / c m 2

B-y 0.25 mrad/h '

Transferable a 30 d p m per 100 c m 2 , or

(smear survey) 1. 3 x 10" 7 ( j C i / c m 2

' 6-y 1000 dpm per 100 c m 2 , or

4. 5 x 1 0 - 6 f i C i / c m 2

T o o l s and e q u i p m e n t Direct reading a 300 d p m per 100 c m 2 , or

for re-issue 1. 3 x 10" 6 f j C i / c m 2

B-y 0.05 mrad/h

Transferable '•a 30 d p m per 100 c m 2 , or

(smear survey) - 1. 3 X 1 0 " 7 ( i C i / c m 2

i-y 2 0 0 d p m per 100 c m 2 , or

9 x 10"7 p C i / c m 2 • .

7
T A B L E III. C O M P A R A T I V E D A T A ON MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE
L E V E L S OF SURFACE CONTAMINATION USED IN DIFFERENT ATOMIC
ENERGY ESTABLISHMENTS [17]

Level for Level for

Location alpha emitters b e t a - g a m m a emitters
(dpm/100 cm2) (mrad/h)

A t o m i c Energy Establishment, Trombay 600 0.3

A t o m i c Energy Research Establishment,

Harwell ( a c t i v e areas) 2 0 000 7.5

Oak Ridge National Laboratory [ 2 0 ] 300 0.25

Los A l a m o s S c i e n t i f i c Laboratory [ 2 1 ] 100 0. 05

Brookhaven National Laboratory [ 2 2 ] 100 0.1

USSR [ 2 3 ] 133 1.4

F o l l o w i n g a skin contamination incident it m a y be n e c e s s a r y to c o n s i d e r

at which stage decontamination should stop, further decontamination
p o s s i b l y being m o r e injurious than the radiation dose f r o m the r e s i d u a l
activity. The p o s s i b i l i t y of percutaneous absorption into the b l o o d s t r e a m ,
and irradiation of the basal l a y e r s of the skin as well as the s u r f a c e d o s e
rate and p o s s i b i l i t y of t r a n s f e r e n c e by ingestion o r inhalation into the body
must a l s o b e c o n s i d e r e d .
Although certain derived working l e v e l s and relaxations to these l e v e l s
have been quoted, it is often p o s s i b l e to work to l o w e r l e v e l s without too
much additional expenditure of funds and time. The aim should b e to r e d u c e
e x p o s u r e of p e r s o n n e l to the m i n i m u m , t h e r e f o r e r a d i o a c t i v e contamination
should b e r e m o v e d at the e a r l i e s t opportunity. The d e r i v e d working l e v e l s
a r e guide lines to which to work, and should b e used as such, rather than
as hard and fast rules which must b e adhered to at all c o s t s .

3. S U R F A C E MONITORING TECHNIQUES

3. 1. General

T h e aim of all r a d i o l o g i c a l p r o t e c t i o n operations is to prevent p e r s o n s

being n e e d l e s s l y exposed to h a r m f u l radiation, and s u r f a c e contamination
m o n i t o r i n g must b e planned with this aim in mind. Indiscriminate m o n i -
toring is m e a n i n g l e s s and t h e r e f o r e a waste of t i m e and m a n p o w e r .
T h e International C o m m i s s i o n on R a d i o l o g i c a l P r o t e c t i o n in ICRP
Publication 12 has subdivided monitoring of the working p l a c e into t h r e e
distinct types, environmental monitoring, operational monitoring and
s p e c i a l monitoring. The functions of each type r e s p e c t i v e l y are: to show
that conditions in the working environment a r e s a t i s f a c t o r y ; to keep a c h e c k
on a p a r t i c u l a r operation and f o r m a b a s i s f o r i m m e d i a t e d e c i s i o n s on the
conduct of the operation; to p r o v i d e m o r e detailed information about a
situation o r operation to define p r o b l e m s and to f o r m a b a s i s on which to
plan future p r o c e d u r e s . [ 4 ] ,

8
T A B L E IV. E X A M P L E S OF PRESCRIBED VALUES OF S U R F A C E CONTAMINATION [18]

British C o d e s A t o m i c Energy o f
NCRP France, CEA
o f Practice Canada Ltd. c
Handbook 48
(jiCi/cm2) (liC i / c m 2 ) (/iCi/cm2)

1. Hands and other parts' 0.1 mrep/ha a 10"5 a 10" 6 a 5 x 10"6 a

1. 0 m r e p / h b B 10-4 0 1 0 "4 0 5 x 10"5 a

0 5 x 10-s b

2. Personal c l o t h i n g Same as a b o v e a lO"5 a lO-* a 10"5

a 10-* 6 5 x 10"4 B 1.0-4

6 10-1 0 10"4

3. Protective clothing, Same as a b o v e a 10"4 a 10"6 a 10"4 a

glassware;' tools,
a "10"3 a 6 10-3 0 10"3 a
; o b j e c t s to b e handled
with bare hands 0 10"3 b
0 10"3 . b

4. A c t i v e areas Same .as a b o v e •Same as a b o v e . a 10"5 S a m e as a b o v e

0 ' c l e a n on s w i p e ' .
Less than 2 m R / h
on c o n t a c t

5. ' ' I n a c t i v e ' areas Same as a b o v e a 10"5 a 10"6 a 10-5

a 10"4 3 8 10"5 6 10"4

6 10-4 .

Very hazardous radionuclides In NCRP Handbook 92, the l e v e l for radionuclides corresponding to groups 1 and 2 o f T a b l e I is given as 0 . 1 m r a d / h whilst
that, for radionuclides corresponding to groups 3 and 4 o f T a b l e I is given as 1. 0 m r a d / h .
Other radionuclides

c T h e fundamental test is that the surface must be ' c l e a n on s w i p e ' , and ' s w i p e ' tests cannot b e expressed as ( i C i / c m 2 . T h e background in the a c t i v e areas
is such that l O " 4 ( i C i / c m 2 0 could not be measured with the instruments a v a i l a b l e . With these provisos, the nearest values that c o u l d be indicated to c o n f o r m with
the others listed are those shown in this c o l u m n .
T A B L E V. MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE L E V E L S OF RADIOACTIVE
CONTAMINATION ON OUTSIDE SURFACES OF TRANSPORT
CONTAINERS [25]

M a x i m u m permissible l e v e l
Contaminant
(/iC i / c m 2 )

Beta or g a m m a emitters ' ' . 10" 4

Alpha emitters 10" 5

Note: T h e a b o v e levels are permissible when averaged over any area o f 300 c m 2
of any part of the surface.

A s u r f a c e decontamination p r o g r a m should be planned with certain

p r i m a r y objects in view, and the limitations of such a p r o g r a m in the.
general field of r a d i o l o g i c a l p r o t e c t i o n should b e r e a l i z e d . T h e p r o g r a m
should be designed s o that s u r f a c e contamination does not exceed l e v e l s at
which personnel might b e exposed to radiation d o s e s approaching the
limits r e c o m m e n d e d by the ICRP. It should be able to detect f a i l u r e s of
r a d i o a c t i v e material containment and departures f r o m c o r r e c t operating
p r o c e d u r e s , and should p r o v i d e information f r o m which it is p o s s i b l e to
plan-personnel monitoring and air monitoring p r o g r a m s .
In p r a c t i c e it is difficult to c o r r e l a t e s u r f a c e contamination in a
working p l a c e with the e x p o s u r e of w o r k e r s , t h e r e f o r e s u r f a c e c o n t a m i -
nation monitoring alone is inadequate. Additional radiation, air and
individual monitoring p r o g r a m s .are required.
In addition to monitoring s u r f a c e s and a r t i c l e s in r a d i o a c t i v e working
a r e a s , neighbouring areas such as change r o o m s , o f f i c e s and r o o m s in
which food and drink are consumed should b e monitored routinely.
P r e s e n c e "of radioactive m a t e r i a l in these areas indicates a b r e a k - d o w n in
the c o n t r o l s y s t e m s . . ,
F o r routine monitoring p r o g r a m s of l a r g e areas of f l o o r , "benches,
tables, etc. direct monitoring techniques a r e n o r m a l l y used. Indirect
monitoring m a y be r e q u i r e d in certain c i r c u m s t a n c e s , and if direct
monitoring shows the p r e s e n c e of contamination then indirect methods are'
used to a s c e r t a i n whether o r not the contamination is fixed. \
T o calibrate instruments s o that m e t e r readings can b e converted into
activity l e v e l s by applying the c o r r e c t c o n v e r s i o n ' f a c t o r , the energy of the
radiation being m e a s u r e d , the g e o m e t r y o f : t h e radioactive s o u r c e / d e t e c t o r
a s s e m b l y , counter c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and amount of s e l f - a b s o r p t i o n in the
s o u r c e must be c o n s i d e r e d . . ' .•
L a b o r a t o r i e s designed f o r r a d i o a c t i v e work have, o r should have,
relatively i m p e r v i o u s s u r f a c e s making the quantitative estimation of the
amount of activity present f r o m , direct m e a s u r e m e n t s f a i r l y easy. Away
f r o m a l a b o r a t o r y o r p r o c e s s a r e a the p r o b l e m is m o r e difficult. C o n -
tamination on p o r o u s s u r f a c e s such as roadways, footpa.ths ( t a r m a c a d a m ,
c o n c r e t e ) , b r i c k w o r k , soil o r g r a s s e d a r e a s , will penetrate b e l o w the
s u r f a c e and s o m e of the radiations f r o m the contamination will b e fully
attenuated. In these c i r c u m s t a n c e s quantitative estimation of s u r f a c e
contamination f r o m direct m e a s u r e m e n t s made:with routine s u r f a c e
monitoring instruments is i m p o s s i b l e .

10
 A l l indirect methods r e l y upon measuring the amount-of radioactivity
r e m o v e d f r o m a s u r f a c e . The greatest disadvantage of indirect monitoring
l i e s in the uncertainty as to the f r a c t i o n of- s u r f a c e contamination r e m o v e d .
The r e m o v a l f a c t o r is affected by'the type of s u r f a c e , p h y s i c a l f o r m of the
contaminant, and in the c a s e of s m e a r monitoring, p e r s o n a l variations in
sampling technique affecting the s i z e of area s m e a r e d and p r e s s u r e applied
to the s m e a r . ' Indirect monitoring will detect, the p r e s e n c e of only r e m o v -
able r a d i o a c t i v e contamination.- Calibration of instruments to m e a s u r e
the s a m p l e activity is n e c e s s a r y as in the c a s e of direct monitoring.

3. 2. Selection of method , •. '

Several points must be c o n s i d e r e d b e f o r e a c h o i c e between direct o r

indirect methods of monitoring i s ' m a d e . Most -important is the type of -•
contamination which m a y b e p r e s e n t , whether alpha e m i t t e r s , beta
emitters o r - l o w - e n e r g y beta e m i t t e r s , 'and whether they a r e present indi-
vidually o r c o l l e c t i v e l y , so.that the appropriate detector is used. In
l a b o r a t o r i e s o r p r o c e s s areas ^handling only one s p e c i f i c radionuclide, it
will only be n e c e s s a r y to m o n i t o r f o r one type of contamination unless it is
suspected that other, radionuclides have been spread f r o m other a r e a s . In
s o m e . p l a c e s such as decontamination o r . w a s t e disposal areas,- the p r e s e n c e
of any radionuclide u s e d in the establishment must always b e suspected.
Although alpha, beta and s o m e l o w - e n e r g y beta emitters can all be
detected by direct monitoring methods, certain interfering factors, may
make direct monitoring i m p o s s i b l e . . T h e r e i s , generally speaking, little
p r o b l e m in monitoring smooth s u r f a c e s such as f l o o r s , bench tops and the
outside of s o m e apparatus, -except that.moisture o r dirt m a y i n t e r f e r e
with direct monitoring f o r alpha e m i t t e r s . A general high gamma b a c k -
g r o u n d , o r even a high beta, background emanating f r o m inside thin-walled
v e s s e l s , will make it difficult to detect low l e v e l s -of beta, contamination by
direct monitoring.- . , ...
- It m a y . b e geometrically- i m p o s s i b l e to m o n i t o r directly. .Indentations •
in.the s u r f a c e of an a r t i c l e m a y b e s o deep that the distance f r o m the
bottom of the indentation to t h e ' d e t e c t o r ' i s g r e a t e r than the range of-the
p a r t i c l e s emitted, and the inside of a - v e s s e l or-tube may be i n a c c e s s i b l e
to the p r o b e . In these c i r c u m s t a n c e s indirect techniques must b e employed.
Indirect monitoring will not detect the p r e s e n c e of fixed contamination,
nor will direct monitoring show whether the contamination detected is fixed
o r l o o s e . The two methods should b e used, one to c o m p l e m e n t the other
to obtain a c o m p l e t e a s s e s s m e n t of the -state of a surface.being- examined.

4. DIRECT METHODS OF-.SURFACE MONITORING •

4. 1. Alpha contamination monitoring.-.'

Alpha monitoring r a i s e s s p e c i a l p r o b l e m s b e c a u s e of the short range

of alpha p a r t i c l e s in air and their c o m p l e t e attenuation by thin f i l m s of
liquids :or s o l i d s ; 5 - M e V alpha p a r t i c l e s a r e c o m p l e t e l y attenuated in
material with a thickness of .aD'out 5 , m g / c m 2 . .
The transient r e s p o n s e of a p r o b e passing o v e r a s o u r c e is c o n s i d e r - .
ably les;s than the r e s p o n s e with the p r o b e stationary above the same.

11
s o u r c e [27], The t i m e constant of the r a t e m e t e r is often l o n g e r than the
transit time of the p r o b e past the s o u r c e , t h e r e f o r e the m e t e r m a y not
indicate the p r e s e n c e of the contamination.. Although a loudspeaker has
a quicker r e s p o n s e , the e a r m a y not. detect s m a l l variations in the l o u d -
s p e a k e r sound p u l s e - r a t e . .
T o ensure detection of alpha contamination by direct monitoring
methods, the p r o b e should not b e m o r e than about 0. 5 c m f r o m the s u r f a c e
under examination and the p r o b e transit v e l o c i t y a c r o s s the s u r f a c e should
not e x c e e d about 15 c m / s .
Although a variety of d e t e c t o r s is available f o r alpha monitoring, the
technique f o r using them is always s i m i l a r .

4. 2. Beta contamination m o n i t o r i n g — general techniques

T h e detection of all but the l o w e s t - e n e r g y beta radiation is e a s i e r than

that of alpha contamination b e c a u s e of its l o n g e r range and g r e a t e r p e n e -
tration, but attention must be paid t o - s e v e r a l points.
T h e response, of a beta p r o b e is dependent on the energy of the beta
radiation. B e c a u s e all radionuclides do not emit beta radiation of the s a m e
energy, p r o b e s should b e calibrated s o that the count-rate f r o m c o n t a m i -
nation by the relevant radionuclide at its derived working l e v e l is known.
During routine monitoring the a r e a under examination is usually
'swept' b y the p r o b e , rather than a number of m e a s u r e m e n t s m a d e with a
stationary p r o b e o v e r different parts of the area. The r e s p o n s e of the p r o b e
v a r i e s with the distance between the s u r f a c e and the p r o b e but the effect is
l e s s than the change in r e s p o n s e due to v a r i a b l e transit v e l o c i t i e s . The
r e s p o n s e of a G e i g e r tube with a 30 m g / c m 2 envelope v a r i e s by only a
f a c t o r of about 2 at distances between 2. 5 and-10 c m f r o m the s u r f a c e with
a p r o b e transit v e l o c i t y of about 15 c m / s . - F o r these r e a s o n s and those
outlined.in Section 2. 1 ( s e c o n d paragraph), the transit v e l o c i t y of the p r o b e
should not exceed about 10 to 15 c m / s at a distance of between 2. 5 and 5 c m
f r o m the s u r f a c e [27],
When high l e v e l s of contamination a r e being m o n i t o r e d the dead t i m e
of the detector will affect the c o u n t - r a t e and.may;lead to underestimation
of the activity present. . . .
Radiation f r o m v e r y high l e v e l s of contamination m a y 'saturate' a
G e i g e r tube, resulting in an e r r o n e o u s nil reading being obtained on the
r a t e m e t e r . Most m o d e r n instruments a r e designed to maintain f u l l - s c a l e
d e f l e c t i o n on the r a t e m e t e r , and if fitted with a loudspeaker a distinctive
note is heard should the tube b e saturated.
Some p r o b e s a r e fitted with a shield, which when c l o s e d prevents beta
radiation f r o m reaching the d e t e c t o r , enabling a g a m m a - o n l y m e a s u r e m e n t
to b e made. Using this facility to identify whether the radiation detected is
beta o r gamma m a y help to d e t e r m i n e whether o r riot the emitting s o u r c e
is above o r b e l o w a shielding s u r f a c e , e. g. whether the radiation detected
is f r o m contamination on a bench o r from- a ,s,ource in a d r a w e r under the .
bench. S i m i l a r l y , by taking m e a s u r e m e n t s at varying distances f r o m a
s o u r c e and c o m p a r i n g the rate of change in c o u n t - r a t e it m a y be p o s s i b l e
to d e t e r m i n e whether o r not the radiations a r e beta o r gamma. U s e of this
method o v e r a p o r o u s s u r f a c e m a y indicate the approximate depth of the
contamination b e l o w the s u r f a c e . • ;

12
 4. 3. Beta contamination monitoring — l o w - e n e r g y emitters

B e c a u s e of the short range of l o w - e n e r g y beta radiations s p e c i a l

p r o b l e m s s i m i l a r to those encountered in alpha monitoring a r e r a i s e d .
G e i g e r tubes o r scintillators with thin windows (about 2 m g / c m 2 ) o r . •
g a s - f l o w o r a i r - f i l l e d p r o p o r t i o n a l counters a r e m o s t suitable. Indirect
methods a r e usually employed to m o n i t o r f o r tritium [28] andplutonium-241.

, 5. INDIRECT METHODS OF SURFACE MONITORING.

5. 1. General .

Indirect methods of s u r f a c e contamination m o n i t o r i n g a r e used when

unsuitable g e o m e t r y o r i n t e r f e r e n c e f r o m other radiations prevent d i r e c t
monitoring and as a c o m p l e m e n t a r y method when direct monitoring has
shown the p r e s e n c e of r a d i o a c t i v e contamination. A wide range of t e c h -
niques is available, but all depend upon the r e m o v a l of r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l
f r o m the s u r f a c e being examined. It m a y b e n e c e s s a r y to take s a m p l e s
f r o m the a r e a being m o n i t o r e d to another area f o r counting.
The f r a c t i o n of m a t e r i a l r e m o v e d during routine i n d i r e c t monitoring
is not known a c c u r a t e l y . A s m e a r test m a y r e m o v e anything f r o m 0 to 100%
of the contamination p r e s e n t , but generally a r e m o v a l f a c t o r of about'10
to 20% is assumed. The variations in the r e m o v a l f a c t o r m a k e quantitative
estimation of the amount of contamination p r e s e n t on the s u r f a c e uncertain.
The r e m o v a l f a c t o r is affected by varying the p r e s s u r e applied during
s m e a r i n g , by the type of s u r f a c e o r s m e a r , and by the f o r m of the c o n t a m i -
nation. D e v i c e s to ensure uniformity in p r e s s u r e s applied and area , •
sampled have been d e s c r i b e d [29] and usually include s o m e form' of spring
loading of a pad to which the s m e a r paper is attached.
When a s m e a r p a p e r is used manually, m o s t of the contamination picked
up on the paper is concentrated in an area of about 5 cm 2 coincident with
the area of the f i n g e r tips [29], B e c a u s e this area m a y b e s m a l l c o m p a r e d
to the area of the d e t e c t o r used to m e a s u r e the s m e a r activity, e r r o n e o u s
results m a y be obtained unless the p r o b e is s p e c i a l l y calibrated.
Most s u r f a c e s in r a d i o a c t i v e l a b o r a t o r i e s and p r o c e s s areas can b e
s m e a r - t e s t e d s a t i s f a c t o r i l y . Outside these a r e a s w h e r e rough b r i c k w o r k ,
t a r m a c a d a m r o a d w a y s , c o n c r e t e paths and hardstandings, a r e a s of g r a v e l ,
s o i l o r grassland m a y b e encountered, the ability to obtain a s a t i s f a c t o r y
s m e a r s a m p l e v a r i e s f r o m the difficult to the almost i m p o s s i b l e .
If s u c c e s s i v e s m e a r s show d e c r e a s i n g amounts of activity, but it is
suspected that s o m e r a d i o a c t i v e contamination is left on the s u r f a c e being
examined, further tests should b e m a d e after 24 h. E x p e r i e n c e has shown
that w h e r e d i r e c t and indirect monitoring has indicated that fixed c o n t a m i -
nation only is left a f t e r s o m e decontamination p r o c e d u r e , a f t e r such a
p e r i o d l o o s e contamination again m a y be detected. In c e r t a i n c a s e s the
amount of r e m o v a b l e activity detected on s m e a r s has r e a c h e d a l e v e l
approaching that originally found [29].
The validity of indirect methods' in which the amount of activity t r a n s -
f e r r e d to r i n s e solutions o r wash-down l i q u o r s is estimated depends upon
the solubility of the contaminant in the liquid in question, o r on the h o m o -
geneity of p a r t i c l e s d i s p e r s e d in the liquor.

13
 An a r t i c l e m a y b e d e c l a r e d f r e e f r o m r a d i o a c t i v e contamination with
r e s p e c t to indirect monitoring, but fixed contamination m a y still b e
p r e s e n t . Although adhering to the s u r f a c e f i r m l y enough not to have been
r e m o v e d and thus detected by the indirect method employed, it may b e c o m e
dislodged if the s u r f a c e is m o r e v i g o r o u s l y attacked during work upon at,
e; g. b y grinding, filing o r polishing.

5. 2. Dry smears

The technique of s m e a r monitoring usually involves rubbing a c i r c l e

of dry f i l t e r paper o v e r about 100 cm 2 of the suspected s u r f a c e and then
m e a s u r i n g the amount of activity t r a n s f e r r e d to the s m e a r . This is
repeated until the whole of the suspected area has been m o n i t o r e d . By
applying a r e m o v a l f a c t o r , the approximate amount of l o o s e r a d i o a c t i v e
contamination on the suspected s u r f a c e can b e estimated. This method
obviously cannot b e applied operationally and routinely when l a r g e s u r f a c e
a r e a s o r l a r g e p i e c e s of equipment a r e to be examined.
When taking s m e a r s a m p l e s f r o m sealed s o u r c e s o r highly active
s u r f a c e s the s m e a r paper must b e held by tongs o r f o r c e p s . In this c a s e ,
it is n e c e s s a r y to mount the s m e a r paper on a pad such as a rubber bottle
.stopper which can be m o r e readily held by the r e m o t e handling equipment.
D r y s m e a r i n g is a m o s t inefficient way of r e m o v i n g r a d i o a c t i v e
m a t e r i a l f r o m a s u r f a c e and s e r v e s only to indicate the p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n c e
of m a t e r i a l which m a y b e t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m the .contaminated s u r f a c e to a
clean s u r f a c e by casual contact o r rubbing.

5..3. Wet s m e a r s •

T h e techniques of'wet s m e a r i n g a r e - s i m i l a r to those of dry s m e a r i n g .

The liquid chosen to m o i s t e n the s m e a r p a p e r s should not attack the s u r f a c e
to b e m o n i t o r e d but should b e e f f e c t i v e in r e m o v i n g the r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l
involved. A l o w - t o x i c i t y organic degireasing agent such as t r i c h l o r o - e t h a n e ,
which i s : n o n - i n f l a m m a b l e , is a good general solvent f o r this p u r p o s e . The
c o m m e r c i a l l y available solvent, sold under v a r i o u s trade n a m e s , usually
contains s o m e c o r r o s i o n inhibitors. • • •
Wet s m e a r s must b e dried b e f o r e m o n i t o r i n g f o r alpha activity o r l o w -
energy beta activity. Attenuation of the radiations in the s m e a r p a p e r , due
to the r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l having been c a r r i e d down into the p a p e r b y the
wetting liquid, m a y result i n underestimation of the activity.
T h e techniques d e s c r i b e d in this s e c t i o n do not apply to monitoring f o r
tritium' ( s e e Section 5. 9 in which m o r e appropriate methods a r e d e s c r i b e d ) .

5. 4. L a r g e area swabs

In many c i r c u m s t a n c e s the. u s e o f - s m a l l s m e a r s is u n e c o n o m i c of time

and l a b o u r , o r operational c o m m i t m e n t s m a y demand that l a r g e a r e a s o r
a r t i c l e s must b e examined quickly, e; g.. following suspected spills o r
l a r g e a i r b o r n e r e l e a s e s of r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l . It is acceptable p r a c t i c e
in these c i r c u m s t a n c e s to u s e l a r g e a r e a s m e a r s o r swabs. A pad of
cotton waste o r s i m i l a r m a t e r i a l is m o i s t e n e d with a suitable liquid and

M
an area up to 2 or 3 m 2 is wiped. The pad is then monitored. F l o o r mops
o r s i m i l a r cleaning equipment can b e used s u c c e s s f u l l y in this'type of
monitoring. This method is not satisfactory f o r alpha monitoring, unless
a smooth pad or cloth of fairly impervious, easily dried material is used.
No attempt at quantitative estimation of the amount of activity present
on s u r f a c e s should be made f r o m l a r g e area swab results; direct m o n i -
toring, if p o s s i b l e , o r m o r e detailed s m e a r testing must be done if
quantitative estimates are. required. .

5. 5. Adhesive tape samples.

A p i e c e of impact adhesive tape (1 o r 2 cm 2 ) p r e s s e d against a s u r f a c e

will collect a sample of removable contamination. The contamination is
f i r m l y held on the tape and can b e examined without the risk of losing-it or
cross-contaminating monitoring instruments.. This is a particularly useful
method of obtaining samples f r o m inside areas where a c c e s s is restricted,
such as hot c e l l s .
A s in the case.of conventional s m e a r monitoring, removal f a c t o r s
depend upon the type of s u r f a c e and physical f o r m of the contamination,
and the same reservations must be applied to results calculated f r o m
•measurements made in this way.

5. 6. 'Smair' sampling [30]

The smair sampling p r o c e d u r e employs air impingement to r e d i s p e r s e

l o o s e contamination f r o m the s u r f a c e under examination.
A smair sampler is a conventional air sampler fitted with a special
sampling head. Through the head is a s e r i e s of small holes, drilled at
angles and s o arranged that jets, of air will b e directed at the s u r f a c e to be
examined. When the open end of the sampler is p r e s s e d against the surface,
air intake is restricted to the s e r i e s of holes. Contamination, resuspended
by the air jets, is collected on the sample filter paper and counted like an
ordinary air sample. •
. The smair technique shows a relatively constant r e m o v a l f a c t o r f r o m
all types of s u r f a c e and m i n i m i z e s the inaccuracies introduced by v a r i -
ations in personal techniques during s m e a r testing. Variation in the air
velocity through the impingement holes leads to associated variations in
the resuspension f a c t o r s .

5. 7. 'Sniffing' techniques'

T h e s e are c l o s e l y allied to the s m a i r techniques, but are limited to

the evaluation of radioactive gases or vapours sqrbed on s u r f a c e s . The
sample head of a portable t r i t i u m - i n - a i r o r s i m i l a r type of monitor is
passed o v e r the suspected surface, at about 1 - 2 m m distance. The evolved
radioactive gases o r vapours pass through a detachable filter and e l e c t r o -
static ion trap into a compensated ionization chamber f o r counting.
Thoron and radon gases will decay inside the ion chamber contami-
nating it with their radioactive daughters, making the instrument u n s e r v i c e -
able until they have decayed.

15
5.8. Examination of rinsing and washing solutions

Estimation of the amount of radioactivity in the r i n s e solutions f r o m

a r t i c l e s being decontaminated and f r o m the washing machines in r a d i o -
active laundries will show whether o r not radioactive contamination is still
being r e m o v e d . This method does not show the p r e s e n c e of fixed o r insoluble
contamination which may b e oh the a r t i c l e s being cleaned.
Activity m e a s u r e d in a solution in which a radioactive s o u r c e has been
i m m e r s e d will indicate either the p r e s e n c e of contamination on the s o u r c e
o r leakage o r leaching of radioactive m a t e r i a l f r o m the s o u r c e [18, 24],

5. 9. Tritium smears

Metal f o i l s o r d i s c s will r e m o v e tritium f r o m s u r f a c e s . A f i l t e r p a p e r ,

moistened with g l y c e r o l , has p r o v e d to be a better s m e a r i n g medium having
a better t r a n s f e r ratio, probably due to c h e m i c a l exchange and better
contact with the s u r f a c e as it c o n f o r m s m o r e readily to the s u r f a c e
geometry.-' The activity on the s m e a r can be counted in a g a s - f l o w p r o -
portional counter. A m o r e accurate method is to seal the s m e a r s a m p l e
immediately into a phial containing water and a liquid scintillator; the
s a m p l e can then b e counted later in any suitable counter.
Experiments [29] have shown that up to 50% of the tritium t r a n s f e r r e d
f r o m a contaminated s u r f a c e to the sampling m a t e r i a l is l o s t by evaporation
during the f i r s t 20 minutes after sampling.

5. 10. Skin and wound.monitoring

Although skin and wounds can usually be monitored directly, e s t i -

mation of the activity on s u r g i c a l swabs will check the e f f i c i e n c y of the
decontamination methods being used.
A s a f i r s t - a i d check f o r radioactivity, s a m p l e s of blood f r o m open
wounds m a y b e dried on glass o r metal trays and counted. The b l o o d '
should not b e a b s o r b e d into swabs o r f i l t e r p a p e r b e c a u s e alpha and l o w -
energy beta p a r t i c l e s may b e fully attenuated. F o r detailed examination
s a m p l e s should be sent to a b i o a s s a y l a b o r a t o r y .

5. 11. Instruments used f o r indirect methods

Since the estimation of the amount of activity on a s a m p l e is a d i r e c t

monitoring p r o c e d u r e , any portable m o n i t o r o r installed counting equip-
ment which fulfils the general c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s d e s c r i b e d in Section 8 m a y
be used f o r this purpose during the application of o v e r a l l indirect methods
of s u r f a c e contamination monitoring.

6. S U P P L E M E N T A R Y TECHNIQUES

Some supplementary s p e c i a l i z e d techniques available to a s s i s t in the

evaluation of risk o r dose to p e r s o n s exposed to radioactive s u r f a c e c o n -
tamination a r e outlined in this section.

16
6. 1.-' Autoradiography

An autoradiograph will l o c a t e the position of small s o u r c e s o r a r e a s

of beta and g a m m a r a d i o a c t i v e contamination on skin o r inanimate s u r f a c e s .
The s i m p l e s t method is to p l a c e an X - r a y plate in contact with the c o n t a m i -
nated s u r f a c e f o r a p e r i o d determined by the dose rate f r o m the c o n t a m i -
nation. F o r beta activity good c o r r e l a t i o n between spot s i z e arid activity
is obtained. In the c a s e of alpha contamination it is n e c e s s a r y to r e m o v e
the wrappings f r o m the X - r a y plate, t h e r e f o r e the operation must be done
in a dark r o o m . In this c a s e the spot obtained on the X - r a y plate is m o r e
a m e a s u r e of the range of the alpha e m i s s i o n than the activity o r s i z e of the
particle. . . • • - . . - -
A m o r e suitable method of autoradiography f o r alpha activity is f i r s t
to c o n v e r t the alpha p a r t i c l e energy into v i s i b l e light by a scintillator and
then to r e c o r d the light e m i s s i o n . o n a l i g h t - s e n s i t i v e photographic
plate [31, 32], .. ; ..

6. 2. Thermoluminescent dosimetry

The s u r f a c e d o s e f r o m s o m e contaminated s u r f a c e s m a y b e m e a s u r e d
by exposing a t h e r m o l u m i n e s c e n t d o s i m e t e r in contact with it. T h e r e will
be s o m e u n d e r - r e a d i n g with r e s p e c t to l o w - e n e r g y beta p a r t i c l e s due to
their absorption in the sachet containing a thermoluminescent p o w d e r ,
t h e r e f o r e c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r s must b e applied.
The distribution of the p o w d e r in a thermoluminescent powder sachet .
will affect the d o s e estimation. When approximately 26 m g of L i F powder
a r e l o o s e in a packet the p o w d e r thickness may vary between 20 m g / c m 2
and ~ 130 m g / c m 2 . Taking a sachet window thickness of 14 m g / c m 2 the
mean depth will b e 24 to 79 m g / c m 2 . Even f o r the relatively energetic
beta p a r t i c l e s f r o m y t t r i u m - 9 0 the r e s p o n s e of the d o s i m e t e r in the latter
condition is only about 0. 65 of a s i m i l a r d o s i m e t e r having uniform p o w d e r
distribution'. The u s e of lithium-fluoride-impregnated teflon d i s c s would
r e d u c e this e r r o r as the thermoluminescent p o w d e r is kept homogeneously
distributed in the d o s i m e t e r . Some estimate of the dose to subcutaneous
tissue f r o m beta contamination'on skin is obtained by introducing a p p r o -
priate f i l t e r s between the contamination and the d o s i m e t e r .

6. 3. • Radiation s p e c t r o m e t r y

Alpha, beta and gamma radiation s p e c t r o m e t r y [33] identify r a d i o -

nuclides by the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c energy of their radiation. .Such techniques
m a y b e extended to m a k e quantitative m e a s u r e m e n t s of r a d i o a c t i v e m i x t u r e s .
This information a s s i s t s in determining the nature and d e g r e e of hazard
arising f r o m contamination and m a y also help to identify its s o u r c e .
G a m m a - r a y s p e c t r o m e t r y is particularly valuable b e c a u s e the p e n e -
trating nature of gamma radiation p r e c l u d e s the need f o r s a m p l e p r e p a -
ration and it is usually p o s s i b l e to do m e a s u r e m e n t s on s a m p l e s in the. f o r m
in which they a r e r e c e i v e d . . The s a m p l e s m a y b e s m e a r s f r o m c o n t a m i -
nated s u r f a c e s , bottled liquids, clothing, s o i l , g r a s s , • g r a v e l , tools o r
s m a l l p i e c e s of apparatus. S i m i l a r m e a s u r e m e n t s m a y b e m a d e on c o n -
taminated humans o r animals. Currently, two methods of g a m m a - r a y

17
s p e c t r o m e t r y a r e c o m m o n l y used, by l i t h i u m - d r i f t e d germanium solids,
state detectors [34] and sodium iodide c r y s t a l scintillation d e t e c t o r s . The
s o l i d - s t a t e detectors a r e capable of r e s o l v i n g g a m m a - r a y e n e r g i e s
d i f f e r i n g by 2 o r 3 keV, but have the disadvantage that they operate at
liquid nitrogen t e m p e r a t u r e s only. B e c a u s e of their s m a l l s i z e , they have
l o w sensitivity and s a m p l e s should be not l e s s than about a m i c r o c u r i e to
obtain s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s . T h e sodium iodide detectors have p o o r e r
r e s o l u t i o n (by n o r m a l techniques, energies differing by l e s s than about .
50 keV cannot be r e s o l v e d ) , but their e a s e of operation and ability to detect
about a p i c o c u r i e m a k e them an attractive tool.
Since the energy s p e c t r u m of beta radiation is continuous, high r e s o -
lution s p e c t r o m e t r y is not p o s s i b l e . Scintillation s p e c t r o m e t r y using a .
sufficiently l a r g e plastic phosphor m a y b e used although better r e s o l u t i o n
i s obtained with a l i t h i u m - d r i f t e d s i l i c o n s o l i d - s t a t e d e t e c t o r in conjunction
with a multi-channel pulse-height analyser. V a r i a b l e distortion of the beta
s p e c t r u m due to scattering of the radiation f r o m the detector housing, -
s e l f - a b s o r p t i o n in thick s o u r c e s , and i n t e r f e r e n c e by scattere'd g a m m a
r a y s add to the p r o b l e m s of this f o r m of s p e c t r o m e t r y . Although not a
v e r y attractive f o r m of s p e c t r o m e t r y , when beta radiation only is being
m e a s u r e d it is vastly s u p e r i o r to the u s e of aluminium a b s o r b e r s .
Gridded ion c h a m b e r s , scintillation 'detectors and s o l i d - s t a t e d e t e c t o r s
a r e used f o r alpha s p e c t r o m e t r y . B e c a u s e of the short range of alpha .
p a r t i c l e s the type of s a m p l e which may be examined is limited. Ideally,
s a m p l e s should b e thin s o u r c e s mounted on s t a i n l e s s - s t e e l d i s c s . O p e r -
ational s m e a r s can b e examined although the s p e c t r u m obtained is usually
degraded.
S p e c t r o m e t r i c methods a r e used f o r i n - v i v o m e a s u r e m e n t s in c a s e s
of either external or internal contamination of p e r s o n n e l .
Aluminium a b s o r b e r s a r e c o m m o n l y used to determine .maximum beta
energy. Aluminium a b s o r b e r s of increasing thicknesses a r e interposed
between the s o u r c e and the counter'window. T h e d e g r e e of absorption is
determined by'counting the beta p a r t i c l e s penetrating each a b s o r b e r . The
o b s e r v e d c o u n t - r a t e , m o d i f i e d as n e c e s s a r y by counter dead-time c o r -
r e c t i o n s , counter window thickness and a i r absorption f a c t o r s a r e plotted
against the a b s o r b e r thickness (in m g / c m 2 ) on s e m i - l o g a r i t h m i c paper.
The m a x i m u m range is read by visual inspection, " The maximum' beta • '
energy is obtained by r e f e r e n c e to tables o r graphs.
The visual estimation of the m a x i m u m range is much l e s s p r e c i s e
when the beta radiation is a c c o m p a n i e d by g a m m a radiation, s i n c e the
latter p r o d u c e s a long 'tail' to the c u r v e , hiding the'end point of'the beta
radiation absorption c u r v e ; - In these c a s e s , , the F e a t h e r method of analysis
gives a m o r e accurate estimation of the range [35]. The long tail of the
c u r v e i s ignored, and the f i r s t 70-80% of the beta absorption c u r v e a r e c o m -
pared with the c o r r e s p o n d i n g portion of the absorption c u r v e of a pure beta
emitter. Originally F e a t h e r used RaE ( 2:10 Bi), but p h o s p h o r u s - 3 2 is equally
suitable.
The absorption c u r v e f o r the r e f e r e n c e s o u r c e is plotted and the
m a x i m u m range o b s e r v e d . The a b s c i s s a is then divided into ten equal
f r a c t i o n s of the range. The activities c o r r e s p o n d i n g to these f r a c t i o n s ,
excluding the 9/10 and 1 0 / 1 0 , a r e m a r k e d ' i n the ordinate. T h e s e m a r k s ,
c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the v a r i o u s f r a c t i o n s of the range a r e t r a n s f e r r e d to a
' F e a t h e r a n a l y s e r ' , which m a y s i m p l y b e a strip of c a r d , but can b e m a d e

18
f r o m ; m o r e durable material. The Feather analyser may now.be used to
determine the maximum range of beta particles f r o m another radionuclide.
The s a m e experimental conditions must be used to obtain the absorption
c u r v e f o r identification and the results plotted with the s a m e ordinate scale.
The-Feather anaiyser is placed by the side of the graph, with the z e r o
m a r k opposite the point corresponding to the count-rate f o r z e r o a b s o r b e r .
The values of a b s o r b e r thickness, corresponding to the various fractions
ar.e read .off the graph and divided by the corresponding fractions of. the
range. Each is now an estimate of the total range.. T h e s e estimated values
a r e plotted against their corresponding fraction, and the.curve is extra-
polated to the full range. The energy corresponding to the full range is
then obtained f r o m r e f e r e n c e tables or. graphs.
In areas where l o w - e n e r g y as well as h i g h e r - e n e r g y beta emitters can
o c c u r , all samples may be examined routinely as follows [36], The activity
on the s m e a r is measured by a thin window (2 mg/cm 2 ), detector^ with and
without an aluminium a b s o r b e r thick enough to absorb the l o w - e n e r g y betas
between the sample and'the detector. The d i f f e r e n c e between the two count-
rates will b e that due to the l o w - e n e r g y component. If alpha activity is. •
supposed also to.be present, a further count with tissue paper between the
sample and the counter should b e made. The relative amounts of each type
of radiation present can then be calculated.

6.4.- A i r monitoring••. •' ,

' Widespread contamination at derived working levels may lead to a i r -

borne contamination .at o r above maximum p e r m i s s i b l e concentrations'when
movements associated with.normal work in an ar.ea are made. If air samples
at this level are obtained, the possibility of widespread s u r f a c e . c o n t a m i -
nation, should be considered, as well as the m o r e obvious and usual c o n -
clusion that airborne radioactivity is being released f r o m an operation o r
p r o c e s s in the.area.
Surface contamination monitoring should be started when high air
samples following a r e l e a s e of airborne activity f r o m s o m e accident o r
p r o c e s s ar.e .measured,, b e c a u s e surfaces may have b e c o m e contaminated
by radioactivity deposited f r o m the airborne radioactivity.

6. 5. Deposition trays

The p r e s e n c e of a slow, l o n g - t e r m build-up.of s u r f a c e contamination

in areas not readily a c c e s s i b l e f o r direct o r indirect monitoring, such as
building r a f t e r s , s e r v i c e ducts, etc. , can be detected by placing deposition
trays, in these a r e a s and counting the activity on them at intervals of a
few months. *

6. 6. Overshoe and.cleaning material monitoring • . ' . . . -

Routine monitoring of o v e r s h o e s and shoes worn in radioactive areas

often provides the f i r s t indication that radioactive contamination of the :
f l o o r ..has o c c u r r e d .
Mops, cleaning rags and vacuum cleaners used in radioactive areas
should b e checked frequently f o r two reasons. F i r s t , t h e ' p r e s e n c e of
radioactive material on .them, will indicate the p r e s e n c e of radioactive

19
s u r f a c e contamination in the area. Second, the undetected p r e s e n c e of
r a d i o a c t i v e contamination on cleaning appliances can result in the s p r e a d
of contamination to hitherto clean a r e a s .

6. 7. Personnel dosimetry

An unusual density pattern on a developed p e r s o n a l f i l m b a d g e d o s i -

m e t e r m a y b e due to contamination on the badge. Alternatively, it may b e
due to unshielded radiation f r o m s u r f a c e contamination in the working
a r e a , o r radiation f r o m contaminated clothing.
T h e o c c u r r e n c e of d o s e s higher than planned o r expected on f i n g e r o r
w r i s t d o s i m e t e r s can b e due to contaminated p e r s o n a l gloves o r installed
g l o v e s , as in glove b o x e s at which the o p e r a t o r has worked.

6. 8. B i o l o g i c a l monitoring

In-vivo, m e a s u r e m e n t s in w h o l e - b o d y counting equipment and e x a m i -

nation f o r radioactivity in e x c r e t a will c o n f i r m the e f f e c t i v e n e s s o r o t h e r -
w i s e of contamination control p r o c e d u r e s .

6.9. Pinhole c a m e r a s

Mapping a r e a s of beta [37] and gamma [38] contamination and the -

distribution of activity on s o u r c e s [39] can s o m e t i m e s be done m o r e
e f f e c t i v e l y b y a p i n - h o l e c a m e r a than b y autoradiography. S o m e of the
p r o b l e m s of exposure to radiation and contamination a s s o c i a t e d with-the
latter method a r e eliminated b e c a u s e shielding and r e m o t e operation
f a c i l i t i e s can b e built into the c a m e r a .
A conventional p i c t u r e and a 'radiation' p i c t u r e [38] can b e obtained if
a l i g h t - s e n s i t i v e and a r a d i a t i o n - s e n s i t i v e f i l m pinned together a r e exposed
simultaneously. By s u p e r i m p o s i n g one negative on the other the radiation,
s o u r c e s can b e located.
Disadvantages of the s y s t e m l i e in the long exposure t i m e s and in the
weight of the shielding which m a y be r e q u i r e d to prevent i n t e r f e r e n c e f r o m
extraneous s o u r c e s of radiation.

7. CALIBRATION AND P E R F O R M A N C E CHECKING OF SURFACE

MONITORING EQUIPMENT

Surface contamination monitoring instruments as well as all health

p h y s i c s instruments should b e calibrated and their p e r f o r m a n c e checked at
certain tim'es s o that their readings may b e c o r r e c t l y interpreted. The
f r e q u e n c y of calibration and its extent depend on the type of instrument
and its u s a g e but m a y b e b r o a d l y divided into three c a t e g o r i e s .
(a) When a new instrument is f i r s t put into s e r v i c e , after an i n s t r u -
ment has b e e n r e p a i r e d , and a f t e r p r e d e t e r m i n e d p e r i o d s in s e r v i c e it
should b e calibrated against standard r a d i o a c t i v e s o u r c e s and its p e r -
f o r m a n c e at such a test r e c o r d e d . The testing should b e done by a p e r s o n
qualified to m a k e s i m p l e adjustments to the instrument to m a k e it
s e r v i c e a b l e . In many countries this s o r t of testing and r e c o r d i n g is a
statutory requirement.

20
 (b) Routine checking on a daily o r weekly b a s i s of the i n s t r u m e n t s '
r e s p o n s e to s o u r c e s in a s i m p l e calibration jig [40, 41] m a y b e done by any
p e r s o n competent to u s e the instrument, interpret the results and m a k e
s i m p l e adjustments.
(c) P e r f o r m a n c e checking in the f i e l d is n e c e s s a r y to c o n f i r m that the
instrument continues to work c o r r e c t l y . A s m a l l uranium d i s c is usually
adequate f o r this p u r p o s e .

The a c c u r a c y of calibration can b e identified at f o u r l e v e l s : p r i m a r y ,

s e c o n d a r y , l a b o r a t o r y and f i e l d standards.
(a) P r i m a r y standards a r e those nationally o r internationally established
to ensure c o n s i s t e n c y in interpretation and m e a s u r e m e n t within the country
o r group of countries.
(b) S e c o n d a r y standards a r e those established f o r u s e b y l a b o r a t o r i e s
to p r o v i d e calibration f a c i l i t i e s f o r their own f i e l d and l a b o r a t o r y i n s t r u -
mentation.
(c) L a b o r a t o r y standards a r e those applied in p r e c i s i o n r a d i o c h e m i s t r y
and p h y s i c s work and in r a d i o l o g i c a l p r o t e c t i o n l a b o r a t o r i e s supporting
operational r a d i o l o g i c a l p r o t e c t i o n teams.
(d) F i e l d standards a r e those applied to the p e r f o r m a n c e r e q u i r e d in
routine operational m o n i t o r i n g p r o g r a m s .

It m a y b e n e c e s s a r y a l s o to d e t e r m i n e the r e s p o n s e of the m o n i t o r to
s p e c i a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s . An instrument will respond to s m a l l s m e a r s a m p l e s
( s e e Section 5. 1, third paragraph) and d i s c r e t e spots of r a d i o a c t i v e c o n -
tamination [29] differently f r o m the way in which it will respond to an
extended s o u r c e . T o calibrate an instrument f o r this work, standard s m a l l
area s o u r c e s in s i m p l e j i g s designed to r e p r o d u c e the g e o m e t r y of the
s m e a r / d e t e c t o r a s s e m b l y a r e adequate.

The r e s p o n s e of beta d e t e c t o r s v a r i e s with beta energy. F o r m e a s u r e -

ments m o r e p r e c i s e than those f o r s i m p l e routine s u r f a c e contamination
monitoring where the detection of the p r e s e n c e of contamination is all that
m a y b e r e q u i r e d , and in areas w h e r e a number of different radionuclides
is used, the d e t e c t o r s must be calibrated against standard s o u r c e s of
differing beta e n e r g i e s .
Whenever p o s s i b l e , points at the l o w e r , middle and higher ends of the
instruments' range should b e checked. This is m o s t important if switch-
range instruments a r e being used.
In the c a s e of contamination m o n i t o r i n g instruments in which the p r o b e
is not integral with the r a t e m e t e r , the latter m a y be calibrated e l e c t r o -
nically b y a pulse g e n e r a t o r , after the d e t e c t o r p r o b e has been d i s c o n n e c t e d . '
Internationally agreed p e r f o r m a n c e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r radioactivity
detecting instruments a r e in preparation. The standard s p e c i f i c a t i o n s will
apply to the e l e c t r o n i c reliability and the radiation detection e f f i c i e n c y .
T o satisfy the calibration r e q u i r e m e n t s outlined above, a number of
calibration standards m a y b e used. Most c o m m o n l y these a r e c a l i -
brated radionuclide s o u r c e s o r s p e c i a l l y calibrated instruments [42],
In the f i r s t c a s e the r e s p o n s e of the instrument is checked against the
r e s p o n s e it should give t h e o r e t i c a l l y when exposed to the r a d i o a c t i v e s o u r c e .
In the second c a s e the r e s p o n s e of the instrument under test to a . r a d i o -
active s o u r c e is c o m p a r e d with that of the p r i m a r y instrument to the s a m e
source.

21
 I

FIG. l a . C o m b i n e d alpha and beta ptobe c h e c k i n g j i g . Calibration jig with alpha probe.

FIG. l b . Calibration j i g with standard beta probe ( 3 0 m g / c m 2 glass e n v e l o p e Geiger-MDUer tube).

22
 FIG. l c . Calibration j i g with end window (2 m g / c m 2 ) Geiger-Milller probe.

A s i m p l e jig, suitable f o r daily checking of instruments is illustrated

in F i g . 1. F o u r a m e r i c i u m - 2 4 1 s o u r c e s to check alpha d e t e c t o r s and three
s t r o n t i u m / y t t r i u m - 9 0 s o u r c e s to check beta d e t e c t o r s a r e mounted in a
wooden box which f o r m s the jig. The strength of each s o u r c e i n p C i , and
the expected c o u n t - r a t e in counts p e r s e c o n d (cps) is given on a c a r d
attached to the inside of the lid of the jig. The jig is designed s o that the
standard beta p r o b e and the end-window p r o b e a r e held in fixed positions
with r e s p e c t to the beta s o u r c e s . Alpha p r o b e s m a y b e m o v e d f r e e l y s o
that any n o n - u n i f o r m i t y in r e s p o n s e o v e r the detector area will b e indicated.
Suitable calibration s o u r c e s f o r beta contamination m o n i t o r s a r e
s t r o n t i u m - 9 0 o r natural uranium in equilibrium with their r e s p e c t i v e
daughters o r p h o s p h o r u s - 3 2 . C a r b o n - 1 4 obtainable as thin sheets o r d i s c s
of c o l o u r l e s s poly (methyl- 1 4 C) methacrylate m a y b e used as solid r e f e r e n c e
s o u r c e s f o r calibrating l o w - e n e r g y beta d e t e c t o r s . Plutonium-239,
a m e r i c i u m - 2 4 1 o r natural uranium in equilibrium with its daughters make
suitable alpha calibration s o u r c e s .

8. INSTRUMENTATION

8. 1. C r i t e r i a f o r selection of instruments

A wide r a n g e of contamination monitoring instruments is available,

varying in v e r s a t i l i t y and c o s t , f r o m the cheap s i n g l e - p u r p o s e instrument
to the m o r e expensive g e n e r a l - p u r p o s e m o n i t o r capable of being used with
a v a r i e t y of p r o b e s to detect the p r e s e n c e of m o s t radionuclides. F i g u r e 2

23
illustrates such an instrument. Great c a r e should b e e x e r c i s e d to s e l e c t
the m o s t appropriate instrument f o r the monitoring p r o g r a m to b e u n d e r -
taken. The c r i t e r i a to b e c o n s i d e r e d a r e s u m m a r i z e d as f o l l o w s :
(a) General c r i t e r i a which should be c o n s i d e r e d when s e l e c t i n g i n s t r u -
ments f o r s u r f a c e contamination monitoring are:

(i) They must b e r e l i a b l e and give r e p r o d u c e a b l e data;

(ii) T h e initial c o s t , and the c o s t s of operating and maintaining the
instruments must not be e x c e s s i v e with r e g a r d to other c o s t s in
the work to be controlled and the r i s k s a s s o c i a t e d with that
operation.
(b) F o r contamination monitoring all instruments should fulfil the
following r e q u i r e m e n t s :
(i) They should have adequate range;
(ii) They should respond quickly to the p r e s e n c e of radiations;
(iii) When exposed to l e v e l s of radiation in e x c e s s of their full range,
their m e t e r s must maintain f u l l - s c a l e deflection;
(iv) T h e r e should b e an audible output either via a loudspeaker o r an
earphone s y s t e m ;
(v) Battery, low and high voltage checking s y s t e m s should b e i n -
c o r p o r a t e d in the c i r c u i t r y ;
(vi) They should b e robust enough to withstand a limited amount of
rough treatment.

8. 2. Detailed a s s e s s m e n t f o r c h o i c e of instruments

T h e detailed a s s e s s m e n t of an instrument m a y b e made under three

main headings: its m e c h a n i c a l , e l e c t r i c a l and r a d i o l o g i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e
[43],
8. 2. 1. Mechanical p e r f o r m a n c e
(a) The instrument should b e rugged enough to withstand operational
u s e in the field. Special s h o c k - p r o o f i n g is not usually r e q u i r e d e s p e c i a l l y
in the c a s e of printed c i r c u i t , t r a n s i s t o r i z e d instruments, although a metal
rather than a thin plastic c a s e is often s p e c i f i e d . The indicating m e t e r
m o v e m e n t is usually the m o s t s h o c k - s e n s i t i v e instrument component.
(b) The instrument components should b e arranged s o that they m a y
b e easily r e p a i r e d or r e p l a c e d . M e t e r s c a l e s and r a n g e change switches
should b e c l e a r l y m a r k e d to m i n i m i z e the r i s k of an o p e r a t o r making an
e r r o n e o u s reading.
(c) Instruments should b e sufficiently water-tight to m e e t the r e q u i r e -
ments of the conditions under which they will b e used. In s o m e c l i m a t i c
conditions it m a y be n e c e s s a r y to keep the instrument in a d e s i c c a t e d ,
water-tight b o x , r e m o v i n g it only when m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e actually being
made.
(d) E s p e c i a l l y in the c a s e of instruments operating at mains voltage,
the design and construction should b e such that e l e c t r i c a l shock hazards a r e
avoided.
(e) Controls should b e easily manipulated and have position checks in
each switch position s o that o p e r a t o r s wearing heavy p r o t e c t i v e clothing
and breathing apparatus e x p e r i e n c e no difficulty in operating them.

25
 (f) The batteries of b a t t e r y - p o w e r e d instruments should b e readily
a c c e s s i b l e f o r quick and easy change. Instruments should b e designed s o
that only one type of battery is r e q u i r e d to p r o v i d e the operating p o w e r ,
and a battery check point should b e i n c o r p o r a t e d to check the condition of
the instrument batteries.

8. 2. 2. Electrical performance

(a) A mains e l e c t r i c i t y supply to instruments should have sufficient

stability to avoid fluctuations in the instrument readings. Transient e f f e c t s
should b e m i n i m i z e d so that steady readings are obtained when the i n s t r u -
ment is operating in a u n i f o r m non-varying radiation field.
(b) Batteries should b e capable of providing at least a hundred hours
of continuous instrument use.
(c) Switching transients should b e m i n i m i z e d , so that when range
changing o r when switching on the instrument the m e t e r settles quickly to
a stable reading.
(d) Instruments should b e s c r e e n e d s o that they a r e not affected by
magnetic o r radio_frequency f i e l d s . M e t e r readings and changes in readings
should result only f r o m ionizing radiations entering the detector and not
f r o m irradiation of the e l e c t r o n i c c i r c u i t r y o r components.
(e) E l e c t r o n i c c i r c u i t r y and components used should b e stable in their
r e s p o n s e o v e r the temperature range in which the instrument is to b e used.
(f) The instrument should have a fast r e s p o n s e time to ensure good
p e r f o r m a n c e when monitoring n o n - u n i f o r m l y contaminated s u r f a c e s .

8. 2. 3. Radiological performance

(a) The instrument should have an adequate range and a sufficiently

low detection limit to m e e t the needs f o r which it is to be used.
The l o w e r detection limit r e q u i r e d depends on the value of the derived
working limit of s u r f a c e contamination to b e used in the areas in question.
The range depends upon whether one has to m e a s u r e the amount of r a d i o -
active contamination present, o r whether one only wants to know whether
o r not it e x c e e d s s o m e p r e d e t e r m i n e d acceptable action level.
(b) The d e g r e e of a c c u r a c y should be determined; f o r operational
f i e l d work ± 20% may be adequate,, but f o r m o r e detailed l a b o r a t o r y study
± 5% o r l e s s m a y b e required.
(c) The .instrument should have good reproducibility within its a c c u r a c y
range, s o that when p r o p e r l y calibrated, meaningful estimates of the amount
of s u r f a c e contamination present can be made.
(d) M e t e r s should always be driven off s c a l e at the high range when-
e v e r they a r e exposed to radiation f i e l d s exceeding their m a x i m u m range.
(e) The r e s p o n s e of the instrument to radiations of different energies
must b e known, and c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r s - c a l c u l a t e d as n e c e s s a r y .
(f) T h e effect of t e m p e r a t u r e and a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e changes and
humidity on the instrument detector should b e known and c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r s
established if n e c e s s a r y .
(g) The r e s p o n s e of the instrument to radiations other than those which
•it is designed to m e a s u r e should b e m i n i m i z e d .

26
 (h) T h e instrument should b e easily calibrated and when adjusted to
give a determined r e s p o n s e should b e sufficiently stable to maintain the
r e s p o n s e , without drift, during its p e r i o d of u s e f r o m one calibration to
the next. •.

8. 3. Examples of instruments in-use \

An outline is given in this section of the types of d e t e c t o r s and m o n i t o r s

suitable f o r various s u r f a c e monitoring p r o g r a m s .
F o r detection of alpha e m i t t e r s , s c i n t i l l a t o r s , proportional counters
o r s e m i - c o n d u c t o r d e t e c t o r s a r e n o r m a l l y used. G a s - f l o w and a i r - f i l l e d
p r o p o r t i o n a l counters a r e m o r e readily affected by c l i m a t i c conditions
than scintillators o r s e m i - c o n d u c t o r s but a r e usually m o r e robust and l e s s
likely to b e c o m e l i g h t - s e n s i t i v e . Thin window G e i g e r tubes can be used,
but their detection e f f i c i e n c y is rather low, and the p r e s e n c e of beta o r
gamma radiation will i n t e r f e r e .
A G e i g e r tube with a window thickness' of about 30 m g / c m 2 is adequate
to detect beta radiation with a maximum energy above about 200 keV, but
the r e s p o n s e v a r i e s with the energy of-the beta radiation [44], F o r l o w e r -
energy beta radiation, either G e i g e r tubes with a thinner window (e. g.
2 m g / c m 2 ) , p r o p o r t i o n a l counters o r ' p l a s t i c organic scintillators behind
a thin light-tight shield a r e suitable. T h e f i r s t and last will not detect the
l o w - e n e r g y beta,radiation f r o m plutonium-241 o r tritium. Gamma r a d i -
ation will i n t e r f e r e with all beta detectors and alpha radiations will a l s o
i n t e r f e r e with 2 - m g / c m 2 window Geige'r-Miiller d e t e c t o r s . Shielded
G e i g e r tubes m a y b e used in areas where the gamma background is likely
to i n t e r f e r e with m e a s u r e m e n t s , but they a r e heavy and a r e only r e a l l y
suitable f o r m o n i t o r i n g f l o o r o r ground a r e a s .
. Alpha and beta d e t e c t o r s in a range of s i z e s a r e available, f r o m s m a l l
a r e a (2. 5 cm 2 ) s e m i - c o n d u c t o r d e t e c t o r s through d e t e c t o r s with 100 c m 2
detection areas to the l a r g e a r e a p r o b e s 500 cm 2 ) suitable f o r f l o o r
monitoring. F o r routine monitoring, alpha p r o b e s with a sensitive area
of 50 c m 2 , and standard betq, p r o b e s with sensitive a r e a s of 30 cm 2 or
end window beta p r o b e s with 5 cm 2 detectors a r e suitable.
B e c a u s e of their s m a l l s i z e , s e m i - c o n d u c t o r d e t e c t o r s a r e m o r e
suitable f o r m o n i t o r i n g spots of contamination on apparatus o r skin
p r e v i o u s l y indicated by general monitoring..
F o r monitoring of high l e v e l s of alpha contamination which may b e
found in glove b o x e s , f u m e hoods and p r e s s u r i z e d suit a r e a s , either general
p u r p o s e p r o b e s o r s p e c i a l l y developed p r o b e s incorporating s m a l l , thin-
walled ion c h a m b e r s m a y b e used. The p r o b e is connected to the rate-,
m e t e r , which is kept outside the area, via a s p e c i a l bulkhead fitting
mounted in the side.of the box o r the wall of the p r e s s u r i z e d suit area.
Special hand and clothing m o n i t o r s and foot m o n i t o r s m a y b e installed
at the exits f r o m r a d i o a c t i v e a r e a s o r at s t r a t e g i c , p l a c e s within the a r e a s .
D o o r p o s t m o n i t o r s , which m o n i t o r personnel and their clothing; r e d u c e the
number of p e r s o n a l v a r i a b l e s which a r i s e during s e l f - m o n i t o r i n g with
standard p r o b e s [45] ( F i g s 3 and 4).
Automatic m o n i t o r s which detect alpha and beta contamination on
clothing m a y b e installed in laundries serving r a d i o a c t i v e establishments
[46], D e v i c e s m a y b e i n c o r p o r a t e d which will allow the clothing to be •
sorted a c c o r d i n g to the d e g r e e of contamination.

27
FIG. 3. Doorpost monitor in use.

T h e d e t e c t o r system comprises t w e l v e t h i n - w a l l e d G e i g e r - M filler tubes, e l e v e n mounted v e r t i c a l l y

behind a thin p r o t e c t i v e c o v e r , and o n e mounted horizontally in a f o o t plinth. T h e tubes are grouped in
threes, and the output from e a c h group is fed t o its own alarm c i r c u i t . Counting is started when the user
interrupts a l i g h t - b e a m / p h o t o - e l e c t r i c c e l l assembly as h e mounts the plinth. During the counting period
o f ten seconds, the user must rotate h i m s e l f t o present the w h o l e o f his clothing surfaces t o the detectors.
If the pre-set output l e v e l is .not e x c e e d e d , a green " N O T C O N T A M I N A T E D " sign is illuminated. If the
l e v e l from any group o f detectors is e x c e e d e d , an a u d i b l e warning sounds, and a light indicates which group
has triggered the alarm. T h e instrument w i l l d e t e c t > 0 . 04 |iCi 90Sr/90Y over 100 c m 2 in a g a m m a background
o f 5 0 /iR/h.

28
FIG. 4. Installed hand and c l o t h i n g monitor, type H. C. M. 3.

T h e fully transistorized hand and clothing monitor, type H, C, M. 3, monitors both hands of personnel
for alpha and beta contamination simultaneously. A pair o f dual phosphor probes are used for each hand,
and a u t o m a t i c compensation against g a m m a backgrounds up to 1 . 5 m R / h is provided by an additional counter.
T h e monitor provides meter indication o f up to two derived working limits (DWL) for both alpha and beta
c o n t a m i n a t i o n on e a c h hand. If one DWL is e x c e e d e d , a red 'Wash a g a i n ' light c o m e s on, and an alarm
b e l l rings at the end o f the monitoring period which can be pre-set to any t i m e b e t w e e n 2 and 2 0 s. If .
c o n t a m i n a t i o n does not e x c e e d one DWL a green ' S a f e ' l a m p lights and a t w o - t o n e c h i m e sounds. A photo-
e l e c t r i c c e l l interlock rings the alarm bell and lights a ' R e c h e c k ' l a m p i f the hands are withdrawn before,
the monitoring c y c l e is c o m p l e t e d . -Two separate single phosphor clothing probes are provided, one normally
for alpha and the other for beta monitoring.

F o r monitoring alpha contamination on installed g l o v e - b o x gloves a

s p e c i a l l y designed p r o b e will give quicker and m o r e r e l i a b l e m e a s u r e m e n t s
than a general p u r p o s e instrument. .
F o r m e a s u r e m e n t of.high beta dose rates {up to 105 r a d / h ) a s i m p l e
detector [47] i n c o r p o r a t i n g a thin plastic scintillator (about 25 m g / c m 2 ) and
a s i m p l e photodiode gives v e r y good r e s u l t s . The g a m m a - r a y ' r e s p o n s e is
s m a l l , b e l o w 100 R/h., and is a linear function of d o s e - r a t e above this l e v e l .
S o m e gamma radiation m o n i t o r s [48] have detachable beta shields
which when r e m o v e d expose a thin window of the ion c h a m b e r . ' T h e s e
m o n i t o r s can be used to detect the p r e s e n c e of high l e v e l s of beta radiation,
but, b e c a u s e of their l a r g e variation in r e s p o n s e to beta p a r t i c l e s of d i f f e r -
ing e n e r g i e s , the d o s e - r a t e m e a s u r e m e n t indicated on the m e t e r is i n -
accurate. The instruments must be calibrated o v e r a range of beta energies
and s o u r c e ' ' a r e a s , at varying distances f r o m the s o u r c e .
Instruments a r e available which will only r e c o r d the p r e s e n c e of
radiations in s p e c i f i c energy bands p e c u l i a r to a s p e c i f i c radionuclide,
e. g. one which will identify the p r e s e n c e of the plutonium-239 by its 17-keV
X - r a y e m i s s i o n . P o r t a b l e g a m m a - r a y s p e c t r o m e t e r s a r e available which
m a y be used to identify radionuclides p r e s e n t in contamination in situ.

29
 C a r e must always be e x e r c i s e d when using radiation d e t e c t o r s . G l a s s -
walled G e i g e r tubes,will implode when broken, causing glass f r a g m e n t s to
f l y s o m e c o n s i d e r a b l e distance. Injuries have been sustained f r o m this .
type of accident, and it is r e c o m m e n d e d that eye protection is worn when
r e p l a c i n g a tube in the d e t e c t o r holder.. A p r o t e c t i v e m e s h s c r e e n m a y be
used o v e r the tube while in u s e ; a m e d i c a l - g a u z e s l e e v e on the tube has -
p r o v e d e f f e c t i v e , and it does not reduce the tube e f f i c i e n c y significantly.
The short range of alpha p a r t i c l e s means that any p r o b e used f o r alpha
monitoring must have a v e r y thin window. Alpha scintillation p r o b e s in
general use have a light-tight f o i l of thickness about 1 m g / c m 2 which, if
damaged, will allow light to penetrate to the photomultiplier and give
spurious counts. B e c a u s e of the n e c e s s i t y to m o n i t o r c l o s e ' t o the s u r f a c e ,
alpha scintillation detector, f o i l s can easily b e damaged; e.-'g. b y s m a l l
p i e c e s of glass,, w i r e o r gravel and even-hair stubble. P r o b e s must not
touch contaminated s u r f a c e s as spurious results will be obtained should
they b e c o m e contaminated. When preparing the instruments f o r u s e ,
e x c e s s i v e voltages must not b e applied as this will either damage the
d e t e c t o r s o r lead to spurious counts being r e g i s t e r e d .

R E F E R E N C E S

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30
[ 1 5 ] . CHAMBERLAIN, A. C . , , C a l c u l a t i o n of A l p h a a n d Beta D o s e ' f r o m RIane Surfaces, UKAEA Rep; AERE' '-1 / ,
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Part 2. T h e Estimation,of the L e v e l ; o f Tritium Contamination on Metal Surfaces by Smearing
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31
[ 4 4 ] , . WHITE,. D . F . , Response of the T 1 0 2 1 . 6 / Probe t o Surface Contamination, UKAEA Rep. AHSB(RP) M 31.
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g a m m a Survey Instruments, UKAEA Rep. AERE R 4397 (1963).

B I B L I O G R A P H Y

BARNES, D. E . , "Basic criteria in the control o f air and surface c o n t a m i n a t i o n " , Health Physics in Nuclear
Installations (Proc. Symp. Ris®, 1959), OECD/ENEA, Paris ( 1 9 5 9 ) .

BRANSGROVE, A . N . , CECERS,. K. E.., A l p h a - b e t a - g a m m a Surface Contamination Monitor A . A . E . C . T y p e 165,

UKAEA Rep. A A E C / M - 8 4 (1968).

C A S N A T I , E. , BREUER, F. , " C r i t i c a l consideration o f the methods o f c a l c u l a t i o n used in the evaluation o f

the absorbed dose to the skin in cases of external c o n t a m i n a t i o n " , ' Personnel Dosimetry for Radiation A c c i d e n t s
( P r o c . S y m p . Vienna, 1965), IAEA, Vienna ( 1 9 6 5) 525.

DUMMER, J. E . , Jr. , Evaluation of %Sr + 90 Y Surface Contamination Using Radiation Survey Instruments,
Rep. LA D C - 4 4 6 7 (1964). '

DUNSTER, H . I . , " M a x i m u m permissible l e v e l s of surface c o n t a m i n a t i o n " , R a d i o a c t i v e Contamination of

Workers (Proc. Symp. Munich, 1962), EURATOM, Brussels (1964). ' .

DL^JSTER, H . J . , GARNER, J. , " D e r i v e d m a x i m u m permissible l e v e l s " , R a d i o l o g i c a l Monitoring o f the

Environment (Proc. Symp. Berkeley, 1963), CEGB, London ( 1 9 6 5 ) .

DUNSTER, H.J. , " T h e c o n c e p t of derived working limits for surface c o n t a m i n a t i o n " , Surface Contamination
(Proc. Symp. Gatlinburg, Tenn. , 1964), Pergamon Press, Oxford (1967);

ENDERS, J. W . , Surface Contamination Control at the Los A l a m o s Chemistry and Metallurgical Research
Building, Rep. L A D C - 9 0 0 5 (1968).

FISH, B. R . , "Health physics t e c h n o l o g y " , Health Physics Div. Ann. Prog.Rep. for Period ending July 31, 1962,
ORNL-3347 ( 1 9 6 2 ) . ..

GLAUBERMAN, H . , BOOTMANN, W. R. ,• BRESLIN, A . J . , " Studies o f the s i g n i f i c a n c e of surface c o n t a m i -

nation" , ibid. •

INTERNATIONAL A T O M I C ENERGY AGENCY, Safe Handling o f Radioisotopes, Safety Series No. 1, IAEA,
Vienna (1962).

INTERNATIONAL A T O M I C ENERGY AGENCY, Safe Handling o f Radioisotopes: Health Physics A d d e n d u m ,

Safety Series N o . 2 , IAEA, Vienna (1960). ' • '

INTERNATIONAL A T O M I C ENERGY AGENCY, Regulations for the Safe Transport o f R a d i o a c t i v e Materials

(1967 e d i t i o n ) , Safety Series No. 6, IAEA, Vienna (1967). .

INTERNATIONAL A T O M I C ENERGY AGENCY, Basic Safety Standards for Radiation Protection (1967 e d i t i o n ) ,
Safety Series No. 9, IAEA, Vienna (1967).

INTERNATIONAL A T O M I C ENERGY AGENCY, .Manual on Environmental Monitoring in Normal Operation,

Safety Series No. 16, -IAEA, Vienna ( 1 9 6 6 ) . .

INTERNATIONAL A T O M I C ENERGY AGENCY, Environmental Monitoring in Emergency Situations, Safety

Series No. 18, IAEX, Vienna (1966).

INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE/INTERNATIONAL A T O M I C ENERGY AGENCY, Radiation Protection in

the Mining and M i l l i n g o f Radioactive Ores, Safety Series No. 2 6 , ILO, Geneva (1968).

INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION, Report o f C o m m i t t e e II on. Permissible.

Dose for Internal Radiation, Publication 2 , ' P e r g a m o n Press (1959). ' ^

32
INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION, Principles of Environmental Monitoring
Related to the Handling of Radioactive Materials, Publication 7, Pergamon Press ( 1 9 6 5 ) .

INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION, Recommendations of the International

Commission on R a d i o l o g i c a l Protection, Publication 9, Pergamon Press (1966).

INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON RADIOLOGICAL PROTECTION, General Principles o f Monitoring for

Radiation Protection of Workers, Publication 12, Pergamon Press (1969).

KOENIG, L. A . , Limitation of the surface contamination for handling unprotected r a d i o a c t i v e substances,

Atompraxis 12^ ( 1 9 6 6 ) . '

KRIEGER, G. L.', Principles o f Operation of the Indium Adhesion Tester Used for Surface Contamination
Measurement, Rep. S C - D C - 6 7 - 2 0 0 1 , Sandia C o r p . , Albuquerque, N. Mex. (1967).

LANZL, L . H . , PINGEL, J . H . , RUST, J . H . (Eds), Radiation Accidents and Emergencies in M e d i c i n e , Research

and Industry (Proc. Symp. C h i c a g o , 1963), C . C . T h o m a s , Springfields, 111. ( 1 9 6 5 ) .

MATUEEV, V. V . , SELDYAKOV, Y u . P. , SOKOLOV, A . D . , Use o f s e m i - c o n d u c t o r detectors with e l e c t r o n -

h o l e transitions in nuclear instrumentation, Izmer. T e k k . 10 (1967) (in Russian).

MOLDENHAWER, H. F . , Contamination and decontamination of surfaces, K e m e n e r g i e 5 (1962) (in German).

NATIONAL COMMITTEE ON RADIATION PROTECTION AND MEASUREMENTS, Control and Removal of

Radioactive Contamination in Laboratories, Handbook No. 48, NBS, Washington (1951).

NEWBERY, G. R. , "Measurement and assessment o f skin doses from skin c o n t a m i n a t i o n " , Radiation and Skin
(WRAY, E . T . , E d . ) , UKAEA Rep. AHSB (RP) R - 3 9 , H. M. Stationery O f f i c e , London (1964).

PRINCE, J. R. , WANG, C. H. , " A method for evaluating surface c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f soft beta emitters", ibid.

REES, D.J, , Health Physics - Principles o f Radiation Protection, Butterworths, London (1967).

RODIER, J , , "Organizing the fight against radioactive c o n t a m i n a t i o n in nuclear plants", Radioactive

Contamination o f Workers (Proc. Symp. Munich, 1962), EURATOM, Brussels ( 1 9 6 4 ) .

ROYSTER, G. W. , FISH, B. R. , " Studies of surface contamination. II. Surface characteristics a f f e c t i n g the
measurement and redispersion of particulates", Seventh Annual Meeting o f Health Physics Society (1962).

ROYSTER, G. W . , FISH, B. R. , " T e c h n i q u e s for assessing " r e m o v a b l e " surface c o n t a m i n a t i o n " , ibid.

SPANGLER, G. W , , "Criteria for establishing appropriate limits for r e m o v a b l e radioactive*surface c o n t a m i -

nation", Sixth Annual Meeting o f Health Physics Society (1961).

SPANGLER, G . W . , WILLIS, C . A . , "Permissible contamination l i m i t s " , ibid.

Strahlenschutzpraxis, T e i l II - Messtechnik, Karl T h i e m i g K. G . , Munich ( 1 9 6 2 ) .

SUMINO, T . , SEKITANI, K. , TSUJIMOTO, T. , K A T S U R A Y A M A , Y . , Calibration o f Instruments Used

to Monitor Surface Contamination Density, Rep. KURRI-TR-6 (1965) (in Japanese).

USSR Ministry o f Health and C o u n c i l o f Ministers State C o m m i t t e e on the Utilization o f A t o m i c Energy,

Health and Safety Regulations Governing Work with Radioactive Materials and Sources o f Ionizing Radiation,
Gosatomizdat, Moscow (1960).

33
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