A Numerical Approach to Off-design Performance of Dry Cooling Systems in

Power Plants
BU Yongdong, YANG Lijun, DU Xiaoze, YANG Yongping
(School of Energy Power and Mechanical Engineering, North China Electric Power University,
Changping District, Beijing 102206, China)

ABSTRACT: The thermo-flow characteristics of direct and indirect dry cooling systems are both
influenced by the ambient conditions conspicuously. It is of benefit to the optimal off-design
operation of the dry cooling system in a power plant to investigate the variation of the back
pressure with various ambient conditions, heat load and operating status of the generating unit.
On the basis of the representative direct and indirect dry cooling systems, the computational
models and numerical methods for the off-design performances are developed. The air flow rate
and inlet temperature of air-cooled condensers for direct dry cooling system, and those of air-
cooled heat exchangers for indirect dry cooling system at various ambient conditions are obtained
by numerical simulations. The back pressures of both the direct and indirect dry cooling
generating units are calculated and analyzed in terms of the off-design numerical approach. The
results show that the thermo-flow performances of direct dry cooling system vary widely with the
wind speed and direction, and become deteriorated with increasing the wind speed, resulting in
the increased back pressure of the generating unit. For indirect dry cooling system however, the
thermo-flow performances are primarily worsened, then become improved as the wind speed
increases. The back pressure increases at first and then decreases with increasing wind speed
accordingly. The numerical approach to the off-design performance can be used to the optimal
design and operation of direct or indirect dry cooling system in power plants.
KEY WORDS: dry cooling system in power plants; air-cooled condenser; air-cooled heat
exchanger; flow and heat transfer characteristics; back pressure

1 INTRODUCTION
China 's growing demand for electricity and the North Rich coal shortage Contradictions, and
promote the development of power plant air cooling technology [1]. Air cooling technology points
Direct air cooling and indirect air cooling 2 [2]. For direct air cooling systems, Ambient air is driven
by a fan and flows through the forced convection The condenser of the condenser is realized and
the heat of the steam turbine in the tube is realized change. Indirect air cooling system according
to the different working principle of the condenser, divided into Surface condensing indirect air
cooling system (Harmon type) and jet condensing type Air conditioning system (Heller type).
Condenser recirculating cooling water in air cooling Radiator tube flow, the tube outside the air in
the cooling tower air floating Driven by air - cooled radiator heat transfer surface to achieve and
circulating water Heat exchange. Whether direct or indirect air cooling, as a cooling medium of
the ambient air will have a significant effect on the thermal performance of the air-cooled system
Impact, which caused the unit back pressure fluctuations, affecting the safety of the unit and
economic operation. It can be seen that the performance of the air-cooled unit depends not only
on the unit Load and operating conditions, but also by such as temperature, ambient wind speed,
Wind direction, wind frequency and other environmental meteorological conditions. Study
different environments Condition, different unit load and operating parameters, air-cooled unit
back pressure of the law of change, to guide the unit to change the operating conditions, with
Significance.
At home and abroad have a lot of research work, investigated the environmental weather Parts,
especially the ambient wind speed, wind direction to the air cooling system flow heat transfer Can
influence. South Africa Kroger Task Force [3-6] Introduced fan-driven mode Type, through the
CFD method, the direct air cooling system cooling air Gas flow heat transfer characteristics,
indicating that air cooling system performance depends mainly on the decline In the fan
performance deterioration, especially in the wind field upstream air cooling unit Reduced traffic.
Yang et al. [7-9] for typical direct air cooling systems, by simplifying the finned tube bundle and
the fan model, the environmental wind field is realized The numerical simulation of the thermal
performance of the air - cooled system is carried out Air flow, inlet air temperature and heat
dissipation with ambient wind speed, wind direction The law of change. Su et al [10] on the role
of the environment under the indirect air The numerical simulation of the flow field and
temperature field inside and outside the cooling tower of the cold system, the reason of the
decrease of the thermal performance of the system is analyzed. Du Preez and Kroger [11]
examined the ambient air under the air-cooled radiator layout side On the performance of the
system, put forward the air-cooled radiator and wind wall of the proposed arrangement. Zhai and
Fu [12] for the tower inside and outside the set block The wind wall was numerically simulated,
pointing out that the windshield was arranged in the wind with the environment The thermal
performance of the system can be improved on both sides of the vertical tower. Goodarzi [13] An
air-cooled tower outlet structure is proposed to reduce the influence of the wind field Cold tower
outlet plume deformation conditions, so that 10m / s wind speed under the system Cooling
efficiency increased by about 9%.
Respectively, for direct and indirect air-cooled system, many scholars study Its performance
conditions. Yan Junjie et al [14], Yang Lijun, etc. [15-16] and high Yu Zhong [17] deduced the
mathematical model of the calculation of the working condition of direct air cooling system Type,
get the unit back pressure and air cooling system heat load and import air Gas temperature, the
analysis of the direct air cooling system operating economy Sexual factors. Zhang Chunyu et al
[18] and Hao Manjin et al [19] proposed the sea Mathematics of Condenser Pressure Variation in
Indirect Air - cooling System Model, Zhang Chunyu et al [20] established a Harmon type indirect
air cooling system condensate The mathematical model of the pressure change condition is
analyzed and analyzed by an example Influence of Various Factors on Condenser Pressure. In
summary, it can be seen that although air-cooled units change performance conditions and
environmental weather conditions, especially with the environmental wind speed is closely
related, but has been Some research work, but the relationship between the two separated. want
Do you only study the unit back pressure with the unit heat load and air cooling system imports
The relationship between the air temperature, or only to examine the different environmental
weather Under the air cooling system of the flow of heat transfer performance, but not to reflect
the unit Indicators of Operational Performance - Unit Back Pressure and Ambient Weather Piece
together to consider, so the existing air-cooled unit variable performance calculation model, not
the full sense of the different conditions of the unit A description of the performance rules. To this
end, this article through CFD means, combined with the air - cooling system variable working
condition calculation model, the air - cooling system heat is proposed Performance of the
numerical study methods, and with typical direct and indirect air - cooled systems as an example,
the air conditioning system to change the theoretical calculation and performance points to guide
the design and operation of the air cooling system.
2 VARIABLE MODEL CALCULATION MODEL
2.2 Direct air cooling system

Condensation temperature ts and condenser heat load in air - cooled condenser and the
relationship between the cooling air parameters [14-16]

Where ms is the saturated steam flow in the exhaust gas and r is the steam saturation temperature
The latent heat of the latent heat; AF is the air-cooled condenser windward area; uF For the air-
cooled condenser windward wind speed; ρ and cpa for the air density and ratio Heat; tal for the air-
cooled condenser inlet air temperature; K and A for the air-cooled Condenser heat transfer
coefficient and total heat transfer area, total heat transfer area A usually With the tube outside the
area Ao said, that is, outside the tube and the fin part of the area with. KA can be expressed:

Where: hi and ho for the tube exhaust condensation heat transfer coefficient and outside the air
Convective heat transfer coefficient; εi and εo are the thermal resistance of the pipe and the fouling
of the tube Thermal resistance; λ is the thermal conductivity of the wall material; δ is the wall
thickness; For the tube wall area, here ignore the wall inside and outside the wall area difference
ho is the total efficiency of fins. In order to improve the calculation accuracy, the IAPWS-IF97
model is used to calculate the condensate Junction pressure and temperature of the
corresponding relationship:

Where g is the free enthalpy, R is the gas constant, p is the equivalent pressure, Τ is the equivalent
temperature, and its specific calculation method refers to IAPWS-IF97 model. Substituting
equations (1) and (2) into (3) and taking into account steam turbine exhaust to the condensate
tank pressure drop Δp, you can get the unit back pressure calculation formula. For the form of
finned tube bundle, when the dirt and product are ignored Gray thermal resistance, the unit back
pressure of the factors can be expressed as:

As the exhaust flow pressure drop depends on the exhaust flow, so the unit back pressure The
final by the exhaust flow, air flow, air-cooled condenser inlet air Temperature domination. For the
friction coefficient f of the steam turbulent flow in the tube, press the following equation
Calculation:

The exhaust pressure drop is:

Where: Re is the steam flow Reynolds number; L is the steam pipe length; Dh for the steam pipe
diameter; ρs for the steam density; um for the steam average Flow rate. Direct air cooling system
air flow by the fan running mode and ring Environmental conditions affect the import of air
temperature by the ambient temperature, Air cooling system heat return control. Therefore, when
given the exhaust flow, Operation mode of operation and environmental weather conditions, the
unit back pressure that is Can be determined, this is the direct air-cooled unit variable
performance calculation model. Due to the calculation of air-cooled condenser head wind speed
and inlet air Temperature, need to know in advance the exhaust pressure and temperature, so
direct Air conditioning unit to change the performance requirements to determine the use of CFD
means, and It is calculated by iterative calculation of variable model. Specific calculation
processes such as Figure 1 shows:
Given the steam turbine exhaust flow, assuming the exhaust pressure ps, check the exhaust pressure
Corresponds to the saturation temperature, as the radiator model wall temperature setting

Will reflect the tube bundle flow heat transfer characteristics of the correlation as radiator model of
the input into the parameters, fan performance curve and leaf type parameters as the fan input
parameters, the calculation model of direct air cooling system is established

Through numerical simulation, under different environmental weather conditions, air cooling
Condenser inlet air temperature ta1, cooling air flow ma

The exhaust pressure p's is calculated by the formula

(ps−ps′)/ps<0.5%？

Output to calculate back pressure,

exhaust flow and ambient temperature

Fig. 1 Flow chart for the off-design performance

prediction of direct dry cooling system

2.2 Indirect air cooling system

For the coagulation indirect air cooling system, the condensation temperature ts and coagulation
The relationship between heat load and cooling air parameters [18] is:
Where: mw is the circulating water flow; hw1 is saturated under the condenser pressure Water
enthalpy, that is, air-cooled radiator inlet enthalpy; hw2 into the condenser Circulating water
enthalpy, that is, air-cooled radiator outlet water enthalpy; ma for the air-cooled scattered Heat air
flow; ε for the air-cooled radiator performance, for a Side air mixing, the other side of the water is
not mixed cross-flow heat exchanger, Satisfy:

For the condensate indirect air cooling system, the condensation temperature ts and condensate
The relationship between heat load and cooling air parameters [20] is:

Where: (KA) n for the surface condenser heat transfer coefficient and heat transfer area Of the
product. Regardless of coagulation, or surface condensation indirect air cooling system, unit Back
pressure with the circulating water flow, air cooling radiator heat load, cooling empty Air flow, inlet
air temperature. Indirect cooling system for surface condensation The back pressure of the unit
is also affected by the heat transfer capacity of the condenser (KA). Therefore, when given the
circulating water flow as well as the environmental meteorological conditions, the unit Back
pressure can be determined, which is the performance of the intercooler variable performance
calculation model. Due to the calculation of air-cooled radiator air flow and inlet air temperature
Degrees, need to know in advance the exhaust pressure, so indirect air cooling unit change The
determination of conditional performance also requires the use of CFD means, through iteration
Calculated. The specific calculation process shown in Figure 2. Figure 2 shows Is the calculation
process of the surface cooling indirect air cooling system, coagulation indirect Air cooling system
in the first step of the process, the exhaust pressure corresponds to the saturation temperature
Degree is the air cooler inlet water temperature, this time the condenser end difference is 0.
2.3 CFD model of air cooling system

Regardless of the direct or indirect air-cooled system variable model, both to get air flow and inlet
air temperature, use CFD Method implementation. This paper will air-cooled condenser and air-
cooled radiator tube at the Department as the lumped parameter radiator model, the pressure
drop across the tube bundle The heat transfer coefficient is expressed as a function of the flow
rate to characterize the flow of the heat exchanger Heat transfer performance, in order to achieve
different environmental weather conditions under the air cooling system Multi - scale Simulation
of Thermal Performance. The pressure drop Δp flowing through the finned tube bundle Expressed
as:
 Given the steam turbine exhaust flow (saturated steam flow), assuming the exhaust pressure ps,
calculated Condenser heat load. Given the circulating water flow, assume that the condenser outlet
water temperature (air cooling scattered Heat inlet water temperature tw1), calculate the air-cooled
radiator outlet water temperature tw2. Cooling with air cooling The average water temperature is set
as the radiator model wall temperature setting.

The physical modeling of the air-cooled radiator and the air-cooled tower will reflect the heat transfer
of the tube bundle The relational expression of the attribute is used as the input parameter of the
radiator model to establish indirect air cooling System calculation model.

Through numerical simulation, access to an ambient condition, air-cooled radiator inlet air
Temperature ta1, cooling air flow ma, and air-cooled radiator heat load.

Through the air-cooled radiator heat load, calculate the air-cooled radiator outlet water temperature
tw2.

(tw2−tw′2)/tw2<0.5%？

According to the indirect air cooling system exhaust temperature calculation formula to get the
exhaust pressure p's.

(ps−ps′)/ps<0.5%？

Output to calculate back pressure,

exhaust flow and ambient temperature

Fig. 2 Flow chart for the off-design performance

prediction of indirect dry cooling system
The dimensionless friction factor kL is usually the form of the power function of the flow rate, In
order to ensure the accuracy of numerical simulation, and the calculation process of high
efficiency and stability This method expresses it as a polynomial form of flow rate:

The flow of the tube bundle through physical experiments or numerical simulations Attribute to
the data fitting, you can get the above formula rn. air The convective heat flux q is the airflow:

Where: tw for the outer wall of the wall temperature, ignore the tube convection heat transfer
Resistance and wall heat resistance, tw can be considered tube steam or circulation Water
temperature; ta for the outside air temperature; h for the air convection heat transfer The
coefficient, usually the form of the power function of the flow rate, is expressed as follows
Polynomial form:

The data of the heat transfer characteristics of the tube bundle or the simulation results are
proposed, we can get the dimensionless coefficient hn in the above equation. The air steady-state
convective heat transfer equation can be expressed as:

Where: uj for the xj direction of the speed component; φ, Γφ, Sφ on behalf of the control System
variables, diffusion coefficients and source terms, which are intended to be used in the control
equation Are listed in Table 1. In this paper, the standard k-ε model is used to treat the direct
cooling system The system of air turbulent flow, while using the k-ε model can be described
between the description Air turbulence in cold systems. Compared with the standard k-ε model,
it can be realized The k-ε model introduces a new turbulent viscosity expression, and the
turbulence dissipation rate Which is derived from the vortex momentum root mean square
transport equation, and thus more suitable in the presence of boundary layer separation and fluid
return turbulence flow problems, the simulation of the cold tower is more effective. At the entrance
of the calculation domain, the wind speed profile is used to describe the ambient wind Field [7-9],
in the calculation of domain exports, set out the flow boundary conditions, the calculation domain
Other surfaces, using symmetrical boundary conditions. Ground set adiabatic conditions, Main
plant surface setting and other heat flow conditions. For direct cooling system, fan set for pressure
jump conditions, and consider the effect of circumferential flow rate. Steam points Piping set to
isothermal boundary conditions, platform support set to adiabatic conditions, the wind - wall is a
fluid - solid coupling condition. For the intercooler system, the air cooled tower The wall is fluid -
solid coupling. Using the finite volume method based on the commercial software Fluent, the other
side (14) and boundary conditions. Momentum equation, energy equation, Both the turbulent
kinetic energy equation and the turbulence energy dissipation equation are separated by two
Order windward differential format, pressure and speed coupling using SIMPLE algorithm. In the
calculation process, the energy discrete equation residuals are controlled at 10-6 In the following,
other equation residuals are controlled below 10-4. Through the field test, the direct air cooling
system imported air was tested The temperature to verify the CFD calculation model and the
numerical method is reliable [7-9]. The results show that the modeling and calculation methods
used in this paper reliable. Due to the intercooling and straight-cooling models used in modeling
and numerical methods So the CFD technology can be used for power station air cooling system
in the numerical study of performance.
2.4 Object of study

In this paper, the typical 2 × 600 MW direct air cooling and 2 × 660 MW Indirect air-cooled unit
to change the performance of the study, the physical model such as Figure 3 and Figure 4
shows.
Direct air-cooled unit and indirect air-cooled unit steam turbine maximum even The final power
rating (TMCR) The design parameters under the operating conditions are shown in Table 2 and
Table 3.

3 PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF VARIABLE CONDITION

3.1 Direct air cooling system

Through the numerical simulation, the cooling air flow of the air cooled condenser was obtained
Volume and fan inlet air temperature changes in the law, as shown in Figure 5 and Figure 6 As
shown. It can be seen that with the increase in ambient wind speed, air flow is reduced, While the
inlet air temperature increases, indicating the direct air cooling system thermal performance with
the increase in environmental wind speed. At the same time, different wind direction to air flow
Volume and inlet air temperature also have a significant impact. After the furnace wind, empty
The lowest air flow, the highest temperature of imported air, indicating the wind after the wind
Direct air cooling system, is the most unfavorable wind direction. At low wind speed conditions
Under the positive wind when the upper air cooling unit affected by the scope of environmental
wind Large, while the side to the wind when the upper reaches of the environment by the impact
of small ambient wind, so when the wind comes to the wind when the wind is smaller than the
side to the wind. But at high Wind speed, although the positive wind when the upper air cooling
unit affected by the wind field The scope is still large, but this time when the wind came close to
the host room space The cooling unit flow is significantly reduced [8], so that the positive wind
when the cooling empty Air flow is higher than the side to wind conditions. In addition, the side to
the wind, Air cooling system there is a serious hot air back, resulting in its import air temperature
The degree is usually higher than the positive wind conditions. But as the ambient wind speed
increases, the hot air return gradually decreases [8], so the inlet air temperature is high Wind
speed has been reduced. While the front to the wind, the hot air is always very back Weak, not
the main factor determining the thermal performance of air-cooled systems. But with The wind
speed increases, the upstream air cooling unit flow is rapidly reduced, so that imports The air
temperature gradually rises, so that at high wind speeds, appear and side The condition of the
inlet air temperature curve is crossed.

Figure 7 shows the variation of the back pressure of the unit. can be seen, Unit back pressure
increases as the ambient wind speed increases, while at the same time Environmental impact of
the wind. At the same exhaust flow and wind speed, After the furnace wind conditions under the
unit back pressure is highest, positive to the wind under the conditions Of the unit back pressure
is relatively low, indicating that the positive wind conditions are usually the most Favorable
conditions, so the direct air cooling system air-cooled condenser layout usually Designed for
leading wind direction. In addition, the unit back pressure also with the exhaust steam saturated
steam flow significantly changed, with the exhaust flow increases, the unit Back pressure rise.
Exhaust steam flow to a certain extent, that is, air cooling unit output Of the embodiment, so in
the summer high temperature conditions, direct air cooling unit for To ensure safe and economic
operation, usually to reduce the output.
3.2 Indirect air cooling system

Figure 8 and Figure 9 show the indirect air cooling system air flow and feed The change of the
temperature of the mouth with the wind speed and wind direction. Can see, traffic and the inlet
temperature varies with ambient wind speed with direct air cooling System different trends. Air
flow increases with the ambient wind speed, first increase after the increase, there is a minimum
flow value. The minimum flow rate The corresponding wind speed is related to the ambient wind
direction. This is due when After the wind speed increases to a certain extent, the kinetic energy
of the environmental wind field is transformed into The cooling air pressure energy, so that air-
cooled radiator inlet and outlet pressure increase Plus, resulting in increased cooling air flow. And
the law of air flow On the contrary, the inlet air temperature increases with the wind speed, the
first increase after the lower. This is due to the lower air flow, the outer space of the airtight radiator
The more air, so the higher the import air temperature, on the contrary, the import air The lower
the temperature. As can be seen from Figure 9, the furnace later wind conditions The lowest inlet
air temperature is the opposite of the direct air cooling system. This Is due to the cold air cooling
radiator air inlet is low, and far away from the main room, after the boiler room heating hot air will
not enter into the air-cooled radiator imports, but also to the environmental wind field play a certain
of the blocking effect, so indirect air cooling system inlet air temperature is presented And the
direct air cooling system with different trends.
Indirect air cooling unit back pressure with saturated steam flow and ambient wind The law of the
change of velocity and wind direction is shown in Fig. can be seen, the effect of wind direction on
the back pressure of the unit is not as obvious as the direct air cooling system The wind down the
unit back pressure is not very different. Unit back pressure with the wind speed Changes show
different changes in the law, with the increase in wind speed, unit back pressure Increase first
and then decrease. For the furnace after the wind and the front to wind conditions, machine The
maximum ambient wind pressure of the group is 12 m / s, while the side winds Under normal
conditions, when the ambient wind speed reaches 16m / s, the unit back pressure is reached The
maximum value. The numerical calculation of the performance of the indirect air-cooling system
shows that the thermal performance of the indirect air-cooling system varies with the ambient
wind speed and wind direction in direct air cooling system.
Fig10
4 CONCLUSION
CFD simulation method and unit for thermal performance of air cooling system Variable model
calculation model, the establishment of the power station air cooling system changes Numerical
study of condition performance. Respectively, for direct and indirect air Cold system, and gives
the flow of air conditioning system to simulate the performance of variable performance and
provides a reference for the analysis of performance conditions. Taking typical direct and indirect
air - cooled power stations as an example, the use of air - cooled systems The method of
numerical analysis of the performance of the variable condition is obtained by direct and indirect
air The change of the back pressure of the cold unit with the exhaust steam flow rate, the ambient
wind speed and the wind direction law. For direct air-cooled units, the unit back pressure
increases with the ambient wind speed and increased, and with the wind to a significant change.
And indirect air cooler Group showed different changes in the law, the back pressure increases
with the ambient wind speed, the first increase after the lower, affected by the environmental
impact of the wind is relatively small. typical Direct and indirect air cooling system of the variable
performance of the study, to guide the electricity Station air cooling system design and operation
provides a reference.
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