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D. Post, B. Han
Moiré Interfe 22. Moiré Interferometry
Part C 22
22.2.1 Physical Description...................... 8 Microscopic Moiré Interferometry ... 25
22.2.2 Theoretical Limit .......................... 9
22.2.3 Black Holes.................................. 9 References .................................................. 26
This section introduces basic concepts of moiré inter- Moiré interferometry has been applied for studies of
ferometry and their evolution, leading to the current composite materials, polycrystalline materials, layered
practice. Moiré interferometry has become an important materials, piezoelectric materials, fracture mechanics,
tool in industrial, research and academic organiza- biomechanics, structural elements, and structural joints.
tions. The tool is used to measure tiny deformations It is practiced extensively in the microelectronics in-
of solid bodies, caused by mechanical forces, temper- dustry to measure thermally induced deformation of
ature changes, or other environmental changes. It is the electronic packages.
in-plane deformations that are measured, namely the For in-plane displacement measurements, the tech-
U and V components of displacement that are parallel nology has evolved beautifully from low-sensitivity
to the surface of the body. These are the displace- geometric moiré to the powerful capabilities of moiré
ments from which the induced strains and stresses are interferometry. Moiré measurements are performed
determined. routinely in the interferometric domain with fringes
2 Part C Noncontact Methods
Ny = 117 49
Specimen
grating
17
5
10
76
51 mm
–118 –50
Fig. 22.1 Demonstration of moiré interferometry at 97.6% of the theoretical limit of sensitivity. f = 4000 lines/mm. The
patterns are from the shaded regions. Excellent fringe resolution was evident in the full 76 × 51 mm specimen grating area
representing subwavelength displacements per contour. opments in Japan, which predated accomplishments in
Since moiré responds only to geometric changes, it is the Western world by several years, but was not widely
equally effective for elastic, viscoelastic, and plastic de- known in the West. He outlined work by Sciamarella
formations, for isotropic, orthotropic and anisotropic and by Post and their students in the U.S., and by sev-
materials, and for mechanical, thermal, and dynamic eral investigators in Europe – especially the outstanding
loadings. work at Strathclyde University by McKelvie, Walker
The history of moiré interferometry is described in and their colleagues. Moiré interferometry has matured
[22.1]; in that paper, “A Historical Review of Moiré through worldwide efforts.
Part C 22
f
x
Specimen
grating
y fs
–α
Specimen
Camera
α grating
α ω1
Mirror Camera
Fig. 22.3 The deformed specimen grating interacts with
the virtual reference grating to form the moiré pattern. The
Fig. 22.2 Optical system for Fig. 22.1: Lloyd’s mirror arrangement phenomenon is analogous to geometric moiré
Moiré Interferometry 3
Part C 22
Whereas only low frequency gratings could be applied (An important equivalency principle is acting here:
to specimens, high frequency reference gratings could interference of two beams creates a virtual grating of
be used, together with an optical filtering arrangement, frequency f ; a real grating of frequency f creates the
to produce moiré fringe multiplication. The fringe mul- same two beams [22.4]. In fact, this equivalency is also
tiplication factor, β, was the ratio of grating frequencies, the basis of holography.)
and the sensitivity corresponded to the pitch of the high It became clear that phase gratings (ridges and fur-
frequency reference grating; the sensitivity became β rows) could be used as well as the amplitude gratings
times that of standard geometric moiré, where spec- (bars and spaces) of geometric moiré. Several inno-
imen and reference gratings of equal frequencies are vations evolved to link the techniques of the 1970s
used. Multiplication by β = 60 was documented [22.3], to the present. A significant factor was the practi-
but at a substantial sacrifice of the efficiency of light cal availability of the laser, which provided very high
utilization. monochromatic purity and allowed high contrast two-
Then it was realized that light diffracted by a real beam optical interference even when the beams traveled
reference grating (BB) creates a virtual reference grat- substantially unequal path lengths. The laser led to
ing, as illustrated in Fig. 22.4a. It is the virtual grating a practical technique to produce high frequency phase-
that interacts with the specimen grating to create the type specimen gratings.
moiré pattern. Consequently, it was realized that the in- For this process, a setup with a beam-splitter and
terference pattern produced by the intersection of any mirrors formed the two mutually coherent beams of
two mutually coherent beams (Fig. 22.4b) can act as Fig. 22.4b. A plate with a photosensitive coating – pho-
4 Part C Noncontact Methods
tographic emulsion or photoresist – was inserted to interferometers were developed. Microscopic moiré in-
record the virtual grating. When developed, the plate terferometry was introduced.
exhibited the ridges and furrows of a phase grating, In the 1990s, CCD cameras became popular for
in exact registration with the bands of constructive recording the fringe patterns. This led to phase stepping
and destructive interference of the virtual grating. Sub- and automated full-field strain maps. Phase stepping
sequently, the phase grating was replicated on the proved to be an important asset for cases where fringes
specimen by known techniques, using silicone rubber, were sparse, because phase stepping increases the quan-
epoxy, or various plastics to reproduce the array of tity of data for analysis. (For typical applications, where
ridges and furrows on the specimen. the fringe data is abundant, phase stepping is superflu-
Specimen gratings of very high frequency could ous and sometimes counterproductive.)
be made, so the need for high fringe multiplication A very important milestone occurred in the 1990s.
factors vanished. The moiré interferometry technique IBM Corporation discovered the value of moiré in-
described here is actually moiré fringe multiplication terferometry for experimental analysis of thermal de-
with a multiplication factor of two. It utilizes the formation of microelectronic devices. It was used to
first-order diffractions from the specimen grating in- measure – sometimes to discover – the deformation be-
stead of high diffraction orders. The choice circumvents havior of their small complex structures, and to guide
the inefficient light utilization and increased optical and verify their numerical analyses. Since then, moiré
noise associated with higher orders, while maintain- interferometry has propagated extensively in the elec-
ing the advantage of viewing the specimen at normal tronic packaging industry, to become a standard tool for
incidence. experimental analysis.
Numerous refinements were introduced in the Item 1 in the Bibliography provides comprehensive
1980s. Cross-line specimen gratings, together with 4- coverage of the theory and practice, and diverse ap-
beam moiré interferometers became standard practice; plications of moiré interferometry in one volume. The
this eliminated the classical uncertainty of shear mea- present chapter is intended to review the basic concepts
surements and enabled accurate determination of both and qualities in lesser detail, but sufficient for under-
shear and normal strains. The use of carrier fringes be- standing the practice and for recognizing the power and
came common. Practical techniques for measurement place of moiré interferometry as a tool of experimental
of thermal strains were developed. Achromatic moiré solid mechanics.
a)
b) c)
Specimen Optical
tissue
Epoxy
Uncured Metallic
adhesive film
Mold
Uncured
adhesive
Cotton
swab
Specimen
Part C 22.1
Specimen Alignment
and grating bar
Cured
adhesive
Metallic
film
Mold
Fig. 22.5 (a) 1200 lines/mm cross-line specimen grating. (b) Replication procedure for typical specimen gratings. (c) Pro-
cedure for small specimens of complex geometry
The weakest interface is between the metallic film and The technique of Fig. 22.5c is used for small spec-
the underlying mold, so the reflective metallic film is imens of complex geometry, like those encountered in
transferred to the specimen together with the hills and electronic packaging tests. In this case, the specimen is
valleys of the grating. The total grating thickness is prepared with a smooth, flat surface. A very thin layer
usually about 25 μm. of low viscosity adhesive is spread on the mold by the
6 Part C Noncontact Methods
where f and f s is the frequency of the virtual refer- of a weld. Cracks appear in the weld, but along the
ence grating and the specimen grating, respectively. left edge of the specimen, the material is continuous.
• For the displacements at each point in the field Since the strain is tensile, or positive, the fringe or-
1 1 ders along the left edge increase monotonically in the
U = Nx ; V = N y , (22.3) +y-direction, as shown. Then the fringe orders can be
f f
assigned at every point in the field by following con-
where U and V are displacements in the x- and y- tinuous fringes across the field. Fringe orders along the
directions, respectively. right edges were assigned accordingly.
• For the strains at each point Where a crack is present, the V displacements are
∂U 1 ∂N x different along the upper and lower lips of the crack.
εx = = ,
∂x f ∂x This accounts for the crack opening that results from
the tensile load. For example, at the right edge the
∂V 1 ∂N y
εy = = , (22.4) fringe order changes from N y = 3 to N y = 10, indicat-
∂y f ∂y
ing a crack-opening displacement of 7 fringe orders, or
∂U ∂V 1 ∂N x ∂N y 2.9 μm (115 μin).
γxy = + = + , (22.5)
∂y ∂x f ∂y ∂x Clues derived from known loading conditions and
where ε and γ are normal and shear strains, respec- known specimen geometry are often sufficient to estab-
tively. Thus, the strains are determined by the rate of lish the sign of the fringe gradient at every point, i. e.,
change of fringe orders in the patterns, or the fringe to establish whether the fringe order is increasing or de-
gradient surrounding each point. creasing as the count progresses from one fringe to the
• For fringe gradients neighboring fringe. Occasionally the clues might not be
∂N x ΔN x sufficient, but there is always a simple experimental way
≈ ; etc. (22.6) to determine the sign of the fringe gradient.
∂x Δx
If during the experiment, the specimen is moved
The derivatives are usually approximated by their fi- gently in the +x-direction, the fringe order N x at every
nite increments, i. e., the change of fringe order that point increases. This means that the fringes all move to-
occurs in a finite distance Δx.
• For the stresses
Stresses are determined from the strains, using the
stress-strain relationships (or the constitutive equa- Ny
tions) for the specimen material.
20
Part C 22.1
22.1.4 Fringe Counting
20
The rules of topography of continuous surfaces govern 15
the order of fringes [22.5]. Fringes of unequal orders 15
cannot intersect. The fringe order at any point is unique, 11
independent of the path of the fringe count used to reach 10
2
the point. 0
The location of a zero-order fringe in a moiré pattern 5
can be selected arbitrarily. Any fringe – black, white or
gray – can be assigned as the zero order fringe. This is 0
because rigid-body translations are not important in de- y
formation analysis. Absolute displacement information
is not required and relative displacements can be deter-
mined using an arbitrary datum. In Fig. 22.8, the zero
fringe is assigned in the lower left region of the spec-
z 2 mm
imen. Of course, at every point along this continuous
fringe, N y = 0. Fig. 22.8 Fringe counting. The fringe pattern shows weld
Figure 22.8 shows the deformation of a tensile defects in a stainless steel tension specimen. f =
coupon cut from a stainless steel plate in the region 2400 lines/mm. (Courtesy of S. A. Chavez)
8 Part C Noncontact Methods
ward the direction of lower-order fringes. Thus, if the extracted at any point by plotting a curve of fringe or-
N x fringes move in the negative x-direction, the gradi- ders along a line through the point and measuring the
ent ∂N x /∂x is positive. The argument is the same for slope of the curve at the point. Often, however, the fi-
the y-direction. A convenient alternative is available if nite increment approximation is sufficient, whereby (as
the moiré interferometer is equipped for phase step- an example) ∂N x /∂x is taken to be equal to ΔN x /Δx.
ping (fringe shifting). The investigator can watch the In that case, strain is determined by measuring Δx, the
pattern while the fringes are shifted. Again, the fringes distance between neighboring fringes, in the immediate
move toward lower fringe orders when the phase is in- neighborhood of the point of interest.
creased. Thus, the sign of the fringe gradients is readily Shear strains are determined as readily as normal
determined at any point. strains. Numerous examples of fringe counting and
strain analysis are given in [22.4]. In nearly all cases of
22.1.5 Strain Analysis strain analysis, the strains are sought at specific points
(e.g., where the fringes are most closely spaced, indi-
Strains are determined from the two displacement cating strain maxima), or along specific lines. Manual
fields by the relationships for engineering strain, (22.4) methods, and computer-assisted methods are most prac-
and (22.5). In principle, the exact differential can be tical for such cases.
interfere to generate contours of their separation S, and In doing so, it is possible that other regions will become
this interference pattern is recorded by the camera. With black. An alternative is to replace the camera lens with
the camera focused on the plane of the specimen, the a lens of larger numerical aperture, and this might ne-
image is the moiré pattern – the map that depicts the in- cessitate viewing the specimen at higher magnification.
plane deformation of the specimen. Summing up, moiré
interferometry is a case of two-beam interferometry. 22.2.4 Insensitive
It is important to focus the camera on the plane to Out-of-Plane Deformation
of the specimen. Since wave front warpage changes as
the wave travels away from the specimen, it is espe- This is largely a pedagogical issue, inasmuch as the
cially important for cases of strong strain gradients and literature may not be sufficiently clear. Various pub-
the concomitant strong warpage of the emerging wave lications show sensitivity to out-of-plane rotations.
fronts. The issue is addressed in [22.4]. However, the rigorous mathematical analysis of [22.4]
proves that moiré interferometry is insensitive to all
22.2.2 Theoretical Limit out-of-plane motions, including rotations. Where do the
publications deviate?
From (22.2), we see that the theoretical upper limit
Figure 22.10 should help clarify the issue. It repre-
for the reference grating frequency is approached as
sents the planes, or walls of interference of the virtual
α (Fig. 22.6) approaches 90◦ . The theoretical limit is
reference grating, and it also represents the plane of
f = 2/λ. The corresponding theoretical upper limit of
the undeformed specimen grating as plane abcd. Let
sensitivity is 2/λ fringes per unit displacement, which
P be a point fixed on the specimen grating, and let P
corresponds to a contour interval of λ/2 displacement
move to another point in space, P , when the speci-
per fringe order.
men is deformed. The deformed surface surrounding P
In the experiment of Fig. 22.1, α was 77.4◦ and
might have any slope, as indicated by the dashed box.
λ was 488.0 nm. This produced a virtual reference
As the point moves in the x-direction, it cuts through
grating of 4000 lines/mm (101 600 lines/in). For this
walls of interference and therefore causes a change of
wavelength, the theoretical limit is f = 4098 lines/mm,
fringe order in the moiré pattern. Expressed in other
which means that the experiment was conducted at
words, the point crosses lines of the (virtual) reference
97.6% of the theoretical limit of sensitivity.
grating. For displacement components V and W, the
The theoretical limit pertains to virtual reference
point does not cross any wall, and therefore these com-
gratings formed in air. In the experimental arrangement
described later for microscopic moiré interferometry,
the grating is formed in a refractive medium.
Part C 22.2
22.2.3 Black Holes
Beam 2
Referring to Fig. 22.9, we can visualize that the angles
of diffraction from any region of the specimen stems
from two effects: (1) the load-induced strain and (2) the
load-induced surface slope. If the angles of diffraction
become large enough, light from that region can miss
a
the lens and never enter the camera. The region appears
black in the image – it is called a black hole. Beam 1
P' c
In such cases, the main cause is usually the surface W
slope. It is rare that a homogeneous body would exhibit
V
large slopes. A composite body, fabricated by joining
two dissimilar materials, can exhibit large slopes near b U
P
the interface as a result of a Poisson’s ratio mismatch.
Experience indicates that the slopes are seldom severe
d
enough to cause black regions until very high strain
levels are reached. Fig. 22.10 Walls of interference of the virtual reference
The camera lens can be translated laterally to cap- grating. Only the U component of displacement crosses the
ture the light of the moiré pattern that is otherwise lost. walls of the reference grating
10 Part C Noncontact Methods
ponents have no effect on the fringe order. The moiré interferometry senses only the component of displace-
pattern remains insensitive to V and W regardless of ment perpendicular to the walls of the virtual reference
the surface slope. This corroborates the proof that moiré grating.
a) b)
15
10
10 –5
7 0
20
6 –4
5
6
–3
4
21
5
25
3.5 4 –2
6 4 5 3 3
2 0
7 8
0 –1 23
7
–4
5
Nx or U filed Ny or V filed
c) d)
y, V
Graphite/epoxy
90° fiber direction
f = 2400 lines/mm
Part C 22.2
x, U
Clamping device
Fig. 22.11 Dis-
placement fields
Load for a compact
transfer shear specimen.
fixture Specimen
19 mm Carrier fringes
of rotation trans-
Load
transfer form the V field.
fixture Local irregulari-
ties in the fringes
Clamping device are caused by lo-
cal variations in
the composite
Ny or V filed
material. (Cour-
with rotation
tesy of P. G. Ifju)
Moiré Interferometry 22.2 Important Concepts 11
Engineering strain is the ratio of the local change provided the rotation Ψ is not large. The superscript
of length to the original length, when both are pro- signifies an extraneous strain, or error. The extraneous
jected onto the original specimen surface abcd. Thus, fringe gradient is a second-order effect and it can be ne-
engineering strains are correctly determined by (22.4) glected in the usual case where it is small compared to
and (22.5), regardless of surface slopes. Note that out- the strain-induced fringe gradient. Otherwise, a correc-
of-plane displacements are referenced to the original tion can be applied [22.4].
surface, too.
For exceptional studies in which the surface slope 22.2.6 Carrier Fringes
is large enough, the investigator might be interested
in these lengths measured on the specimen surface in- An array of uniformly spaced fringes can be produced
stead of plane abcd. This is where the publications by adjustment of the moiré interferometer and these are
deviate. In such cases, a mathematical transformation called carrier fringes. With the specimen in the no-load
is required which involves additional variables, specifi- condition, a carrier of extension is produced by chang-
cally the components of the surface slopes. These slopes ing angle α (Fig. 22.6). These fringes are parallel to
must be measured (or otherwise determined) to aug- the lines of the reference grating, just like the fringes
ment the moiré data at each point where the strain is of a pure tensile (or compression) specimen. Carrier
to be calculated. Thus, if the investigator feels the out- fringes of rotation are produced by a rigid-body rota-
of-plane slopes are significant enough to degrade the tion of the specimen or the interferometer, and these are
accuracy that is sought for a specific analysis, then a La- perpendicular to the lines of the reference grating.
grangian strain or other three-dimensional strain should It is frequently valuable to modify the load-induced
be calculated. Otherwise, the investigator accepts that fringe patterns with carrier fringes [22.6]. Figure 22.11
the influence of the slope is negligible for calculating is an example [22.7], where the load-induced fringes
the strain. are shown in a and b. The specimen is cut from
Note, too, that special apparatus and procedures a graphite/epoxy composite material and it is loaded
may be required to record an image of the moiré in a compact shear fixture c. In d, the fringes in the
fringes when surface slopes become large. Otherwise, test section between notches are subtracted off by car-
the moiré pattern may display black holes in regions of rier fringes of rotation. The carrier fringes are vertical
large slopes. In general, it is the engineering strain that and uniformly spaced, and their gradient is opposite to
is sought by moiré interferometry, not a transformed that of the shear-induced fringes. What is the benefit? It
strain, and (22.4) and (22.5) are fully effective. shows that the normal strain ε y is zero along the vertical
center line of the specimen, that ε y is extremely small
22.2.5 Accidental Rigid Body Rotation throughout the test zone, and that the shear deformation
Part C 22.2
is nearly uniform over a wide test region.
The previous paragraph refers to out of-plane deforma- Carrier fringes can be introduced easily, typically
tions induced by the loads – not rigid-body motions. In by turning an adjusting screw in the moiré interferome-
practice, the specimen is observed in its no-load condi- ter. They are used, as needed, for a variety of purposes,
tion and the moiré interferometer is adjusted to produce especially to remove ambiguities and enhance the accu-
a null field, i. e., a uniform fringe order throughout the racy of data reduction.
field. Then the load is applied and the displacement For in-plane rigid-body rotation
fields are recorded. ∂N y
∂N x
Sometimes, an out-of-plane rigid-body rotation is ≡− . (22.8)
introduced accidentally in the loading process. Rota- ∂y ∂x
tion about an axis that is perpendicular to the lines of Substitution into (22.5) shows that shear strains calcu-
the reference grating has no effect on the fringe pat- lated from the moiré fringes are not affected by carrier
tern. Rotation by Ψ about an axis parallel to the grating fringes of rotation (when a 4-beam moiré interferom-
lines is seen as an apparent foreshortening of the speci- eter is used). Also, the calculated shear strains are not
men grating. It introduces an extraneous fringe gradient affected by carrier fringes of extension. The calculated
that corresponds to an apparent compressive strain εapp , normal strains are (essentially) unaffected by carrier
where fringes of rotation. These conditions allow beneficial
Ψ2 changes in the fringe patterns without altering the re-
εapp = − (22.7) liability of strain calculations.
2
12 Part C Noncontact Methods
Experimental arrangements for mechanical loading are Thermal deformations can also be analyzed by room
very diverse; they depend upon the size and nature of temperature observations. In this technique, the speci-
the specimen and the magnitude of the loads. In some men grating is applied at an elevated temperature, and
cases it is necessary to mount the moiré interferometer then the specimen is allowed to cool to room tempera-
on the structure of the testing machine, or to attach it to ture before it is observed in the moiré interferometer.
the assembly being investigated. In others, the specimen Thus, the deformation incurred by the temperature in-
can be loaded in a fixture that rests on an optical table crement is locked into the grating and recorded at room
together with the moiré interferometer. temperature.
For real-time thermal loading, or for deformation An adhesive that cures slowly at elevated tempera-
caused by changes of moisture content, chemical ac- ture is used, usually an epoxy. The specimen and mold
Part C 22.2
tivity or radioactivity, the environmental chamber must are preheated to the application temperature; then the
be positioned adjacent to the moiré interferometer. Fig- adhesive is applied, the mold is installed, the adhe-
ure 22.12 illustrates a scheme used for thermal deforma- sive is allowed to cure, and the mold is removed – all
tion measurements in the electronic packaging industry. at the elevated temperature. The mold is a grating on
As an important factor, the specimen is connected a zero-expansion substrate, so its frequency is the same
rigidly to the interferometer. The connecting rods do not at elevated and room temperatures. Otherwise, a correc-
contact the chamber (only loose insulation or compliant tion is required for the thermal expansion of the mold.
baffles fill the air gap at the chamber wall), so vibrations These measurements can also be performed at cryo-
in the forced air convection chamber are not transmitted genic temperatures. In one test, the specimen grating
to the specimen. The arrangement has proved to be very was applied at −40 ◦ C using an adhesive that cured in
effective. It enables the recording of fringe patterns dur- ultraviolet light.
ing the transition between temperature changes, during The example shown in Fig. 22.14 is taken from
moisture ingress and egress, during chemical activity, an investigation of thermal stresses in a bimaterial
etc. Hence, it enables real-time measurements. joint [22.10]. The specimen grating was applied and
Figure 22.13 is an example of real-time thermo- cured at 157 ◦ C and subsequently observed at 24 ◦ C
mechanical analysis of an electronic package during room temperature. The two materials restrained the
a thermal cycle with temperature extremes from −20 ◦ C natural contraction of each other, causing large ther-
to 125 ◦ C [22.8,9]. The device is an assembly of diverse mal stresses and strains. The V displacement field for
materials with different coefficients of thermal expan- the 133 ◦ C temperature increment is shown here; car-
Moiré Interferometry 22.2 Important Concepts 13
y,V
PCB substrate
Solder ball
PCB
x,U
80 °C
125 °C
80 °C
–20 °C U field
20 mm
80 °C
Part C 22.2
125 °C
80 °C
–20 °C V field
Fig. 22.13 U and V displacement fields for an electronic package subjected to a thermal cycle in an environmental
chamber. f = 2400 lines/mm
14 Part C Noncontact Methods
2α
0 20
rier fringes of extension were applied to portray the was formed on the cylindrical surface of a disk and
abrupt transition near the interface. Clearly, the fringe it was used as a mold to apply the grating to the
gradient ΔN y /Δy is negative in the brass and posi- specimen. Then, with the specimen under load, the de-
tive in the steel. Strains were extracted, and since the formed grating was replicated (or copied) on another
elastic constants were known, stresses were calculated. disk. The replica was inserted in a moiré interferom-
A remarkable condition was found near the interface, eter and deformation data were recorded by a moiré
namely a peak compressive stress in the brass and interferometer as a series of narrow strips, each approx-
a peak tensile stress in the steel. Subsequent analysis imating a flat surface. Figure 22.15 shows a mosaic of
by microscopic moiré interferometry documented a se- such strips for a 90◦ portion of the hole in a cross-ply
vere stress gradient in the 50 μm zone surrounding the [04 /904 ]3S laminate of IM7/5250-4 (graphite fibers in
interface. The peak stresses were elastic and the peaks a bismalimide-cyanate ester matrix). An enlarged view
were connected by the severe gradient in the transition of the Nθ fringe pattern at the θ = 75◦ location is shown
zone. in Fig. 22.15d, together with a graph of the ply-by-
ply distribution of shear strains. This is the location of
22.2.9 Curved Surfaces greatest fringe density, and yet the data are revealed
with excellent fidelity, enabling dependable determi-
Part C 22.2
Moiré interferometry has been developed for routine nation of strain distributions. The interlaminar shear
analysis of flat surfaces. However, certain accommoda- strains at the 0/90 interfaces are about five times greater
tions can be made for curved surfaces when the problem than the tensile strain at θ = 90◦ . A primary purpose
is important enough to invest extra effort. The most of the work was to provide experimental data for the
straightforward approach is to treat any local region as evaluation of computational techniques for composite
a flat surface. A small grating mold (cut from a larger structures.
mold) could be used to replicate the grating on the
curved surface of the specimen. Other innovative tech- 22.2.10 Data Enhancement/Phase Stepping
niques can be employed for cylindrical surfaces, or
other developable surfaces. An abundance of load-induced fringes is typical for
Results shown in Fig. 22.15 are from an impor- most applications, sufficient for reliable analyses. For
tant investigation. It is from a study of the ply-by-ply small specimens, however, or within a small field of
deformation at a central hole in multi-ply composite view for larger specimens, the displacement accumu-
plates [22.11]. The specimens were thick laminated lated across the field will be small (even if the strains are
composite plates, each with a 25.4 mm diameter cen- not small); then, the number of fringes is not sufficient
tral hole. The grating was applied to the cylindrical and additional data are desired.
surface of the hole and successive replicas of the Phase stepping, also called fringe shifting, provides
deformed grating were made with the specimen at dif- additional data. Referring to Fig. 22.9, we recall that the
ferent tensile load levels. First, a cross-line grating fringe pattern is a contour map of the separation S of
Moiré Interferometry 22.2 Important Concepts 15
Fig. 22.15a–d
a) Recorded fringe patterns Tension
Ply-by-ply dis-
placements at
the cylindrical
surface of a hole
z z in a cross-ply
θ composite plate.
y x
θ (d) shows an en-
larged view of
b) 90 87 84 81 78 75 72 69 66 63 60 57 54 51 48 45 42 39 36 33 30 27 24 21 18 15 12 9 6 3 0 the Uθ pattern at
the 75◦ location,
and the shear
strains at that
location. (Cour-
tesy of D. H.
Mollenhauer)
Uθ fringe patterns
c) 90 87 84 81 78 75 72 69 66 63 60 57 54 51 48 45 42 39 36 33 30 27 24 21 18 15 12 9 6 3 0
Uz fringe patterns
d)
γθz ×106
Part C 22.2
20 000
0 90 0 90 0 90 0 90 0 90 0 90
15 000
10 000
5000
–5000
–10 000
–15 000
–20 000
Moiré strain
–25 000 Actual ply boundaries
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Distance from upper laminate face (mm)
16 Part C Noncontact Methods
a) Moiré fringes
I
Nonuniform Microscope
I (x) I π (x)
illumination with noise
A
Prism
A', B' B
Mirrorized
1 3 5 Immersion fluid
N=0 /2 1 /2 2 /2 x
α
Specimen
b) Substract shifted intensity grating
I
Result: influence of Immersion
I r (x) = I (x) – I π (x) Specimen
noise is canceled interferometer
(+) where
I (x) = I π (x) Virtual reference
grating
0
x Microscope
objective lens
(–)
|Ir|
Truncation
x
d) Binarize near |Ir| = 0
I
Fig. 22.16 Steps in the optical/digital fringe multiplication A common procedure for full-field data enhance-
(O/DFM) algorithm ment is the quasi-heterodyne method [22.12, 13]. In the
simplest implementation, three shifted images of the
wave fronts that emerge from the specimen. In phase fringe pattern are recorded, with phase steps of 0, 2π/3
stepping, the separation S is increased (or decreased) by and 4π/3 (fringe shifts of 0, 1/3 and 2/3 of a fringe
a fraction of a wavelength, uniformly across the field. order). The CCD camera, frame grabber and computer
The result is a uniform change of fringe order through- gather the data from the three images, recording the
out the field of view; the intensity at every pixel, as intensity at each pixel as I1 , I2 , I3 . With these data,
measured by the digital camera, is changed. Usually, the the quasi-heterodyne algorithm calculates the fractional
phase change is accomplished by translating a mirror, part of the fringe order N at each pixel by
or other optical element in the moiré interferometer, us- √
1 3 (I2 − I3 )
ing a piezo-electric actuator to displace the element by N = arctan . (22.9)
a tiny increment. For an achromatic system like that of 2π 2I1 − I2 − I3
Fig. 22.7, the phase change can be executed by in-plane Then the fringe order of each pixel is determined by
translation of the compensator grating. an unwrapping algorithm, whereby neighboring pix-
Moiré Interferometry 22.2 Important Concepts 17
Part C 22.2
throughout the field of view. Various other imple- load-induced fringes. The basic sensitivity is increased
mentations of the quasi-heterodyne method provide by a factor of two by means of an immersion inter-
ferometer, and then phase-stepping and the O/DFM
algorithm are used to produce a suitably dense fringe
pattern.
Figure 22.17 illustrates an immersion interferom-
eter [22.4]; many alternative designs are possible.
This one was implemented, with λ = 514 nm (in air),
α = 54.3◦ and n = 1.52 (where n is the index of
refraction of the interferometer block). Within the re-
fractive medium the wavelength was reduced to 338 nm,
providing a virtual reference grating frequency of
U field V field 4800 lines/mm. This is twice the frequency used (with-
y
out immersion) for most macroscopic applications, and
0 500 μm it exceeded the theoretical limit for virtual reference
z
gratings produced in air. By (22.3), twice as many
Fig. 22.19 Microscopic moiré fringe contours for a solder fringes are obtained for a given displacement, compared
ball interconnection in an electronic package. ΔT = 60 ◦ C; to designs without immersion. For phase stepping, the
f = 4800 lines/mm; β = 4; 52 nm/contour element labeled immersion interferometer is moved lat-
18 Part C Noncontact Methods
erally by a piezoelectric actuator. Movement of 1/ f strains plus free thermal expansion (αΔT ). When the
causes a phase change of 2π, so β steps of 1/β f uniform αΔT is subtracted off for each material, the
each are used to implement the fringe multiplica- substantial range of stress-induced strains in the alu-
tion. minium matrix becomes evident.
Figure 22.18 is an example. The specimen was Figure 22.19 is an example from electronic packag-
a unidirectional boron/aluminium composite subjected ing, showing the displacement fields for a single solder
to thermal loading. The bithermal method was used, interconnect. Here, ΔT = 60 ◦ C; f = 4800 lines/mm;
where ΔT was 110 ◦ C. Here, f = 4800 lines/mm; β = 4; and the contour interval is 52 nm/contour.
β = 6; and the contour interval is 35 nm per contour. Details of the small deformation are clearly docu-
The pattern shows the combined effects of thermal mented.
22.3 Challenges
The authors visualize two developments that would be The authors have proposed ideas on methods to ex-
important contributions to the experimental mechanics plore and perfect. The challenge is published by the
community. We propose that members of the com- Society for Experimental Mechanics in Experimental
munity, worldwide, start modest endeavors to develop Techniques [22.14], where the worldwide community
these capabilities. The first would enhance the ease and is invited to participate. The objective is to devise
accuracy of strain determinations. The second would and share a superior technique for extracting strains,
further enhance the versatility of moiré interferometry. and in an on-going evolution to improve and refine
the technique into an easy, accurate and efficient al-
22.3.1 Strain Analysis gorithm. The Society will maintain an open website
to share the contributions and make them available to
For most macromechanics analyses, moiré interferom- everyone.
etry provides a great number of stress-induced fringes,
sufficient for a detailed analysis. Yet, in current prac- 22.3.2 Replication of Deformed Gratings
tice, there is a tendency to use phase-stepping schemes
to reduce these data to graphs of displacements and In a classical paper by McKelvie and Walker [22.15],
strain distributions. The phase-stepping algorithms en- replication was advocated for remote sites and harsh
joy popularity mostly because they enable automatic environments, followed by analysis of the replicas in
Part C 22.3
data reduction. However, there are many pitfalls. Auto- the laboratory. Now, replication is envisioned as a rou-
mated analyses do not recognize extraneous input like tine practice. In this practice, a grating is applied to
those from scratches or other imperfections of the spec- the specimen or workpiece in the usual way. Then, the
imen grating. Automated analyses do not cope well workpiece is subjected to its working loads, for exam-
with rapidly changing displacement fields, for example, ple in a mechanical testing machine, which deforms
those that can be encountered in composite structures; the specimen and the specimen grating. Replicas of the
particularly, automated analyses must not be allowed to deformed grating are made at desired intervals in the
extend across regions of dissimilar materials. loading process, and subsequently the replicas are ana-
Thus, for the majority of applications, interactive lyzed in a moiré interferometer.
schemes should be developed in which the investigator Replication provides numerous advantages for typi-
controls the process and makes the decisions. The moiré cal applications. No limits are applied to the size of the
pattern is itself a map of deformation. The investigator workpiece. Familiar equipment can be used for loading,
should choose the regions of interest – usually the re- including large or special purpose machines. Vibrations
gions where the fringes are closest together and strains and air currents become inconsequential. The technique
are highest. Techniques should be developed to extract can be applied in the field, far from the laboratory,
these strains with the highest accuracy. The investiga- and in difficult environments. In many applications,
tor should deal with possible imperfections in the fringe replicas can be made for cases where the loading is
patterns. He/she should decide whether carrier fringes not mechanical, but stems from changes of tempera-
would aid the analysis. ture, humidity, chemical or radiation environments, etc.
Moiré Interferometry 22.5 Moiré Interferometry in the Microelectronics Industry 19
The replicas can be made on transparent substrates, Thus, replication is extremely attractive for routine
enabling use of transmission systems of moiré interfer- use as well as special applications. What developments
ometry instead of the current reflection systems. When are required? Although the replication method can be
transmission systems are used, the camera lens can be practiced with current technology (Fig. 22.15 is a com-
located very close to the replica and, therefore, high pelling example) it would be advantageous to find
magnifications and high spatial resolution become con- materials and techniques for quick and routine replica-
venient. Additionally, the replicas become permanent tion of deformed gratings. We believe these techniques
records of the deformation, so there is easy recourse will be optimized and broadly implemented; the experi-
to checking and extending an analysis after an initial mental mechanics community is invited and encouraged
investigation. to participate in their development.
Part C 22.5
terferometry Comprehensive treatment of moiré interferometry
• insensitive to out-of-plane displacements W – out- for strain and stress analysis; theory, practice and
of-plane deformation does not affect the accuracy applications: [22.4] Note: Excerpts are included in
of in-plane displacement measurements this chapter with the kind permission of Springer-
• high spatial resolution – measurements can be made Verlag, Berlin, New York.
in tiny zones • Background literature on moiré phenomena; math-
• high contrast – the fringe patterns have excellent ematical treatments; not directed to strain analysis:
visibility [22.16–18]
• large dynamic range – the method is compatible • Review article; historic references until 1980s:
with large and small displacements, large and small [22.19]
the raw data are clear and dependable, the experimental Figure 22.20 shows the temperature profile used
results are reliable! in the thermal cycle. To ensure a uniform temperature
These fringe patterns are contour maps of the de- distribution, the specimen was kept at each target tem-
formation caused by changes of temperature and/or perature for 5 minutes before measurement. The U and
moisture content. They are fully quantitative; fringe or- V fringe patterns with fringe orders N x and N y , respec-
ders are readily assigned to every fringe (every contour) tively, were recorded at each of the lettered temperature
and the U or V displacement at each point along that levels.
contour is simply proportional to the fringe order. Moiré Representative patterns at 55 ◦ C (point B) are shown
interferometry provides submicron sensitivity; micro- in Fig. 22.20. The dominant mode of deformation of the
scopic moiré interferometry provides sensitivity in the solder interconnection is shear, which is caused by the
nanometer range. Strains can be extracted, too, inas- mismatch of the CTE of the ceramic module and the
much as strains are determined by the rate of a change PCB. Consequently, the shear strains at the intercon-
of fringe order, e.g., ΔN x /Δx; thus, strains are highest nection increase as the distance from the neutral point
where the fringes are closest together. (DNP) increases, so the last solder ball experiences the
Moiré interferometry has become extremely impor- highest shear; the second insert in Fig. 22.20 shows the
tant in the electronics industry for electronic packaging fringes in a magnified view of this interconnection. Note
studies. The applications – mostly to evaluate thermal that the fringe orders are marked on the fringe patterns.
strains, but also for hygroscopic deformation, me- At the top of the rightmost interconnection, N x = 2.5
chanical loading and material characterization – are is counted along the upper section, starting from the
introduced at design and development, evaluation, and N x = 0 fringe; similarly N x = 9.5 is counted along the
process control stages. The following experiments illus- lower section of the assembly. In the same way, the
trate the applications. fringe orders at the top and bottom of the interconnec-
tion can be determined from patterns recorded at each
22.5.1 Temperature-Dependent temperature level.
Deformation This solder interconnection was analyzed to in-
vestigate the effect of the two solder materials. The
Figure 22.13 illustrates data from a wire-bond plastic development of inelastic strains in the solder joints
ball grid array (WB-PBGA) package subjected to a ther- during the thermal cycle is seen in Fig. 22.21, where
mal cycle; maximum and minimum temperatures were the horizontal displacements along the vertical cen-
125 and −40 ◦ C. The thermal deformation is compli- terline are plotted for various stages in the thermal
cated, exacerbated by creep and relaxation of the solder cycle.
and molding compound. Please refer to [22.8] for anal- It is important to note that the reflow process pro-
Part C 22.5
ysis and discussion. duced a thin eutectic solder bench between the solder
ball and the copper pad, while there was essentially no
Ceramic BGA Package Assembly gap between the solder ball and the ceramic module.
The objective of this application was to study the Consequently, the shear deformation of the top eutectic
temperature and time dependent thermo-mechanical be- fillet was constrained by the solder ball, but the bottom
havior of a ceramic ball grid array (CBGA) package eutectic fillet was free to deform in shear. This sequence
subjected to an accelerated thermal cycling condition. of fringe patterns shows that plastic deformation oc-
The assembly was a 25 mm CBGA package with 361 curred at the higher temperatures. It was concentrated
I/O’s (19 × 19 solder interconnection array) on an FR- in the eutectic (lower melting point) solder, and this
4 PCB. A specimen with a strip array configuration irreversible strain was present in all the subsequent pat-
was prepared from the assembly, containing five central terns.
rows of solder interconnection. The solder interconnec- Although the fringe patterns from the full speci-
tion of the package assembly consisted of a high melting men were recorded at each temperature level, the region
point solder ball (90%Pb/10%Sn) and a lower melting isolated in this series was less than 1 mm2 . Informa-
point eutectic solder fillet (63%Pb/37%Sn), as illus- tion from the large specimen was needed to establish
trated by the insert in Fig. 22.20. The high melting point fringe orders in the tiny interconnection. It is a remark-
solder ball does not reflow during the assembly process, able feature of moiré interferometry that such detailed
so it provides a consistent and reproducible standoff local results could be discerned even when the image
between the ceramic package and the PCB. magnification was low enough to view the full speci-
Moiré Interferometry 22.5 Moiré Interferometry in the Microelectronics Industry 21
men. Please refer to [22.9] for analysis of the data and pound absorbs moisture when exposed to a humid
discussion of the results. environment. Hygroscopic stresses arise when the mold
compound and other polymeric materials swell upon
22.5.2 Hygroscopic Deformation absorbing moisture while the adjacent non-polymeric
materials, such as the lead frame, die paddle, and sil-
Plastic encapsulated microcircuits are used extensively. icon chip, do not experience swelling. The differential
In spite of many advantages over hermetic packages swelling leads to hygroscopic mismatch stresses in the
in terms of size, weight, performance, and cost, an
important disadvantage is that the polymeric mold com-
a) Solder height
Center line
(normalized)
a) 5 min 1
120 0.8
C' D 0.6
100 0.4
C 0.2
80 Eutectic
E 0
60 –4 0 4 8 12 fillet
B Displacement (μm)
40 F I
Room temperature b) i)
20 A
G 1 1
0 0.8 0.8
–20 0.6 0.6
H 0.4 0.4
–40 0.2 0.2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time (min) 0 0
–4 0 4 8 12 –4 0 4 8 12
Heating
b)
Ceramic substrate 2.5 c) h)
90Pb –10Sn ball 1 1
0.8 0.8
Bottom eutectic fillet 0.6 Heating 0.6
Copper pad 0.4 0.4
PCB 9.5 0.2 0.2
0 0
Nx = 0 –4 0 4 8 12 –4 0 4 8 12
Part C 22.5
d) g)
1 1
Cooling
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0 5 10 0.2 0.2
0 0
c) Ny = 0 5 –4 0 4 8 12 –4 0 4 8 12
e) f)
1 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
55°C
0.2 0.2
(B: Heating)
0 0
–4 0 4 8 12 –4 0 4 8 12
Fig. 22.20a–c Temperature profile used in the thermal cy-
cle(a); views of the rightmost solder interconnection (b); Fig. 22.21 U field fringe patterns of the rightmost solder
and horizontal and (c) vertical displacement fields of the interconnection and the corresponding horizontal displace-
assembly at 55 ◦ C (point B), f = 2400 lines/mm ments determined along the vertical centerline
22 Part C Noncontact Methods
Hygroscopic Stress
in a Plastic Quad Flat Package (PQFP)
Hygroscopic mismatch stresses are documented in
[22.21]. The package and the specimen are illustrated
20 mm in Fig. 22.24. The specimen was conditioned to zero
moisture content and the bithermal loading method was
used to record the patterns of Fig. 22.25. Figure 22.25a
shows the starting condition – the null field representing
the specimen at 85 ◦ C and zero moisture. Figure 22.25b
shows the patterns for 25 ◦ C and zero moisture. Thus,
the deformation incurred by thermal stress alone is de-
13 mm
c) d) picted here.
Subsequently, the specimen was brought to its
moisture saturation level. Figure 22.26 shows the defor-
mation at 85 ◦ C for moisture saturation and for moisture
desorption after 8 h. These represent deformation from
moisture change alone.
Reliability analyses must include predictive capa-
bilities of hygroscopic swelling as well as thermal
deformation. The analysis and discussion in [22.21]
shows that hygroscopic strains can exceed thermal
strains, thus reflecting the importance of both.
28 mm
Collimating Focusing
3.36 mm lens lens
A' A
V
TEC assembly Focusing lens
V field
V
Part C 22.5
fringe order Scale (mm)
a) Chip Die paddle
Fig. 22.27 Schematic illustration of a generic optoelectronics pack-
U age, and the U and V patterns caused by the high-temperature-
storage (HTS) test. Note: the fringes are multiplied by O/DFM
by a factor of β = 4; f = 2400 lines/mm; the contour interval is
V 0.104 μm/fringe
10 mm 0.7 mm
Chip
Sectioned plane
Underfill
Solder mask
SLC substrate 1.25 mm C4
SLL tSLL = 190 μm
Metal via
Part C 22.5
and a flip-chip package. The flip-chip assembly is il- These contour maps of the U and V displacement
lustrated schematically in Fig. 22.29a with its relevant fields show a remarkable wealth of detail. The contours
dimensions. are unambiguous, clearly defined, readily analyzed.
The specimens were cut and ground to expose Again, the reader should increase the magnification of
the desired microstructures as illustrated schemati- the image to gain further appreciation of its clarity.
cally in Fig. 22.29b, where the insert depicts the Please see [22.23] for analysis and discussion.
detailed microstructures of interest. An epoxy speci-
men grating was applied at an elevated temperature of Local CTE Variations
92 ◦ C in a small region containing the microstructures. in High Performance Substrate
The fringes were recorded at a room temperature of A high performance substrate accommodates various
22 ◦ C, capturing the thermal deformation incurred by electrical components such as CPU, capacitors, re-
ΔT = −70 ◦ C. sisters, etc. The substrate is a complex composite
The critical region studied here is marked by system, which includes layers of epoxy, woven fiber-
a dashed box in Fig. 22.30a; it is approximately 500 μm glass, and copper planes.
by 375 μm. The resultant fringe patterns are shown in For reliability assessment of 1st level intercon-
Fig. 22.30 for the bare substrate and the flip-chip assem- nects, the global CTE mismatch between the silicon
bly. chip (≈ 3 ppm/◦ C) and the substrate (≈ 17 ppm/◦ C),
The moiré interferometer produced a virtual refer- and also the local CTE variations, must be consid-
ence grating of 4800 lines/mm; the O/DFM method was ered. Microscopic moiré interferometry was employed
26 Part C Noncontact Methods
to determine the local CTE variations around two between the PTHs. For the regions marked as A and B in
plated-through-holes (PTH). Figure 22.31 shows the Fig. 22.31, the effective CTE on the upper surface dif-
microscopic U and V displacement fields of the PTH fer by 8 times in the U field (33.7 and 4.0 ppm/◦ C).
area, induced by ΔT of −80 ◦ C, where the contour in- This resulted from variations of materials and features
terval is 104 nm/fringe. comprising the substrate. The local fluctuations of CTE
The fringe patterns clearly show the homogenous around these features are the critical information needed
nature of the plug material inside the PTH, indicated to identify areas of failure risk within the substrate.
by the uniformly spaced U and V fringes, and the het- Again, please view the patterns at increased magni-
erogeneous nature of fiber/resin laminated areas located fication, and refer to [22.22] for additional information.
References
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22.2 E.M. Weissman, D. Post: Moiré interferometry near 22.13 K. Creath: Temporal phase measurement methods.
the theoretical limit, Appl. Opt. 21(9), 1621–1623 In: Interferogram Analysis, ed. by D.W. Robinson,
(1982) G.T. Reid (Institute of Physics, London 1993) pp. 94–
22.3 D. Post: Moiré fringe multiplication with a 140
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22.4 D. Post, B. Han, P.G. Ifju: High Sensitivity Moiré: 22.15 J. McKelvie, C.A. Walker: A practical multiplied
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Science and Technology (Springer, Berlin, Heidel- (1978)
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(Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs 1970) 22.17 O. Kafri, I. Glatt: The Physics of Moiré Metrology
22.6 Y. Guo, D. Post, R. Czarnek: The magic of carrier (Wiley, New York 1990)
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22.7 P.G. Ifju, D. Post: A compact double notched spec- ford Univ. Press, New York 1956)
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Experimental Mechanics (Society for Experimental Exp. Mech. 22(11), 418–433 (1982)
Mechanics, Bethel 1989) pp. 337–342 22.20 E. Stellrecht, B. Han, M. Pecht: Measurement of
22.8 S.-M. Cho, S.-Y. Cho, B. Han: Observing real-time the hygroscopic swelling coefficient in mold com-
thermal deformations in electronic packaging, Exp. pounds using moiré interferometry, Exp. Techn.
Part C 22