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The assays for phagocytosis, opsonization and intracellular replication in cultured catfish phagocytes were
performed by the methods of Leung et al. (1995b) with slight modifications. A volume of 100 μl washed A.
hydrophila culture in HBSS (108 cells ml 1) was mixed with 900 μl serum from vaccinated and control catfish and
incubated for 30 min at 25 C before adding 50 μl of the bacterial mixture to each microtitre well containing a
phagocyte monolayer. Plates were incubated for 30 min and then the monolayers washed 3 times with
60 Z. YIN ET AL.
HBSS. Fresh L-15 medium containing gentamycin (100 μg ml 1) was added onto the monolayers of phagocytes
which were incubated for another 30 min. After the gentamycin treatment, phagocytes were washed 3 times with
HBSS and incubated in L-15 medium supplemented with 0·1% heat-inactivated FCS. The intracellular population of
bacteria in the phagocytes was determined at 0 and 3 h after the last wash by counting the CFU in each well after all
the phagocytic cells were lysed by 1% Triton. In order to determine the e#ects of the opsonization activities on A.
hydrophila viabilities, the intracellular bacterial population at 0 h was determined. The intracellular replication of the
opsonized bacteria was obtained by comparing the di#erence in intracellular bacterial population of A. hydrophila
between 0 h and 3 h.
CELL CULTURE AND INVASION ASSAY
Virulent bacteria (PPD 134/91, PPD 122/91) were cultured by the methods as described in ‘phagocytosis and
intracellular replication assay’. A 100-μl volume of the bacterial suspension (108 CFU ml 1) was incubated with 900
μl of variously diluted antiserum (against PPD 134/91) at 25 C for 30 min. Antisera which were pre-absorbed with
pellets of bacterial cells of the homologous virulent strain (PPD 134/91) or serum from the control fish were used as
the controls.
Epithelioma papulosum of carp, Cyprinus carpio (EPC) (Wolf & Mann, 1980) were seeded into each well of a
24-well tissue culture plate (Falcon Laboratories). Cells were grown in Eagle Minimum Essential Medium (EMEM,
Sigma) containing Hank’s salts, 10m
M
Hepes (pH 7·3), 2m
M glutamine, 0·23%
atmosphere for NaHCO 3 days. 3
Thereafter, and 10% heat-inactivated 50 μl FCS at 25 C in 5% of the reaction mixture of CO
the 2
bacteria and serum was added to each well containing a monolayer of EPC cell culture. The infection process was
allowed to continue for 30 min at 25 C. The inoculum was then removed and each well was washed 3 times with
HBSS. After the washings, each well was overlaid with 1ml of EMEM containing heat-inactivated FCS,
L-glutamine, Hepes and gentamycin (100 μg ml 1). This was to kill any extracellular bacteria that had not penetrated
EPC cells and were not removed during the washings. The culture plates containing this overlay solution were then
incubated for 30 min at 25 C. The medium was then removed and plated onto TSA to determine the progeny number
of gentamycin-resistant bacteria. The wells were washed 5 times with HBSS. The monolayer of EPC cells infected
by each strain was then lysed with 1% Triton X-100 for 5 min and the CFU in each well were counted on TSA
plates.
CHALLENGE PROCEDURE
Prior to the challenge, A. hydrophila (PPD 134/91 strain) cells were cultivated, washed and treated with anti-PPD
134/91 antiserum or control serum as described in the ‘invasion assay’. The bacterial concentrations were confirmed
in arrears by spreading dilutions of the bacteria on the TSA plates.
PROTECTION AGAINST AEROMONAS HYDROPHILA 61
These sera-treated bacterial preparations were adjusted approximately to three concentrations of 2·5 105, 2·5 106
and 2·5 107 cells ml 1 and used for challenge.
To assess whether protection was conferred by the specific antiserum, the following challenge experiments were
carried out in two sets of naive catfish and one set of vaccinated catfish. The fish of the latter group were vaccinated
against A. hydrophila (PPD 134/91 strain) as described above and maintained at 23–26 C for 28–35 days before
challenge. The antiserum titres against PPD 134/91 of these vaccinated fish ranged from 5120 to 20 480. For
challenge test, every set containing three groups of 5 catfish each was intramuscularly injected with 0·1 ml
serum-treated bacteria. The mortalities were recorded for 7 days. The LD50 values were calculated by the method of
Reed & Muench (1937). The experiment was repeated once.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
All the data were analyzed using Student’s t-test. A value of P<0·05 was considered to be significant.
III. Results
SERUM ANTIBODY TITRE AND BACTERICIDAL ACTIVITY
The time kinetics of the agglutinating antibody response against A. hydrophila strains (PPD 134/91, L37) in the
sera of catfish were determined (Figs 1 & 2). From the 7th day after vaccination, fish displayed a humoral response
which peaked at 28th day and maintained a significantly high level until 35 days post-vaccination.
The antiserum of fish at 28–35 days post-vaccination did not show signifi- cant bactericidal activity against the
virulent strain PPD 134/91 (Table 1). Indeed, the virulent strain proliferated in all sera compared to the PBS
controls. However, the antiserum from the fish vaccinated against the aviru- lent strain L37 caused a significant
reduction in growth of the avirulent strain (P<0·05) compared to those treated with the control serum of the non-
vaccinated fish or antiserum against the serologically di#erent virulent strain (PPD 134/91) (Table 1).
OPSONIZATION AND INTRACELLULAR REPLICATION
The control serum and the antiserum (against PPD 134/91) were used to opsonize two serologically di#erent
virulent strains (PPD 134/91 and PPD 122/91). The control serum was pooled from several naive catfish as
described above. The agglutinating titres of the control serum against the two virulent strains were lower than 32.
The specific antiserum against PPD 134/91 was collected from several catfish which were vaccinated as described
above. The antiserum titres against PPD 134/91 (the homologous strain) were higher than 10 240 while those against
the serologically di#erent strain PPD 122/91 were lower than 32.
62 Z. YIN ET AL.
16
n i a r t s 1 9 / 4 3 1
12
D P P t s n i a g a e r t i t y d o b i t n a
8
4
g o L
0
10 20 30 Time after injection (days)
Fig. 1 Changes in agglutinating antibody titres in the serum of catfish after intraperi- toneal injection of formalin-killed A.
hydrophila (strain PPD 134/91) in Freund’s Complete Adjuvant (FCA). For control serum catfish were injected with PBS and
FCA only. Values are mean
S.E
40
. of triplicates. — —, vaccinated; — —, control.
Bacteria which were opsonized with heat-inactivated sera from control and vaccinated fish were all found inside
the phagocytes. However, the intra- cellular population of inactivated antiserum-opsonized bacteria was signifi-
cantly higher than that of bacteria opsonized with the inactivated control serum (Groups I & II in Fig. 3). Similar
results were encountered when fresh specific antiserum against the PPD 134/91 were used as compared to the fresh
control serum (Fig. 3). This indicated that the antibodies exhibited a strong opsonization e#ect. However, the
significant di#erence in intracellular bacterial population of the virulent strains PPD 134/91 between 0 h and 3 h
showed that engulfed pathogens were not killed and they multiplied within the phagocytes (Fig. 3). It should also be
pointed out that no increase of phagocytic activity was observed when virulent PPD 122/91 was treated with the
antiserum against PPD 134/91.
INHIBITION OF BACTERIAL INVASION
Specific antiserum against the virulent strain (PPD 134/91) was added to the bacterial suspension and incubated
with EPC cells. The virulent strain (PPD 134/91) treated with specific antiserum with a titre higher than 1280 lost
their ability to penetrate the EPC cells (Fig. 4). On the other hand, when another serologically di#erent virulent
strain PPD 122/91, was treated with the antiserum against PPD 134/91, no loss of invasive ability of the bacteria was
observed even though the agglutinating titre (against PPD 134/91) used was 10 240.
PROTECTION AGAINST AEROMONAS HYDROPHILA 63
16
n i a r t s 7 3 1 t s n i a g a e r t i t y d o b i t n a g o L
12
8
4
0
10 20 30 Time after injection (days)
Fig. 2 Changes in agglutinating antibody titres in the serum of catfish after intraperi- toneal injection of formalin-killed A.
hydrophila (strain L37) in FCA. For control serum, catfish were injected with PBS and FCA only. Values are mean
S.E.
of triplicates. — —, vaccinated; —
—, control.
Table 1. E#ects of sera from vaccinated (Test) and non-vaccinated (Control) fish on the growth of virulent (PPD 134/91) and
avirulent (L37) strains of A. hydrophila
Sera (Fish)* N=5
Test strains
Agglutination titres
Survival ability*
Control PPD 134/91 8–128 210 8·5 (non-vaccinated) L37 8–64 0·01 0·0002**
Test PPD 134/91 5120–20480 214 7·6 (vaccinated against PPD 134/91) L37 32–64 0·01 0·0004**
Test PPD 134/91 32–128 216 5·7 (vaccinated against L37) L37 5120–10240 0·0002 0·00002**
*Percentage of growth compared with growth in PBS controls. Mean values with
S.E. **Significant di#erence (P<0·05)
between groups of specific antiserum and other sera.
CHALLENGE EXPERIMENTS
The LD50 values of A. hydrophila which were pre-mixed with either antiserum or control serum were determined
in two sets of naive fish and one set of vaccinated fish. The LD50 values of the bacteria in both naive fish sets were
similar (Table 2). However, a somewhat higher LD50 value of the control
64 Z. YIN ET AL.
200 ) U F C 0 0 1
150
: PPD 134/91 at 0 h
c
: PPD 134/91 at 3 h : PPD 122/91 at 0 h
( l l e w r e p n o i
100
a
e
a
0
I
II III IV Group (opsonized by various sera)
Fig. 3 Opsonization of virulent strains (PPD 134/91 and PPD 122/91) of A. hydrophila with specific antiserum against PPD
134/91 and the growth of the engulfed bacteria within the phagocytes. Values are mean
S.E
b
c
t a l u p o p
b
d
l a i r e t c a B
50
. of triplicate. a,b,c: The same letters indicate that there was a significant
di#erence (P>0·05) between the two groups; d,e: no significant di#erence (P<0·05) between the two groups. Group: I.
heat-inactivated control serum; II. Heat-inactivated antiserum; III. control serum; IV. antiserum.
serum-treated bacteria was encountered in the vaccinated fish as compared to those in the other two sets of naive
fish.
IV. Discussion
Nowadays, many commercially available bacterins are used for vaccination against various fish diseases
(Newman, 1993). However, little is known about how the humoral mechanisms are involved in the immune
protection against the bacterial infections. There are many conflicting reports regarding the protective role of fish
specific agglutinating antibody (Dorson, 1981). Some indicated that there is no correlation between protection and
the level of serum specific antibody (McCarthy et al., 1983; Baba et al., 1988). In mammals, specific antibody is
principally dedicated to the recognition, inhibition and elimination of invading organisms. However, for fish, all
these functions remain to be clarified.
The complement system plays a crucial role in humoral defense against microbial pathogens (Taylor, 1988). It has
been well-established that anti- bodies in mammals are able to promote, in vitro, killing of some Gram-negative
bacteria in the presence of complement (Heddle & Rowley, 1975). In fish, similar results have also been reported in
rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss against some Aeromonas salmonicida and Vibrio anguillarum strains (Harrell
et al., 1975; Rainger & Rowley, 1993). However, Ourth & Wilson (1981) stated that bactericidal activity of channel
catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) antiserum
PROTECTION AGAINST AEROMONAS HYDROPHILA 65
100 l l e w r e p
80
: PPD 134/91 : PPD 122/91 s l l e c C P E n i
) U F C
60
n o i t a l u p o p l
0 1 (
40
a i r e t c a B
20
0
I
II III
IV V VI Group
Fig. 4 Inhibition of infectivity of A. hydrophila (strains PPD 134/91 and PPD 122/91) towards EPC cells. The specific antiserum
used was against strain PPD 134/91 only. The virulent bacteria were incubated with either antiserum, absorbed antiserum or
control serum at 25 C for 30 min. Residual infectivity was determined by counting the CFU in EPC cells per well. Values are
mean
S.E
. of triplicates. Group: I. 0, adsorbed serum; II. 1:32, control
serum; III. 1:320, antiserum; IV. 1:640, antiserum; V. >1:1280, antiserum; VI. 1:10 240, antiserum.
Table 2. The susceptibility of fish to Aeromonas hydrophila (PPD 134/91) pre-treated with either control serum or specific
antiserum. The value of LD50 was used as an indicator for susceptibility of fish to infection. N=30
Fish
Sera mixed with PPD 134/91 and used for challenge
LD50 value
Naive (non-vaccinated) Control serum 1·5 106 Naive (non-vaccinated) Antiserum 1·9 106 Vaccinated against PPD 134/91
Control serum 5·0 106
remained nearly constant and did not increase even with an increase in agglutination titre. In the present study, the
bactericidal activity of the specific antisera against virulent and avirulent strains of A. hydrophila were di#erent. For
the serum-sensitive avirulent strain (L37, Leung et al., 1995a), specific antiserum against L37 significantly reduced
its growth as compared to the non-immune serum of the control fish. In contrast, there was no significant di#erence
in bactericidal activity of the antiserum or control serum on the serum-resistant virulent strain (PPD 134/91, Leung
et al., 1995a). It has to be pointed out that killing of various strains of A. hydrophila by normal serum was almost
abolished after the serum was heated at 47 C for 30 minutes (Leung et al., 1995a). Therefore, the findings on strain
L37 suggested that the fish specific antiserum does have the ability to enhance the killing e#ect of the complement
system. However, this bactericidal activity of the antiserum may
66 Z. YIN ET AL.
depend on the target strain, because the virulent strains (PPD 134/91) can avoid the complement-mediated killing.
This character has also been reported by Merino et al. (1991) and Merino et al. (1994) in certain strains of A.
hydrophila and A. salmonicida. Therefore, resistance of some virulent A. hydrophila strains to the bactericidal
activity of serum appears to be an important pathogenic factor to avoiding elimination from the host.
The phagocytic process is the principal mechanism for destruction of extracellular bacterial pathogens in
mammals (Cohn, 1978). It is also generally agreed that specific antibody can activate macrophages to mediate
antibody- dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC) (Adams & Hamilton, 1984). Many studies have shown that
fish phagocytes have potent bactericidal and larvacidal activity. However, there is a considerable number of
conflicting reports regarding the opsonic e#ect of antibody and the presence of ADCC- like activity in teleost fish
(Wrathmell & Parish, 1981; Pettey & McKinney, 1988; Kaige et al., 1990; Whyte et al., 1990; Secombes &
Fletcher, 1992). The use of specific fresh antiserum to opsonize virulent bacteria in vitro demonstrated that an
enhanced phagocytosis of homologous bacteria occurred as compared to control serum and a similar result was also
obtained using heat-inactivated specific antiserum. This indicates that the enhancement in phagocytosis was
attributed to the specific antibodies against the bacteria. However, the intracellular killing activity by the presence of
specific antibodies showed no significant di#erence from those of the non-immune sera. Bacteria like
Mycobacterium. Edwardsiella, Yersinia and Salmonella are also known to be capable of resisting intracellular
killing by macrophages (Armstrong & D’Arey Hart, 1971; Finlay & Falkow, 1989; Waterstrat et al., 1991; Leung &
Finley, 1991; Secombes & Fletcher, 1992).
The ability of bacteria to attach and penetrate epithelial cells seems to have a crucial impact on the establishment
of the indigenous bacterial flora. Therefore, observation of the interaction between pathogens and epithelial cell
cultures is one of the in vitro models explored as a method for studying the pathogenicity of bacteria and for
measuring protection against the experimen- tal infection following vaccination. The in vitro neutralization of
infectivity is potentially an important and versatile assay that can be used to characterize host humoral immunity
(Lawson et al., 1985; Schiemann & Nelson, 1988; Janda et al., 1991). Lawson et al. (1985) demonstrated that some
strains of A. hydrophila were invasive to Hep-2 cells. In this in vitro study, we have also shown that both virulent
strains of A. hydrophila (PPD 134/91, PPD 122/91) can invade EPC cells. However, the fish specific antiserum
against virulent strain PPD 134/91 could e#ectively prevent the invasion of the same A. hydrophila strain into the
EPC cells. On the other hand, the PPD 122/91 (a di#erent serogroup strain, Leung et al., 1995a) when treated with
the above antiserum showed no loss of invasive ability to enter the epithelial cells. This indicates that the specific
antibody might play an important role in preventing the virulent strain PPD 134/91 from entering the EPC cells.
Since the specific antiserum was not heat-inactivated, it is not known to what extent comple- ment is involved in this
inhibitory process. It has been well-established that the surface of fish is covered with a mucus layer, varying in
thickness and forming a barrier to pathogens. Dorson (1981) showed that immunoglobulins
PROTECTION AGAINST AEROMONAS HYDROPHILA 67
were present in this mucous secretion that had a weak agglutinating activity. Therefore, it is logical to suggest that
the specific antibody in the mucus might play an important role in preventing A. hydrophila from attaching and
penetrating the epithelium of the fish gills, skin and fins. Unfortunately, there is no ideal waterborne challenge
model for A. hydrophila that can be used to test this assumption in fish.
In conclusion, the present in vitro study indicates that the role of specific antibody might e#ectively kill the
serum-sensitive strain of A. hydrophila (L37) by activation of the complement lytic system. Specific antibody was
unable to kill a virulent strain but was able to opsonize the bacteria and enhance phagocytosis. However, the virulent
strain (PPD 134/91) was able to survive within macrophages even when they were treated with specific antiserum.
On the other hand, specific antiserum prevented the virulent A. hydrophila, but not a serologically di#erent virulent
strain, from penetrating carp epithelial cells in vitro.
This work was supported by a research grant from the National University of Singapore.
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