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10. CONSEQUENCE MODELLING FOR HYDROCARBON EVENTS

10.1 Definitions
Hydrocarbons are mixtures of materials whose chemical structure is based on hydrogen and carbon. They
include the main hazardous materials found on offshore installations, i.e. well fluid, gas, oil and condensate.

Hydrocarbon events are spills and releases of these materials, leading to fires or explosions. They can be
categorised as blowouts, riser/pipeline leaks and process leaks (Table 7.1 ). When estimating the frequencies of
these events, a different approach is required for each hazard category. When considering the consequences of
hydrocarbon releases, all three types have sufficient common features to be modelled using similar techniques.
An outline of the techniques is given below.

10.2 Types of Hydrocarbons

The main hydrocarbons that are handled on offshore installations are:

• Well fluid - the fluid from the wells, consisting of a mixture of oil, gas and water, often with other liquid,
gas or solid materials such as sand entrained. Its nature varies widely between different fields, and between
different wells within a field or stages ofa well's life. Often the well fluid is mainly gas or mainly oil.

• Gas (or natural gas) - a gaseous mixture that may emerge direct from the wells, or be extracted from the
well fluid in separators. It is usually mainly methane (C 1) with some higher hydrocarbon components
(mainly C2 to C4) , and often contaminants such as nitrogen, hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide. The
density ofnatural gas at atmospheric pressure is typica1Jy 0.75 kg/m3.

• Oil (or crude oil) - a liquid mixture that may emerge direct from the wells, or be extracted from the well
fluid in separators. It consists mainly of heavier hydrocarbons (C7 and above), but may also contain
dissolved gases and sometimes solid hydrocarbons. ft varies widely in density (typically 800-1000 kg/m3),
viscosity and water content. Depending on the degree of separation or the nature of the reservoir, two broad
types can be distinguished:

- Unstabilised oil (or live crude) with significant gas content.

- Stabilised oil (or dead crude) with negligible gas content.

• Condensate - a mixture of hydrocarbons (mainly C4 to C6), that condenses from the gas during
compression. This material is a liquid while it is held under pressure, but becomes a gas if the pressure is
released. ft is similar to liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) which is widely used onshore. Density in the
liquefied state is typically 750 kg/m3 .

• Diesel oil - a refined petroleum product. On a drilling rig, this is the main source of fuel for the generators.
On a production platform, it is used as fuel for stand-by generators and other equipment on board in the
event that fuel gas from the wells is unavailable.

• Aviation fuel - a refined product consisting mainly of kerosene. It is often stored on installations for
refuelling helicopters.

The consequences ofrelease of all these materials can be modelled using similar techniques.

10.3 Consequence Modelling Software

The field of consequence modelling for hydrocarbon releases is highly developed, and there are several
commercially-available computer programs to model the discharge, dispersion, fire and explosion of gases and
liquids (see Appendix XVI). Some of the techniques are relatively simple, and are suitable for manual analysis,
and have commonly been implemented in customised spreadsheets (see Figure 10.1). More complex models
may be available in stand-alone format, or as part of linked QRA software.

Guide to Offshore QRA 83