A population refers to the entire field of interest.

Statistical methods refers to the process

of collecting data, measuring and analyzing data. Research is about solving problems & in order to
do this, we either employ quantitative or qualitative methods or mixed research. But before we
develop in our research, you need a title to your research. This need not be too short or else it will
be incomprehensive to readers neither need it be too long for it will appear ambiguous. Rather, the
title needs to be precise and concise so as to convey a clear meaning to the readers.
It is also important to realize that at times, it is important to develop certain assumptions
or hypotheses which are empirically tested in the field whether they are true or false. Simply
speaking, a hypothesis refers to a hypothetical statement of a relationship between two or more
variables. As such, hypotheses which are proven true are adopted by other researchers whereas the
false ones are dropped. However, the false hypotheses may be re-tested, improved at a later stage.
On the foregoing, hypothesis representing negative causal relationship of variables is referred to as
“null hypotheses”. Whereas the alternative to it is the alternative hypotheses where a positive
statement is used to describe the relationship of variables even when the reality is different. On the
other hand, there is also the double-barrowed hypotheses where there is a combined explanation of
more than one variable in one single statement.
A sample size is the representative population of the study. It is preferred in the
generalization of research findings because it represents the interest groups of the study unlike in
population size which encompass the entire group or area of study.
CONTEMPORARY SOCIAL PROBLEMS
All societies experience social and other kinds of problems that affect the normal
order of social life, affect the happiness and wellbeing of people or simply pose
potential hazards for current or future generations and therefore require solutions.
These include problems like adolescent drug abuse, abortion, corruption,
unemployment, poverty, environmental degradation, illiteracy, among others.
Academic institutions, government departments, development agencies, individuals
and other categories of people strive to understand these problems and solve them
to promote better societies, better resource allocation, and better living conditions
for people in society among other goals. To do this, they require a deeper
understanding of the underlying causes of these problems and how these problems
can be solved. This is where social research comes in.

RESEARCH
Research is a process of enquiry and investigation; it is systematic, methodical and
ethical. It can help solve practical problems and increase knowledge.

Research can also be referred to as a careful investigation or inquiry through search

for new facts in any branch of knowledge; or as a “systematized effort to gain new
knowledge.” some people consider research as “a movement from the known to the
unknown”.

Research can also be referred to as “the manipulation of things, concepts or

symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge,
whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art.”
Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge,
which also leads to the advancement of our knowledge and understanding of
particular issues.
Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or
suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions
and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine
whether they fit the formulated hypothesis.

THE PURPOSE OF RESEARCH

Review or synthesize existing knowledge
Investigate existing situations or problems
Provide solutions to problems
Explore and analyze more general issues
Construct or create new procedures or systems
Explain new phenomenon
Generate new knowledge
or a combination of any of the above!

MOTIVATION FOR RESEARCH

What makes people to undertake research? The possible motives for doing research
may be either one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over
practical problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.
However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake
research studies.
Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions,
curiosity about new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social
thinking and awakening, and the like may as well motivate (or at times compel)
people to perform research operations.
Research paradigms
The term epistemology comes from the Greek word epistêmê, their term for
knowledge. In simple terms, epistemology is the philosophy of knowledge or how
we come to know (Trochim, 2000). Epistemology is intimately related to ontology
and methodology; as ontology involves the philosophy of reality, epistemology
addresses how we come to know that reality while methodology identifies the
particular practices used to attain knowledge of it. Epistemology poses the following
questions: What is the relationship between the knower and what is known? How
do we know what we know? What counts as knowledge? Since theoretical questions
emerge from different conceptions and interpretations of social reality, different
paradigms have been evolved to determine the criteria according to which one
would select and define problems for inquiry.
Thomas Kuhn who is known for the term ‘paradigm’, characterizes a paradigm as:
“An integrated cluster of substantive concepts, variables and problems attached
with corresponding methodological approaches and tools…” During the past
century, different paradigms have emerged due to the remarkable growth in social
sciences research. There are mainly two paradigms to the verification of theoretical
propositions, i.e. positivism and anti-positivism (or naturalistic inquiry).
Positivism
The positivist paradigm of exploring social reality is based on the philosophical
ideas of the French philosopher August Comte, who emphasized observation and
reason as means of understanding human behaviour. According to him, true
knowledge is based on experience of senses and can be obtained by observation and
experiment. Positivistic thinkers adopt his scientific method as a means of
knowledge generation. In the positivist paradigm, the object of study is
independent of researchers. Knowledge is discovered and verified through direct
observations or measurements of phenomena and facts are established by taking
apart a phenomenon to examine its component parts. Hence, it has to be
understood within the framework of the principles and assumptions of science.
These assumptions, as Conen et al (2000) noted, are determinism, empiricism,
parsimony, and generality.
‘Determinism’ means that events are caused by other circumstances; and hence,
understanding such casual links are necessary for prediction and control.
‘Empiricism’ means collection of verifiable empirical evidences in support of
theories or hypotheses.
‘Parsimony’ refers to the explanation of the phenomena in the most economic way
possible.
‘Generality’ is the process of generalizing the observation of the particular
phenomenon to the world at large.
With these assumptions of science, the ultimate goal of science is to integrate and
systematize findings into a meaningful pattern or theory which is regarded as
tentative and not the ultimate truth. Theory is subject to revision or modification
as new evidence is found. Positivistic paradigm thus systematizes the knowledge
generation process with the help of quantification, which is essentially to enhance
precision in the description of parameters and the discernment of the relationship
among them. Positivism therefore stands for objectivity, measurability,
predictability, controllability and constructs laws and rules of human behavior.
Positivism is however criticized due to its lack of regard for the subjective states of
individuals. It regards human behaviour as passive, controlled and determined by
external environment. According to the critics of this paradigm, objectivity needs to
be replaced by subjectivity in the process of scientific inquiry.
Anti-positivism
Anti-positivism emphasizes that social reality is viewed and interpreted by the
individual herself according to the ideological positions she possesses. Therefore,
knowledge is personally experienced rather than acquired from or imposed from
outside. The anti-positivists believe that reality is multi-layered and complex (Cohen
et al, 2000) and a single phenomenon has multiple interpretations. They emphasize
that the verification of a phenomenon is adopted when the level of understanding
of a phenomenon is such that the concern is to probe into the various unexplored
dimensions of a phenomenon rather than establishing specific relationship among
the components, as it happens in the case of positivism. The Anti-
positivist/Interpretive/naturalist/constructivist view is that knowledge is
established through the meanings attached to the phenomena studied. It asserts
that researchers interact with the subjects of study to obtain data, and the process
of inquiry changes both researcher and subject. Moreover, knowledge is context
and time dependent, what is true today may not be the case tomorrow even if the
people are the same (Coll & Chapman, 2000; Cousins, 2002).
Anti-positivism is marked by three schools of thought in the social science research.
These are Phenomenology, Ethno-methodology and Symbolic Interactionism’.
‘Phenomenology’ (by Edmund Husserl) is a theoretical view point which asserts
that individual behaviour is determined by the experience gained out of one’s
direct interaction with the phenomena. During interaction with various
phenomena, human beings interpret them and attach meanings to different actions
and or ideas and thereby construct new experiences. Phenomenology is concerned
with the study of experiences depicted from the perspective of the individual, and
emphasizes the importance of personal perspective and interpretation. As such they
are powerful for understanding subjective experience, and gaining insights into
people’s motivations and actions. Therefore, the researcher has to develop
empathic understanding of the process of interpretation of a situation by
individuals so that s/he can reproduce in his/her mind feelings, motives and
thoughts that are behind the action of others. In other words the researcher must
put himself/herself in the shoes of the researched in order to understand their
actions and behavior, for example to understand why many men who experience
domestic violence keep quiet about it, one must understand the social norms, the
fears, the past experiences of such men in order to be able to understand why they
keep quiet. Alternatively, one could seek to understand the feelings of women who
are diagnosed with breast cancer, what is their immediate reaction, how did they
first feel, what were the implications of those feelings and this can inform support
structures and measures later developed for people in similar situations.
‘Ethno-methodology’ (by Harold Garfinkel) deals with the world of everyday life,
and the theoretical concerns centered around the process by which “common
sense” reality is constructed in everyday face-to-face interaction. This approach
studies the process by which people invoke certain ‘take-for-granted’ rules about
behaviour which they interpret in an interactive situation and make it meaningful.
They are mainly interested in the interpretation people use to make sense of social
settings or social order. Members of society must have some shared methods that
they use to mutually construct the meaningful orderliness of social situations.
Ethno-methodology's goal is to document the methods and practices through which
society's members make sense of their world and make it ordered.
For example in investigating the conduct of jury members, an ethno-methodologist
would seek to describe the common sense methods through which members of a
jury produce themselves in a jury room as jurors: methods for establishing matters
of fact; methods for developing evidence chains; methods for determining the
reliability of witness testimony; methods for establishing the hierarchy of speakers
in the jury room; methods for determining the guilt or innocence of defendants,
etc.. Such methods, taken individually, in combination, or collectively, depending
on the scope of the investigation, would serve to constitute the social order of being
a juror for the participants, and researcher(s), in that specific social setting. For the
ethno-methodologist, participants bring order to social settings - make them
orderable - through the sense making activities of their shared methods and
practices as enacted in those settings. Investigating social behavior of motorists one
would examine how motorists react to a driver who drives the wrong direction on a
one way street – what is acceptable and what is not? What rules and norms or
practices exist to ensure social order on our roads for example?
Symbolic Interactionism (by George H. Mead) is a social theory that focuses on the
analysis of the patterns of communication, interpretation and adjustment between
individuals. The theory is a framework for understanding how individuals interact
with each other and within society through the meanings of symbols. Both the
verbal and nonverbal responses that a listener then delivers are similarly
constructed in expectation of how the original speaker will react. This approach
asserts that human beings interpret and define each other’s actions instead of
merely reacting to each other’s actions. Human interaction in the social world is
mediated by the use of symbols like language, which help human beings to give
meaning to objects and behaviour. For interactionists, humans are pragmatic actors
who continually must adjust their behavior to the actions of other actors. We can
adjust to these actions only because we are able to interpret them, i.e., to denote
them symbolically and treat the actions and those who perform them as symbolic
objects. This process of adjustment is aided by our ability to imaginatively rehearse
alternative lines of action before we act. The process is further aided by our ability
to think about and to react to our own actions and even our selves as symbolic
objects. Thus, the interactionist theorist sees humans as active, creative participants
who construct their social world, and are therefore not just passive, conforming
objects of socialization. Research in this regard would then examine how people
respond and act following or in response to actions or communications by other
people in various social contexts.
Critical theory
The main protagonist of this theory was Jurgen Habermas, who worked at the
Frankfurt School in Germany to develop an approach of investigation and action
in the social sciences, which could describe the historical forces that restrict human
freedom and expose the ideological justification of those forces. Critical theorists
like Habermas were critical of the earlier paradigms as they did not endeavor to
question or transform the existing situation. He developed theories which were
built on a typology of interest. Habermas (1970) postulated three types of interest
which generate three types of knowledge:
A technical interest concerned with the control of the physical environment, which
generates empirical and analytical knowledge.
A practical interest concerned with understanding the meaning of situation, which
generates hermeneutic and historical knowledge.
An emancipating interest concerned with the provision for growth and
advancement, which generates critical knowledge and is concerned with exposing
conditions of constraints and domination.
Critical theorists suggest two kinds of research methodologies, namely, ideology
critique and action research, for undertaking research work.
Critical theory has also been criticized by some of the contemporary scholars. The
claim that there are only three forms of knowledge has been criticized for being too
simplistic. There are a multitude of interests and ways of understanding the world;
and it is simply artificial to reduce these to three interests (Cohen et al, 2000).
Feminist Research
Feminist research is research which is carried out by women and men who identify
as feminists and use feminist perspective in carrying out the research. This involves
using feminist perspectives in identifying the research purpose, specific questions,
topics and issues to be known about, and specific method of knowing, which all
distinctly draw on women's experience of living in a world in which women are
subordinate to men. Feminist research therefore, can be done by both men and
women as long as the researcher identifies as a feminist and uses a feminist
perspective in carrying out their research. Feminist research attempts to give a voice
to women and to correct the male oriented perspectives in research that have
hitherto dominated the development of social science and research in general. This
perspective in research argues that due to socialization processes, women and men
learn to do things and express themselves differently. The key argument is that
women tend to be more subjective and hence differ from the male oriented
interpretive perspective that dominates the positivist paradigms in research.

Many feminists see positivist research as male dominated and male oriented
because it is objective, logical, task oriented and instrumental, and reflects the male
attitude of domination, control, competitiveness and presentation of hard facts.
Women on the other hand tend to be more accommodative and veer towards
building social bonds. The world for many women, is seen as a web
of interconnected humans linked together by feelings of trust and mutual
obligation. As such, women tend to express themselves more subjectively, are
empathetic, and process oriented and inclusive. Feminist research is also action
oriented and seeks to advance feminism in the quest to overcome male domination
and unequal power relations in society that have kept women subordinate and
marginalised.

Feminist researchers argue that most research that is non-feminist tends to be male
dominated and tainted by cultural values that largely ignore or marginalize women.
Feminists argue further that male centred research tends to over generalize the
experiences of men to all people, ignores gender as a fundamental social issue,
focuses on men’s problems, uses men as researchers, uses men’s experiences as
points of reference and assumes traditional gender roles. Feminist researchers try to
overcome these biases by infusing research with a feminist perspective and by
making the research process more collaborative than detached from the experiences
of the people being researched. This is done for instance, by creating social bonds
with the researched, building trust and creating an environment where the
researched can express their feelings and experiences comfortably and
conversationally with the researcher.
Feminist researchers are sometimes classified as critical researchers since they utilize
ideology critique and action research. However, the key divergence between critical
research and feminist research is that feminist research mainly focuses on how
ideology has been used to disempower women and use action research to rectify
these imbalances. However, feminist researchers also use both positivist and anti-
positivist research methods and tools for research.

Some key characteristics of feminist research

Advocate for feminist values and perspectives in the research process
Rejection of sexism in assumptions, concepts and research questions
Creation of empathetic relations between the researcher and the researched
Sensitivity to effects of gender relations and power relations in different spheres of
life
Incorporation of the researcher’s personal feelings and experiences into the
research process
Recognition of the emotional and mutual interdependence of humanity
Action oriented research that seeks to facilitate personal and societal change

Postmodern Research
Postmodern research is in general the research paradigm that goes beyond accepted
forms or methods of research towards more fluid processes and methods that allow
the researcher to overcome or transcend the boundaries of accepted structure,
systematized procedure and rules of research. Postmodern social research seeks to
demystify the social world by deconstructing socially accepted “truths” and “ways of
doing” to reveal what is hidden beneath these “truths” that we have come to
believe. Postmodernism rejects all that relates to rules, order, values, logic,
rationality and asserts that all truths are relative. In other words, all research done
only provides information that relates to the object being researched at that time it
was researched, but the situation may have already changed by the time the report
was written. That because the world is ever in a state of change, truth evolves and
changes therefore, nothing is set in stone. As such, research should only be
descriptive and not explanatory. Further, a researcher’s findings cannot be inferior
to any other person’s findings since all findings reflect the researcher’s experiences
at that moment in time, implying that there is no right or wrong finding in
research – all findings are correct and relative to the context in which the research
was done.

There is also, a strong rejection of all ideologies and organized belief systems
including social theory, order or rules of how things are to be done. Post
modernists believe that the world is constantly changing and so are the truths
therein, therefore, everything is in a state of complexity, diversity, and chaos and
order cannot exist in such a situation therefore, even the research process and the
findings must not espouse order of any kind. There is also a rejection of studying
the past or different places since only the here and now is relevant. To the
postmodernist, history cannot affect the present or the future since there is always a
mix of complex realities that are ever changing and new factors emerging into the
picture making the study of history irrelevant since it is impossible to recreate the
exact occurrence in the present or the future – history cannot repeat itself (actors,
situations, circumstances, etc are all different). Further, causality cannot be studied
because the circumstances are all constantly changing making it impossible to
pinpoint the exact cause of a phenomenon at present since the causative factors
themselves are in constant state of evolution and change. Postmodernists therefore,
assert that research can never truly represent what happens in the social world since
it is impossible to know everything or to control for all factors that could be
impacting on the multiple occurrences of the world. Therefore, research should
only seek to describe what is happening at a particular time and place but never to
generalize these findings to other situations or contexts. Further, research findings
should never be used to try and design policies since postmodernists have a sense of
meaninglessness and pessimism and the belief that the world will never improve no
matter how much you try to design policies to improve it. They are therefore, anti-
elitist and reject the notion of using science to predict or make policy decisions.

Postmodern researchers reject the notion of presenting research in a detached

manner that does not reflect the views, feelings or experiences of the researcher.
There is a strong reliance on intuition, imagination, personal experience and
emotion in the process of research. There is also extreme subjectivity and lack of
distinction between the mental and external world, implying that the researcher’s
mental and emotional state, experiences, etc must come out strongly and be seen
throughout the presentation of the research findings. As such, Postmodern
research findings should be presented like a work of art with the purpose of
stimulating the audience, give pleasure, build curiosity, or evoke a response of some
kind from those who it is presented to. Such reports usually have a dramatic style of
presentation, either as a movie, play, song, or other work of fiction. Postmodern
researchers argue that presenting findings in this manner is more useful than
presenting findings in a scholarly research journal.

Research Paradigms and Associated Research Methods

Each of the paradigms discussed above has definite research methods which can be
used in carrying out scientific investigation.
Positivism which emphasizes objectivist approach to studying social phenomena
gives importance to research methods focusing on quantitative analysis, surveys,
experiments and the like.
Similarly, anti-positivism which stresses on subjectivist approach to studying social
phenomena attaches importance to a range of research techniques focusing on
qualitative analysis, e.g. personal interviews, participant observations, account of
individuals, personal constructs etc.
Similarly, critical theory suggests ideology critique and action research as research
methods to explore the existing phenomena.
Feminist research proposes the use of feminist methods in social research but also
combines the use of positivism, anti-positivism, and critical theory to explore social
issues under investigation.
Postmodernists utilize any of the above or a mix of some or all of the methods
above, while presenting their findings in a unique manner that is not reflective of
what is socially accepted in social research.
The question arises: how does a researcher select a research paradigm and
corresponding methodology? The following questions may be raised by the
researcher:
What is the nature or essence of the social phenomena being investigated?
Is social phenomenon objective in nature or created by the human mind?
What are the bases of knowledge corresponding to the social reality, and how
knowledge can be acquired and disseminated?
What is the relationship of an individual with his/her environment? Is s/he
conditioned by the environment or is the environment created by him/her?
Based on the above questions, the researcher can identify whether the research
questions pertain to positivism, anti-positivism, and critical theory; and choose the
appropriate methodology accordingly.

Table 1: Selection of research paradigms and research methods

Resear Researc Research Example
ch h methods s
paradi approa
gms ch
Positivi Quanti Surveys: -
sm tative longitudinal, Attitude
cross- of
sectional, distance
correlational learners
; towards
experimental online
, and based
quasi- educatio
experimental n
and -Effect of
ex-post facto intellige
research nce on
the
academi
c
perform
ances of
 primary
school
learners
Anti- Qualita Biographical -An
positivi tive ; autobiog
sm Phenomenol raphy of
ogical; a great
Ethnographi statesma
cal; n.
case study - A case
study of
a
distance
learning
Instituti
on
Critica Critical Ideology -
l and critique; Absentei
theory action- action sm
oriente research among
d standard
five
students
of a
primary
school

Femini Critical Ideology -A study

st and critique; of how
researc action action gender
h oriente research norms
d Surveys: keep
Quanti longitudinal, women
tative cross- out of
qualita sectional, formal
tive correlational employ
; ment
experimental -A study
, and of why
quasi- girls
experimental drop out
and of
ex-post facto school
research more
Biographical than
; boys
Phenomenol
ogical;
Ethnographi
cal;
case study
NOTE:
although
these are the
same
methods
used by non-
feminist
researchers,
 when
adopted by
feminists
these
methods are
infused with
feminist
perspectives
in a manner
that ensures
that the data
collected can
be analyzed
from a
feminist
perspective
for example
through use
of gender
disaggregate
d data
Postm Critical Ideology
odern and critique;
researc action action
h oriente research
d Biographical
qualita ;
tive Phenomenol
Quanti ogical;
tative Ethnographi
(very cal;
selectiv case study
ely and survey
unique NOTE:
ly used) although
these are the
same
methods
used by
other
researchers
who are
NOT
postmoderni
sts, when
adopted by
postmoderni
sts these
methods are
used in a
manner that
differs from
the
organized
and
systematic
way that
other
researchers
use them for
example
using
qualitative
methods,
the
postmoderni
st may use
just one
respondent
and look at
the case
deeply with
documentati
on including
photo,
letters, etc
but in
writing,
these cases
are
immersed
into the
writer’s own
perspective
and
presented in
a narrative
 that is
aesthetically
appealing to
the reader

Although, each of the paradigms has corresponding approaches and research

methods, still a researcher may adopt research methods cutting across research
paradigms as per the research questions s/he proposes to answer.

RESEARCH APPROACHES:
Quantitative Research: The emphasis of Quantitative research is on collecting and
analyzing numerical data; it concentrates on measuring the scale, range, frequency
etc. of phenomena. This type of research, although harder to design initially, is
usually highly detailed and structured and results can be easily collated and
presented statistically.

Qualitative research: is more subjective in nature than Quantitative research and

involves examining and reflecting on the less tangible aspects of a research subject,
e.g. values, attitudes, perceptions. Although this type of research can be easier to
start, it can be often difficult to interpret and present the findings. This type of
research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires, of respondents,
using in depth interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such research are
word association tests, sentence completion tests, story completion tests and similar
other projective techniques. Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to
find out how people feel or what they think about a particular subject or institution
is also qualitative research. Qualitative research is specially important in the
behavioral sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of human
behaviour. Through such research we can analyze the various factors which
motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which make people like or
dislike a particular thing. It may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative
research in practice is relatively a difficult job and therefore, while doing such
research, one should seek guidance from experimental psychologists.

Pragmatic approach to research (mixed methods)

The pragmatic approach to science involves using the method which appears best
suited to the research problem and not getting caught up in philosophical debates
about which is the best approach. Pragmatic researchers therefore grant themselves
the freedom to use any of the methods, techniques and procedures typically
associated with quantitative or qualitative research. They recognize that every
method has its limitations and that the different approaches can be
complementary. They may also use different techniques at the same time or one
after the other. For example, they might start with face-to-face interviews with
several people or have a focus group and then use the findings to construct a
questionnaire to measure attitudes in a large scale sample with the aim of carrying
out statistical analysis.
DIMENSIONS OF RESEARCH
All types of research are variations of one or more of the above stated approaches,
based on either the purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish
research, or the way it intends to use theory, or on the environment in which
research is done, or on the basis of some other similar factor.

Purpose Dimension
Exploratory Research
Exploratory research is undertaken when few or no previous studies exist. The aim
is to look for patterns, hypotheses or ideas that can be tested and will form the basis
for further research. Typical research techniques would include case studies,
observation and reviews of previous related studies and data.
Descriptive Research
Descriptive research can be used to identify and classify the elements or
characteristics of the subject, e.g. number of days lost because of industrial action.
The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over
the variables; but can only report what has happened or what is happening, for
example frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar data. Quantitative
techniques are most often used to collect, analyze and summarize data.

Analytical/Explanatory Research
Analytical research often extends the Descriptive approach to suggest or explain
why or how something is happening, e.g. underlying causes of industrial action. An
important feature of this type of research is in locating and identifying the different
factors (or variables) involved.

Predictive Research
The aim of Predictive research is to speculate intelligently on future possibilities,
based on close analysis of available evidence of cause and effect, e.g. predicting
when and where future earthquakes, or wars, or protests, or strikes by students
might take place

Use Dimension
Basic/Fundamental Research: The primary aim of Basic Research or fundamental
research is to improve knowledge generally, without any particular applied purpose
in mind at the outset. Basic/fundamental research is mainly concerned with
generalizations and with the formulation of a theory. “Gathering knowledge for
knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ or fundamental research.” Research
concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are
examples of fundamental research. Similarly, research studies, concerning human
behaviour carried on with a view to make generalizations about human behaviour,
are also examples of fundamental research,

Applied Research: is designed from the start to apply its findings to a particular
situation. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem
facing a society or an industrial/business organization. Research aimed at certain
conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or business problem is an
example of applied research. Research to identify social, economic or political
trends that may affect a particular institution or the copy research (research to find
out whether certain communications will be read and understood) or the
marketing research or evaluation research are examples of applied research. Thus,
the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing
practical problem, whereas basic research is directed towards finding information
that has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the already existing
organized body of scientific knowledge

Theoretical Use Dimension

Deductive research moves from general ideas/theories to specific particular &
situations: the particular is deduced from the general, e.g. broad theories.

Inductive research moves from particular situations to make or infer broad general
ideas/theories

Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally

used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret
existing ones.

Empirical research on the other hand, relies on experience or observation alone,

often without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research, coming
up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or
experiment. We can also call it as experimental type of research. In such a research
it is necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their source, and actively to go about
doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired information. In such a
research, the researcher must first provide himself with a working hypothesis or
guess as to the probable results. The researcher then works to get enough facts
(data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. S/he then sets up experimental designs
which he thinks will manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as to
bring forth the desired information. Such research is thus characterized by the
experimenter’s control over the variables under study and his deliberate
manipulation of one of them to study its effects. Empirical research is appropriate
when proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way.
Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered to
be the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.

Time Dimension
From the point of view of time, we can think of research in the following way
one-time research where the research is confined to a single time-period,
longitudinal research, where the research is carried on over several time-periods.
Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains,
etc. to study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and
groups at any remote point of time.

Setting Dimension
Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research,
depending upon the environment in which it is to be carried out.
Experimental approach is characterized by much greater control over the research
environment and in this case some variables are manipulated to observe their effect
on other variables.
Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial environment within
which relevant information and data can be generated. This permits an observation
of the dynamic behaviour of a system (or its sub-system) under controlled
conditions. The term ‘simulation’ in the context of business and social sciences
applications refers to “the operation of a numerical model that represents the
structure of a dynamic process. Given the values of initial conditions, parameters
and exogenous variables, a simulation is run to represent the behaviour of the
process over time.” Simulation approach can also be useful in building models for
understanding future conditions. The purpose of inferential approach to research
is to form a data base from which to infer characteristics or relationships of
population. This usually means survey research where a sample of population is
studied (questioned or observed) to determine its characteristics, and it is then
inferred that the population has the same characteristics
Laboratory based research: Research can as well be understood as clinical or
diagnostic research. Such research follows case-study methods or in-depth
approaches to reach the basic causal relations. Such studies usually go deep into the
causes of things or events that interest us, using very small samples and very deep
probing data gathering devices.

TRIANGULATION IN RESEARCH
It is generally accepted that looking at something from different perspectives, makes
the object or phenomenon clearer and easier to understand. In social research, this
is called TRIANGULATION. Triangulation in social research can be done from
four main perspectives:
Triangulation of Measures: this refers to a situation where researchers take multiple
measures of the same phenomenon or object or issue. By measuring the object or
phenomenon in more than one way, it is possible to see all aspects of the object.
For example measuring a gold chain bracelet worn by Masai women, a researcher
can measure the weight of the gold chain, the length of the gold chain, the quantity
of gold it contains etc. this gives the researcher more details about the object being
studied.
Triangulation of Observers: In many studies, one researcher conducts the
observation process however, this can be a limitation for the study since the
researcher’s feelings, experiences, and values influence the findings too much and
the findings can become questionable. However, this weakness can be overcome
using triangulation by observation, where several observers are brought in to
observe a phenomenon or object and provide their impressions based on a set of
standards or key issues. This provides the study with validity and more acceptability
since the findings have been made using shared observation by reparable
researchers, and the biases associated with personal pre-judices, feelings, etc are
therefore considered controlled for in such cases
Triangulation of Theory: In this situation, a researcher uses more than one
theoretical perspective in their study. This can be done either at the planning stages
of the research or when interpreting the data collected.
Triangulation of Methods: This involves mixing quantitative and qualitative styles
of research and methods of data collection. These approaches each have their own
strengths and limitations thereby, utilizing both approaches means limiting the
weaknesses of both and building on or making the most of their combined
strengths in the research process. This makes the study more complete, thorough
and comprehensive.

QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE DESIGN ISSUES

Qualitative and quantitative research differs in many ways, but they also
complement each other in many ways. All social researchers carefully and
systematically collect, and analyze data then carefully examine the patterns to
explain and understand social occurrences or phenomenon. These differences are
explained here below:
One of the differences between the two styles relates to the nature of the data
collected. Qualitative approaches largely collect soft data in the form of
impressions, words, symbols, photos, sentences, quotations, etc, which dictate the
use of different data collection techniques and strategies. Quantitative approaches
on the other hand usually collect hard data in the form of numbers.

The qualitative and quantitative approaches also usually have different assumptions
about social life and have different objectives. As such, the tools for data collection
used by each approach are inapplicable for use by the other.

Qualitative researchers rely on interpretive or critical social science while

quantitative researchers rely on a positivist perspective

Qualitative researchers adopt a transcendental approach to research issues, which

implies the focus of the research is to help the researched identify the cause of their
social problem and work with them to overcome that problem. Research is
therefore designed from the perspective of the researched and the findings also
presented from the perspective of the researched and using their own words. On
the other hand, quantitative researchers adopt a technocratic perspective, a top-
down approach that usually is informed by the bureaucrats ( these could be the
sponsors of the research/government department/NGO commissioning the study)
own interests rather than the interests of those being researched. For instance the
government department for housing may receive funding for housing and then
commission a study on where to locate the houses and how much to charge for the
housing units. However, the study will not focus on the perspective of those that
are homeless since the aim of the housing unit may be to give a city a more modern
appearance rather than to solve a housing problem among slum dwellers for
instance.

Qualitative researchers apply logic in practice meaning that they tend to obtain
more skills in the research process through informal discussions with other skilled
researchers and gain new insights into the qualitative research process as well as
new ways of doing things to achieve set objectives. These skills may not be written
down nor are they recorded or systematized. On the other hand, quantitative
researchers use reconstructed logic, where the research process is systematized and
structured and set in stone. It is well documented and procedures to follow exist
which are adhered to by all researchers conducting quantitative research to ensure
objectivity, validity and reliability.

Qualitative research follows a non-linear and cyclical process in that a researcher

can choose to start with a mini pilot study then returns to analyze the data to get a
research topic and research questions, before going back to the field to carry out
focus group discussions, returns to analyze the data, goes back again to fill in
research gaps or additional questions that may arise following data analysis, etc. in
other words there is room for flexibility in the research process and the researcher
can choose to adopt a different data collection technique in the field is the planned
one does not conform to the local context. On the other hand, quantitative
research follows a linear process that is straightforward and systematic.
Identification of topic and research questions, field work, then data analysis and
presentations. Very straightforward and there is seldom room for flexibility or
returning to the field to fill in gaps or answer additional questions that may arise.

Qualitative researchers speak a language of cases and contexts i.e they emphasize
examining specific cases in deeper detail and understanding the context in which
each phenomenon occurs. The focus is on getting all the details regarding the whys
and hows about a particular situation or respondent’s life/story or phenomenon
and therefore the respondents are the key issue of concern. On the other hand,
quantitative researchers focus on variables and hypotheses i.e the hypotheses and
variables of study are more important than an understanding of the individual
cases (respondent’s situation) or the context in which their stories exist. In
quantitative studies, the individual stories and contexts get reduced to mere
numbers or statistics as the focus is on statistics not in understanding the other
factors that could be impacting on the statistic to make it as it appears.
Qualitative researchers emphasize the human factor and intimate firsthand
knowledge of the respondent, and their contexts. Therefore, personal feelings,
experiences, and knowledge are all taken advantage of fully by the researcher.
However, to avoid personal biases jeopardizing the validity and reliability of data,
qualitative researchers triangulate data sources and ensure that additional
information/evidence is obtained to support the statements made by respondents.
For instance in the form of photographs, medical forms, letters, etc. quantitative
researchers on the other hand stress objectivity and detachment from personal
feelings, experiences and emotions as well as detachment of the researcher from the
researched/respondents. There is overwhelming faith in statistics and numbers and
hence information is garnered from as many people as possible regarding the same
issue under investigation and the results generalized to the wider public.

What are variables in social research?

An important step in designing all quantitative research projects is defining or
identifying the variables that will be manipulated, measured, described, or
controlled. Although qualitative researchers do not define variables to the same
extent that quantitative researchers do, they still must outline what kinds of
phenomena they are studying. The major types of variables, or phenomena of
interest, are described briefly here, with common examples
Independent Variable (IV): A variable that is selected or controlled by the
researcher, to determine its relationship to the observed outcome of the research—
also called explanatory, predictor, or manipulated variable. The independent
variable is the cause variable or the variable that acts upon the outcome or leads to
the outcome.
Dependent Variable (DV): The variable being measured as an outcome—also called
outcome, response, criterion, or explained variable. The dependent variable results
as an effect of the independent variable. For example a person’s HIV status
(dependent variable) is dependent upon ones exposure to the virus that causes HIV
(independent variable).
Intervening (Mediating) Variables: a hypothetical concept that attempts to explain
the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Mediating
variables, explore why and how the independent variable is linked to the dependent
variable. For example, the HIV virus (independent variable) can lead to HIV/AIDS
(dependent variable), if one does not adopt safe sex practices
(intervening/mediating variable)