PART-A

1. Name the few types of cements used in construction.

 Rapid Hardening Cement

 Quick setting cement
 Low Heat Cement
 Sulphates resisting cement
 Blast Furnace Slag Cement
 High Alumina Cement
 White Cement
 Coloured cement
 Pozzolanic Cement
 Air Entraining Cement
 Hydrographic cement

2. What is meant by surveying?

1. Marketing: A detailed study of a market or geographical area to gather data on attitudes,

impressions, opinions, satisfaction level, etc., by polling a section of the population.
2. Real estate: A map or plat drawn by a licensed-surveyor after measuring a piece of land, to
show its area, boundaries, contours, elevations, improvements, and its relationship to the
surrounding land. A property survey confirms that a particular piece of land or building is sited
in accordance to its legal description.

3. States that purpose of dams.

A dam can also be used to collect water or for storage of water which can be evenly distributed
between locations. Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water, while other
structures such as floodgates or levees (also known as dikes) are used to manage or prevent water
flow into specific land regions.

4. List the different types of bonds in brick masonry.

1. Stretcher bond
2. Header bond
3. English bond and
4. Flemish bond

5.How turbines are classified?

1) Based on type of energy at inlet to the turbine

 2) Based on direction of flow of water through the runner:

3) Based on the head under which turbine works:

4) Based on the specific speed of the turbine

6. Mention any four types of power plants.

Thermal Power Plants

Hydro Power Plants

.
7.State any five differences between two stroke and four strokes cycle engine.

S.No. Four stroke engine Two stroke engine

It has one power stroke for every
1. two revolutions of the crankshaft.
Heavy flywheel is required and
engine runs unbalanced because
turning
moment on the crankshaft is not
even due to one power stroke for
every two
2. revolutions of the crankshaft.
3. Engine is heavy
Engine design is complicated due to
4. valve mechanism.
It has one power stroke for each revolution
of the crankshaft.
Lighter flywheel is required and engine
runs balanced because turning
moment is more even due to one power
stroke for each revolution of the
crankshaft.
Engine is light
Engine design is simple due to absence of
valve mechanism.

8.List the important parts of diesel engine power plant.

1) Engine

2) Air intake system

3) Exhaust system 4) Fuel system

5) Cooling system

6) Lubrication system

9 What are the factors which affect the comfort air conditioning?.

 The evaporating temperature.

 The condensing temperature.
 The type of refrigerant used.
 The type of equipment used, such as compressor, evaporator, etc.
 The system controls.

10.Define ton of refrigeration.

A much less common definition is: 1 tonne of refrigeration is the rate of heat removal
required to freeze a metric ton (1000 kg) of water at 0°C in 24 hours. Based on the heat of
fusion being 333.55 kJ/kg, 1 tonne of refrigeration = 13,898 kJ/h = 3.861 kW.Jun 6, 2010

PART B

11. (a) Describe the different types of

concrete.
Types of concrete with applications for different structural components like
beams, columns, slabs, foundations are explained here. Special concrete
with uses.
Light weight concrete
One of the main advantages of conventional concrete is the self weight of
concrete. Density of normal concrete is of the order of 2200 to 2600. This
self weight will make it to some extend an uneconomical structural material.

1. Self weight of light weight concrete varies from 300 to 1850 kg/m3.
2. It helps reduce the dead load, increase the progress of building and lowers
the hauling and handling cost.
3. The weight of building on foundation is an important factor in the design ,
particularly in case of weak soil and tall structures. In framed structure , the
beam and column have to carry load of wall and floor. If these wall and floor
are made of light weight concrete it will result in considerable economy.
4. Light weight concrete have low thermal conductivity.( In extreme climatic
condition where air condition is to installed the use of light weight concrete
with low thermal conductivity is advantageous from the point of thermal
comfort and low power consumption.
5. Only method for making concrete light by inclusion of air. This is achieved by
a) replacing original mineral aggregate by light weight aggregate, b) By
introducing gas or air bubble in mortar c) By omitting sand fraction from
concrete. This is called no – fine concrete.
6. Light weight aggregate include pumice, saw dust rice husk, thermocole
beads, formed slag. Etc
7. Light weight concrete aggregate exhibit high fire resistance.
8. Structural lightweight aggregate’s cellular structure provides internal curing
through water entrainment which is especially beneficial for high-
performance concrete

9. lightweight aggregate has better thermal properties, better fire ratings,

reduced shrinkage, excellent freezing and thawing durability, improved
contact between aggregate and cement matrix, less micro-cracking as a
result of better elastic compatibility, more blast resistant, and has better
shock and sound absorption, High-Performance lightweight aggregate
concrete also has less cracking, improved skid resistance and is readily
placed by the concrete pumping method

1. Aerated concrete is made by introducing air or gas into a slurry composed of

Portland cement.
2. No fine concrete is made up of only coarse aggregate , cement and
water.These type of concrete is used for load bearing cast in situ external
walls for building. They are also used for temporary structures because of
low initial cost and can be reused as aggregate.
High density concrete
1. The density of high density concrete varies from 3360 kg/m3 to 3840
kg/m3.They can however be produced with density upto 5820 kg/m3 using
iron as both fine and coarse aggregate.
 2. Heavyweight concrete uses heavy natural aggregates such as barites or
magnetite or manufactured aggregates such as iron or lead shot. The
density achieved will depend on the type of aggregate used. Typically using
barites the density will be in the region of 3,500kg/m3, which is 45% greater
than that of normal concrete, while with magnetite the density will be
3,900kg/m3, or 60% greater than normal concrete. Very heavy concretes
can be achieved with iron or lead shot as aggregate, is 5,900kg/m3and
8,900kg/m3 respectively.
1. They are mainly used in the construction of radiation shields (medical or
nuclear). Offshore, heavyweight concrete is used for ballasting for pipelines
and similar structures
2. The ideal property of normal and high density concrete are high modulus of
elasticity , low thermal expansion , and creep deformation
3. Because of high density of concrete there will be tendency for segregation.
To avoid this pre placed aggregate method of concreting is adopted.
4. High Modulus of Elasticity, Low thermal Expansion ,Low elasticity and creep
deformation are ideal properties.
5. The high density. Concrete is used in construction of radiation shields. They
are effective and economic construction material for permanent shielding
purpose.
6. Most of the aggregate specific gravity is more than 3.5
Mass concrete
Mass concrete is defined in ACI as “any volume of concrete with dimensions
large enough to require that measures be taken to cope with generation of
heat from hydration of the cement and attendant volume change to
minimize cracking.” The design of mass concrete structures is generally
based on durability, economy, and thermal action, with strength often being
a secondary, rather than a primary, concern. The one characteristic that
distinguishes mass concrete from other concrete work is thermal behavior.
Because the cement-water reaction is exothermic by nature, the
temperature rise within a large concrete mass, where the heat is not quickly
dissipated, can be quite high. Significant tensile stresses and strains may
result from the restrained volume change associated with a decline in
temperature as heat of hydration is dissipated. Measures should be taken
where cracking due to thermal behavior may cause a loss of structural
integrity and monolithic action, excessive seepage and shortening of the
service life of the structure, or be aesthetically objectionable. Many of the
principles in mass concrete practice can also be applied to general concrete
work, whereby economic and other benefits may be realized. Mass
concreting practices were developed largely from concrete dam construction,
where temperature-related cracking was first identified. Temperature-related
cracking has also been experienced in other thick-section concrete
structures, including mat foundations, pile caps, bridge piers, thick walls,
and tunnel linings

Ready-mix Concrete
Ready-mix concrete has cement, aggregates, water and other
ingredients, which are weigh-batched at a centrally located plant. This
is then delivered to the construction site in truck mounted transit
mixers and can be used straight away without any further treatment. This
results in a precise mixture, allowing specialty concrete mixtures to be
developed and implemented on construction sites. Ready-mix concrete is
sometimes preferred over on-site concrete mixing because of the precision
of the mixture and reduced worksite confusion. However, using a pre-
determined concrete mixture reduces flexibility, both in the supply chain and
in the actual components of the concrete. Ready Mixed Concrete, or RMC as
it is popularly called, refers to concrete that is specifically manufactured for
delivery to the customer’s construction site in a freshly mixed and plastic or
unhardened state. Concrete itself is a mixture of Portland cement, water and
aggregates comprising sand and gravel or crushed stone. In traditional work
sites, each of these materials is procured separately and mixed in specified
proportions at site to make concrete. Ready Mixed Concrete is bought and
sold by volume – usually expressed in cubic meters. Ready Mixed Concrete
is manufactured under computer-controlled operations and transported and
placed at site using sophisticated equipment and methods. RMC assures its
customers numerous benefits.
 Advantages of Ready mix Concrete over Site mix Concrete
o A centralised concrete batching plant can serve a wide area.
o The plants are located in areas zoned for industrial use, and yet the delivery
trucks can service residential districts or inner cities.
o Better quality concrete is produced.
o Elimination of storage space for basic materials at site.
o Elimination of procurement / hiring of plant and machinery
o Wastage of basic materials is avoided.
o Labor associated with production of concrete is eliminated.
o Time required is greatly reduced.
o Noise and dust pollution at site is reduced.

Disadvantages of Ready-Mix Concrete

o The materials are batched at a central plant, and the mixing begins at that
plant, so the traveling time from the plant to the site is critical over longer
distances. Some sites are just too far away, though this is usually a
commercial rather than technical issue.
o Access roads and site access have to be able to carry the weight of the truck
and load. Concrete is approx. 2.5tonne per m². This problem can be
overcome by utilizing so-called ‘minimix’ companies, using smaller 4m³
capacity mixers able to access more restricted sites.
o Concrete’s limited time span between mixing and going-off means that
ready-mix should be placed within 2 hours of batching at the plant. Concrete
is still usable after this point but may not conform to relevant specifications.
Polymer concrete
Concrete is porous. The porosity is due to air voids , water voids or due to
inherent property of gel structures. On account of porosity strength of
concrete is reduced , reduction of porosity result in increase in strength of
concrete. The impregnation of monomer and subsequent polymerization is
the latest technique adopted to reduce inherent porosity of concrete and
increase strength and other properties of concrete

There are mainly 4 types of polymer concrete

1. Polymer impregnated concrete

 2. Polymer cement concrete

3. Polymer concrete

4. Partially impregnated and surface coated polymer concrete.

Polymer impregnated concrete

It is a precast conventional concrete cured and dried in oven or by dielectric

heating from which the air in the open cell is removed by vacuum. Then a
low viscosity monomer is diffused through the open cell and polymerized by
using radiation, application of heat or by chemical initiation.

Mainly the following type of monomers are used

Methyl methacrlylate(MMA)

11. (b) Classify bricks and state its

characteristics and uses of each one of them.
1. Dimension and tolerance test

2. Compressive strength test

3. Water absorption test

4. Efflorescence test

1. Dimension and Tolerance Test on Bricks

Take 20 bricks out of given sample. The dimensions of 20 bricks should be
within the following limits.

Class Length Width Height

 Class 380 +/- 12mm i.e. 180 +/- 6mm, i.e. 174 to 186 174 to 186
A 368 to 392 mm mm mm

Class 380 +/- 30mm, i.e. 350 t0 410 80 +/- 15mm, i.e. 165 to 195
165 to 95 mm
B mm mm

2. Compressive Strength Test on Bricks

The compressive strength of a common brick should be 50 kg/sq.cm

3. Water Absorption Test on Bricks

If the water absorption capacity of a brick is more, its strength will be
comparatively low. For first class bricks, the water absorption capacity
should not be more than 20% by weight.

4. Efflorescence Test on Bricks

This test is performed to know the presence of of any alkaline matter in the
bricks.

Procedure:
1. Take five bricks at random from the given sample.

2. Place each brick on end in a dish containing distilled water ensuring depth
immersion at least 2.5cm.

3. Keep the dish in a ventilated room (temperature 20 deg to 30 deg C) till the whole
of distilled water in the dish evaporates.

4. Again pore 2.5 cm depth of distilled water in the dish and keep it till whole of water
gets evaporated.

5. Now examine the bricks for efflorescence as detailed below:

OBSERVATION RESULT

No perceptible deposit Nil – efflorescence

10% are covered with deposit of salts Slight – efflorescence

50% area covered with deposits of salts without any powdering or Moderate –
flaking surface efflorescence

50 % area covered with deposit of salts accompanied by flaking of

Heavy – efflorescence
surface

Serious –
Heavy deposits of salts accompanied by flaking of the surface
efflorescence

Terra Cotta made from a mixture of fine clay 60%, crushed pottery 20%,
while sand 14% and powdered glass 6% with a quantity of desired colouring
substance. It is baked earth of superior variety of clay.

Terra-cotta is used for architectural and ornamental parts of superior

building as a substitute for stones. It is used as sound proof material and its
hollow blocks prevent dampness in the structure.

distinguish between stone and brick as a material of construction.

1.2 STONE
Stone is a natural material of construction and is obtained from quarries. It hasbeen used for constructing
different components of buildings like foundations,walls, lintels, floors, roofs, bridges, weirs, dams
etc.Stones that are used for construction of structures are known as building stones.
1.2.1 Uses of Stones
Stones are extensively used for the following purposes :(i)

It is used as stones ballast for railway track, for road construction, forpreparing cement concrete required
for foundations, flooring, hollowand solid blocks, artificial stones and reinforced cement concrete.(ii)

It is used as a crushed stone (stone dust) as a substitute for sand.(iii)

It is used as blocks in the construction of buildings, lintels, arches,walls, columns, abutments and piers of
bridges, in weirs and in damsetc.(iv)

It is used as blocks and slabs for face work of buildings requiringarchitectural treatments.(v)

It is used as thin slabs for roofing and for flooring buildings andpavements.(vi)

It is used as lime stone in the manufacture of lime, cement and invarious other chemical processes.(vii)
Thin slabs of impervious stones are used for laying Damp Proof Course in buildings.(viii)

Base material for water and sewage filters, in case of water works andsewage treatment plants.(ix)

Stone may be used to give massive and pleasing appearance.(x)

Lime stone is also used as a flux in the blast furnaces.

Limitations in Uses of Stones
Stones are gradually losing their Universal use as a building materialbecause of following reasons :(i)

Important buildings these days are being constructed of steel or RCC,because of their being less bulky,
stronger and more durable.(ii)

Strength of structures made of stones cannot be so rationally analysedas of those made with steel and
RCC.(iii)

Suitable, durable and more easily workable alternatives materials arenow available.(iv)

Cast stone, sand faced rusticated bricks, furnace ware etc. can begiven architectural treatment more easily
and have, therefore,overshadowed the use of stones

12(a) What do you understand by a

foundations ? Draw sketches to show various
types of shallow foundations .

TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS
Read our introduction to foundations if you have missed it.

In this article we will discuss the common types of foundations in buildings. Broadly speaking, all
foundations are divided into two categories: shallow foundations and deep foundations. The
words shallow and deep refer to the depth of soil in which the foundation is made. Shallow
foundations can be made in depths of as little as 3ft (1m), while deep foundations can be made
at depths of 60 - 200ft (20 - 65m). Shallow foundations are used for small, light buildings, while
deep ones are for large, heavy buildings.
 SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
Shallow foundations are also called spread footings or open
footings. The 'open' refers to the fact that the foundations are
made by first excavating all the earth till the bottom of the
footing, and then constructing the footing. During the early
stages of work, the entire footing is visible to the eye, and is
therefore called an open foundation. The idea is that each
footing takes the concentrated load of the column and
spreads it out over a large area, so that the actual weight on
the soil does not exceed the safe bearing capacity of the soil.

There are several kinds of shallow footings: individual footings, strip footings
and raft foundations.

In cold climates, shallow foundations must be protected from freezing. This

is because water in the soil around the foundation can freeze and expand,
thereby damaging the foundation. These foundations should be built below
the frost line, which is the level in the ground above which freezing occurs. If
they cannot be built below the frost line, they should be protected by
insulation: normally a little heat from the building will permeate into the soil
and prevent freezing.

INDIVIDUAL FOOTINGS

Individual footings awaiting concreting of the footing column.

Individual footings are one of the most simple and common types of foundations. These are
used when the load of the building is carried by columns. Usually, each column will have its own
footing. The footing is just a square or rectangular pad of concrete on which the column sits. To
get a very rough idea of the size of the footing, the engineer will take the total load on the
column and divide it by the safe bearing capacity (SBC) of the soil. For example, if a column has
a vertical load of 10T, and the SBC of the soil is 10T/m2, then the area of the footing will be
1m2. In practice, the designer will look at many other factors before preparing a construction
design for the footing.

Individual footings connected by a plinth beam. Note that the footings have been cast on top of beds of plain cement
concrete (PCC), which has been done to create a level, firm base for the footing.
 Individual footings are usually connected by a plinth beam, a horizontal beam that is built at
ground or below ground level.

STRIP FOOTINGS
Strip footings are commonly found in load-bearing masonry construction, and act as a long strip
that supports the weight of an entire wall. These are used where the building loads are carried
by entire walls rather than isolated columns, such as in older buildings made of masonry.

RAFT OR MAT FOUNDATIONS

Raft Foundations, also called Mat Foundations, are most often used when basements are to be
constructed. In a raft, the entire basement floor slab acts as the foundation; the weight of the
building is spread evenly over the entire footprint of the building. It is called a raft because the
building is like a vessel that 'floats' in a sea of soil.

Mat Foundations are used where the soil is week, and therefore building loads have to be
spread over a large area, or where columns are closely spaced, which means that if individual
footings were used, they would touch each other.

Read our page on raft foundations.

DEEP FOUNDATIONS
PILE FOUNDATIONS
A pile is basically a long cylinder of a strong material such as concrete that is pushed into the
ground so that structures can be supported on top of it.

Pile foundations are used in the following situations:

different Types of Shallow Foundations?

The different types of shallow foundation are:
o Strip footing
o Spread or isolated footing
o Combined footing Strap or cantilever footing
o Mat or raft Foundation.
1. Strip Footing:
A strip footing is provided for a load-bearing wall. A strip footing is also
provided for a row of columns which are so closely spaced that their spread
footings overlap or nearly touch each other. In such a case, it is more
economical to provide a strip footing than to provide a number of spread
footings in one line. A strip footing is also known as continuous footing.

2. Spread or Isolated Footing:

A spread footing (or isolated or pad) footing is provided to support an
individual column. A spread footing is circular, square or rectangular slab of
uniform thickness. Sometimes, it is stepped or haunched to spread the load
over a large area.
3. Combined Footing:
A combined footing supports two columns. It is used when the two columns
are so close to each other that their individual footings would overlap. A
combined footing is also provided when the property line is so close to one
column that a spread footing would be eccentrically loaded when kept
entirely within the property line. By combining it with that of an interior
column, the load is evenly distributed. A combined footing may be
rectangular or trapezoidal in plan.
4. Strap or Cantilever footing:
A strap (or cantilever) footing consists of two isolated footings connected
with a structural strap or a lever. The strap connects the two footings such
that they behave as one unit. The strap is designed as a rigid beam. The
individual footings are so designed that their combined line of action passes
through the resultant of the total load. a strap footing is more economical
than a combined footing when the allowable soil pressure is relatively high
and the distance between the columns is large.

5. Mat or Raft Foundations:

A mat or raft foundation is a large slab supporting a number of columns and
walls under the entire structure or a large part of the structure. A mat is
required when the allowable soil pressure is low or where the columns and
walls are so close that individual footings would overlap or nearly touch each
other.

Mat foundations are useful in reducing the differential settlements on non-

homogeneous soils or where there is a large variation in the loads on
individual columns.
Caissons are hollow substructures designed to be constructed on or near the
surface and then sunk as a single unit to their required level.

Cylinders:
Cylinders are small single-cell caissons.

Drilled Shaft foundations:

Shaft foundations are constructed within deep excavations supported by
lining constructed in place and subsequently filled with concrete or other
pre-fabricated load-bearing units.
Pile foundations:

Pile foundations are relatively long and slender members constructed by

driving preformed units to the desired founding level, or by driving or
drilling-in tubes to the required depth – the tubes being filled with concrete
before or during withdrawal or by drilling unlined or wholly or partly lined
boreholes which are then filled with concrete.

12(b)What are the factors influencing the

selections of dam .Explain with neat diagram
any one type of dam.
Whenever it is decided to construct a dam, the first question that one face is which type of
dam will be most suitable and most economical? Following are the factors affecting
selection of dam site by dam type.

1. Topography
2. Geology and Foundation Conditions
3. Availability of materials
4. Spillway size and location
5. Earthquake zone
6. Height of the Dam
7. Other factors such as cost of construction and maintenance, life of dam, aesthetics etc.

Factors Affecting Selection of Dam

These factors are discussed one by one.

Topography
Topography dictates the first choice of the type of dam.

1. A narrow U-shaped valley, i.e. a narrow stream flowing between high rocky walls, would
suggest a concrete overflow dam.
2. A low plain country, would suggest an earth fill dam with separate spillways.
3. A narrow V-shaped valley indicates the choice of an Arch dam

Geological and Foundation Conditions

Geological and Foundation conditions should be thoroughly surveyed because the
foundations have to carry the weight of the dam. Various kind of foundations generally
encountered are

1. Solid rock foundations such as granite have strong bearing power and almost every kind
of dam can be built on such foundations.
2. Gravel foundations are suitable for earthen and rock fill dams.
3. Silt and fine sand foundations suggest construction of earth dams or very low gravity
dams.
4. Clay foundations are likely to cause enormous settlement of the dam. Constructions of
gravity dams or rock fill dams are not suitable on such foundations. Earthen dams after
special treatments can be built.

Availability of Materials

Availability of materials is another important factor in selecting the type of dam. In order to
achieve economy in dam construction, the materials required must be available locally or at
short distances from the construction site.

Spillway Size and Location

spillway disposes the surplus river discharge. The capacity of the spillway will depend on
the magnitude of the floods to be by-passed. The spillway is therefore much more important
on rivers and streams with large flood potential.
Earthquake Zone

If dam is situated in an earthquake zone, its design must include earthquake forces. The
type of structure best suited to resist earthquake shocks without danger are earthen dams
and concrete gravity dams.

Height of Dam

Earthen dams are usually not provided for heights more than 30 m or so. For greater
heights, gravity dams are generally preferred.

Dams can be classified as per their functions, material of

construction, and structural design:
(i) Classification based on function:
ADVERTISEMENTS:

(a) Storage (or impounding) dam is constructed across a river to create

a reservoir for storing water during the period when the flow iii the
river is in excess. This stored water is then used for irrigation, power
generation and water supply when the demand exceeds the flow in the
river.

(b) Detention dam is primarily constructed to detain all or part of the

flood waters of a river and released later in such a way that the region
downstream of the dam is safe against flood damages. A dam can also
serve both the functions of detention as well as storage.

(c) Diversion dam is constructed for the purpose of diverting water

into a canal. Such a dam is usually called diversion weir.

(d) Coffer dam is a temporary dam constructed to keep water away

from a specific area to keep it dry for some specific purpose, such as
construction of the main dam. The coffer dam too acts like diversion
dam.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

(e) Debris dam is constructed across a river to trap sediments of the

river.
(ii) Classification based on material of construction:
(a) Earth and rock fill dams are constructed of loose earth (ranging
from fine material to big rock pieces) without any binding material. An
earth dam having its major portion built of rocks is called rock fill
dam. Such dams are also known as non-rigid dams.

(b) Masonry dams are rigid dams constructed of either stone or brick
masonry.

(c) Concrete dams too are rigid dams constructed of concrete.

(iii) Classification based on structural design:

(a) Earth and rock fill dams are non-rigid dams constructed of loose
earth material. Shear strength of the soil used in the construction of
these dams opposes the forces exerted on the dam by water.

The difference between an earth and rock fill dam is that in case of
rock fill dam major portion of the dam is primarily made of rock
pieces, whereas in case of the earth dam it is the soil which is used for
the construction of embankment.

Conditions favouring selection of earth and rock fill dams

are as follows:
ADVERTISEMENTS:

(i) Significant thickness of soil deposits overlying bedrock.

(ii) Weak or soft bedrock which would not be able to resist high
stresses from a concrete dam.

(iii) Abutments of either deep soil deposits or weak rock.

(iv) Availability of a suitable location for a spillway.

(v) Availability of sufficient and suitable soils from required

excavation or nearby borrow areas.

Earth dams are further divided into the following types:

(i) Homogeneous earth dam

(ii) Zoned earth dam

Homogeneous earth dams are constructed entirely or almost entirely

of one type of earth material. A zoned earth dam, however, contains
materials of different kinds in different parts of the embankment.
Homogeneous earth dam is usually built when only one type of
material is economically available, and/or the height of the dam is not
very large.

A homogeneous earth dam of height exceeding about 6 to 8 m should

always have some type of drain [Fig. 11.1(a)] constructed of material
more pervious than the embankment soil. Such drains reduce pore
pressures in the downstream portion of the dam and, thus, increase
the stability of the downstream slope.

Besides, the drains control the outgoing seepage water in such a

manner that it does not carry away embankment soil i.e., piping does
not develop. Such a dam is also categorized as homogeneous
(sometimes ‘modified homogeneous’) dam [Fig. 11.1(a)).

The most common type of an earth dam usually adopted is the zoned
earth dam as it leads to an economic and more stable design of the
dam. In a zoned earth dam [Fig. 11.1(b)], there is a central impervious
core which is flanked by zones of more pervious material. The pervious
zones, also known as shells, enclose, support and protect the
impervious core.
The upstream shell provides stability against rapid drawdowns of
reservoir, while the downstream shell acts as a drain to control the line
of seepage and provides stability to the dam during construction and
operation of the dam. The central core provides imperviousness to the
embankment and reduces the seepage.

The impervious core can be placed either as vertical core or upstream

sloping core each of which has some advantages over the other. A
vertical core results in higher pressure on the contact between the core
and the foundation which, in turn, reduces the possibility of leakage
along the contact. Besides, for a given quantity of impervious material,
vertical core will have greater thickness.

The main advantage of an upstream sloping core is that the main

downstream shell can be constructed first, and the core placed later—
an advantageous feature in areas having short spell of dry weather
suitable for building a core of fine-grained soil. Also, foundation
grouting can be carried out while the downstream embankment is
being constructed.

A rock-fill dam (Fig. 11.2) is made of large-sized rock pieces to provide

stability and an impervious membrane to provide water-tightness.
Materials used for the membrane are: earth, concrete, steel, asphalt
and wood. The impervious membrane can be placed either on the
upstream face of the dam or as a core inside the embankment.

The major causes of failure of an earth dam are overtopping, piping,

and earth slides in a portion of the embankment and its foundation
(due to insufficient shear strength). Out of these three, overtopping is
the most common cause of complete and catastrophic failure of an
embankment dam.

The design of an embankment dam must meet the following

safety requirements:
(i) There is no danger of overtopping. For this purpose, spillway of
adequate capacity and sufficient freeboard must be provided.

(ii) The seepage line is well within the downstream face so that
horizontal piping may not occur.

(iii) The upstream and the downstream slopes are flat enough to be
stable with the materials used for the construction of embankment for
all conditions during construction, operation and sudden drawdown.

(iv) The shear stress induced in the foundation is less than the shear
strength of the foundation material. For this purpose, the embank-
ment slopes should be sufficiently flat.
(v) The upstream and the downstream faces are properly protected
against wave action and the action of rain water, respectively.

(vi) There should not be any possibility of free passage of water

through the embankment.

(vii) Foundation seepage should not result in piping at the

downstream toe of the dam.

(viii) The top of the dam must be high enough to allow for the
settlement of the dam and its foundation.

(ix) The foundations, abutments and the embankment must be stable

for all conditions of operation (steady seepage and sudden drawdown)
and construction.

(b) Gravity dam (Fig. 11.3) is a masonry or concrete dam which resists
the forces exerted upon it due to all applied loads, and its own weight.
The Bhakra dam in Punjab is a gravity dam. The downstream face of a
gravity dam usually has a uniform slope which, if extended, would
intersect the vertical upstream face at or near the maximum water
level in the reservoir.
The upper portion of the dam is made thick enough to accommodate
the roadway or other required access as well as to resist the shock of
floating objects. The upstream face of a gravity dam is usually kept
vertical so that most of its weight is concentrated near the upstream
face to resist effectively the tensile stresses due to reservoir water
loading.

The thickness of the dam provides resistance to sliding and may,

therefore, dictate the slope of the downstream face which is usually in
the range of 0.7 to 0.8 (H):1(V). The thickness in the lower part of the
dam may also be increased by an upstream batter.

(c) Arch dam (Fig. 11.4) is a curved masonry or concrete dam having
its convex face upstream. Such a dam resists forces, exerted upon it
due to water pressure, by arch action. The Idduki dam in Kerala is an
arch dam.

(d) Buttress dam (Fig. 11.5) has a sloping deck which retains water and
is supported by a series of butteresses which are usually in the form of
triangular reinforced concrete or masonry walls.
Choice of the Type of Dam:
The following are the important factors which affect the
choice of the type of dam:
(i) Topography

(ii) Geology and foundation conditions

(iii) Material available

(iv) Size and location of spillway

The topography of the site dictates the first choice of the type of dam.
A Concreter dam would be the obvious choice for a narrow stream
flowing between high and rocky abutments (i.e., deep gorges). Broad
valleys in plains would suggest an embankment dam with a separate
spillway.

Geological and hydro-geological characteristics of the strata, which are

to carry the weight of the dam, determine the foundation conditions.
Any type of dam can be constructed on solid rock foundations. Well-
compacted gravel foundations are suitable for concrete gravity dams of
small height, earth-fill and rock-fill dams.

However, effective water cutoffs are required to check the foundation

seepage. Silt or fine sand foundations can be used to support concrete
dams of small height and earth-fill dams. Problems of settlement,
piping and the foundation seepage are associated with this type of
foundation. Non-uniform foundations containing different types of
strata will usually require special treatment before any type of dam is
constructed on such foundation.

If the construction materials which are to be used in large quantity for

the construction of dam are available in sufficient quantity within a
reasonable distance from the site, the cost of the dam will be
considerably reduced due to saving on transportation of the
construction materials.

If suitable soils for the construction of an earth-fill dam are locally

available in nearby borrow pits, choice of an earth-fill dam would be
the most economical. The availability of sand and gravel (for concrete)
near the dam site would reduce the cost of a concrete dam.

Spillway is a major part of any dam and its size and type and the
natural restrictions in its location will affect the selection of the type of
dam. Spillway requirements are decided by the runoff and stream-flow
characteristics.

As such, spillway on dams across streams of large flood potential can

become the dominant part of the dam and put the selection of the type
of dam to a seconder position. For large spillways, it may be desirable
to combine the spillway and dam into one structure.

This is possible only in concrete dams. Earth and rockfill dams are
based on more conservative design assumptions and, hence, spillway
is generally not constructed as part of the embankment. On the other
hand, excavated material from separate spillway can be
advantageously used for the construction of an embankment dam.

Selection of Site for a Dam:

Site conditions and choice of type of dam are closely interrelated.
Further, in case of embankment dams, site conditions considerably
influence the design of the dam.
Nevertheless, there are some guidelines which must be
followed while selecting a suitable site for any type of dam:
(i) Availability of suitable foundation:
While an earth dam can be designed for and constructed on any type
of foundation, concrete dams require relatively stronger foundation.
Foundations can be improved to some extent by taking suitable steps
for foundation treatment.

(ii) Considerable economy will be achieved if the dam is sited at the

narrowest section in the river valley subject to fulfillment of other
requirements.
(iii) Spillway is an important component of a dam. In case of a
concrete dam, it may be accommodated in the main dam section. But,
in case of earth dams, it has to be away from the main dam and, hence,
suitable site should be available for the spillway too.
(iv) From economic considerations, it would be advantageous if the
bulk of the construction material is available close to the dam site. In
case of earth dams, the design is so made as to use locally available
material as much as possible.
(v) The area upstream of the dam must be suitable for the
requirements of a reservoir.
(vi) The environmental considerations, including displacement of
local people, require that there is minimum damage to the local
environment, and minimum hardship to the local people. At times,
these become governing factors in selecting the site of a dam.
(vii) The selected site should be such that it results in overall economy
in construction, maintenance and operation of the wate
13(a )Explain with a neat sketch of thermal
(steam) power plant .

Types of thermal energy

Almost all coal, petroleum, nuclear, geothermal, solar thermal electric, and waste incineration plants,
as well as many natural gas power stations are thermal. Natural gas is frequently combusted in gas
turbines as well as boilers. The waste heat from a gas turbine, in the form of hot exhaust gas, can be
used to raise steam, by passing this gas through a Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) the
steam is then used to drive a steam turbine in a combined cycle plant that improves overall
efficiency. Power stations burning coal, fuel oil, or natural gas are often called fossil-fuel power
stations. Some biomass-fueled thermal power stations have appeared also. Non-nuclear thermal
power stations, particularly fossil-fueled plants, which do not use co-generation are sometimes
referred to as conventional power stations.
Commercial electric utility power stations are usually constructed on a large scale and designed for
continuous operation. Virtually all Electric power stations use three-phase electrical generators to
produce alternating current (AC) electric power at a frequency of 50 Hz or 60 Hz. Large companies
or institutions may have their own power stations to supply heating or electricity to their facilities,
especially if steam is created anyway for other purposes.
Steam-driven power stations have been used to drive most ships in most of the 20th century until
recently. Steam power stations are now only used in large nuclear naval ships. Shipboard power
stations usually directly couple the turbine to the ship's propellers through gearboxes. Power stations
in such ships also provide steam to smaller turbines driving electric generators to supply
electricity. Nuclear marine propulsion is, with few exceptions, used only in naval vessels. There have
been many turbo-electric ships in which a steam-driven turbine drives an electric generator which
powers an electric motor for propulsion.

History[edit]
The initially developed reciprocating steam engine has been used to produce mechanical power
since the 18th Century, with notable improvements being made by James Watt. When the first
commercially developed central electrical power stations were established in 1882 at Pearl Street
Station in New York and Holborn Viaduct power station in London, reciprocating steam engines were
used. The development of the steam turbine in 1884 provided larger and more efficient machine
designs for central generating stations. By 1892 the turbine was considered a better alternative to
reciprocating engines;[2] turbines offered higher speeds, more compact machinery, and stable speed
regulation allowing for parallel synchronous operation of generators on a common bus. After about
1905, turbines entirely replaced reciprocating engines in large central power stations.
The largest reciprocating engine-generator sets ever built were completed in 1901 for the Manhattan
Elevated Railway. Each of seventeen units weighed about 500 tons and was rated 6000 kilowatts; a
contemporary turbine set of similar rating would have weighed about 20% as much.[3]
Thermal power generation efficiency[edit]

A Rankine cycle with a two-stage steam turbine and a single feed water heater.

The energy efficiency of a conventional thermal power station, considered salable energy produced
as a percent of the heating value of the fuel consumed, is typically 33% to 48%.[citation needed][4] As with all
heat engines, their efficiency is limited, and governed by the laws of thermodynamics. Other types of
power stations are subject to different efficiency limitations, most hydropower stations in the United
States are about 90 percent efficient in converting the energy of falling water into electricity[5] while
the efficiency of a wind turbine is limited by Betz's law, to about 59.3%.
The energy of a thermal power station not utilized in power production must leave the plant in the
form of heat to the environment. This waste heat can go through a condenser and be disposed of
with cooling water or in cooling towers. If the waste heat is instead utilized for district heating, it is
called co-generation. An important class of thermal power station are associated
with desalination facilities; these are typically found in desert countries with large supplies of natural
gas and in these plants, freshwater production and electricity are equally important co-products.
The Carnot efficiency dictates that higher efficiencies can be attained by increasing the temperature
of the steam. Sub-critical fossil fuel power stations can achieve 36–40% efficiency. Super
critical designs have efficiencies in the low to mid 40% range, with new "ultra critical" designs using
pressures of 4400 psi (30.3 MPa) and multiple stage reheat reaching about 48% efficiency. Above
the critical point for water of 705 °F (374 °C) and 3212 psi (22.06 MPa), there is no phase
transition from water to steam, but only a gradual decrease in density.
Currently most of the nuclear power stations must operate below the temperatures and pressures
that coal-fired plants do, in order to provide more conservative safety margins within the systems
that remove heat from the nuclear fuel rods. This, in turn, limits their thermodynamic efficiency to
30–32%. Some advanced reactor designs being studied, such as the very high temperature
reactor, advanced gas-cooled reactor and supercritical water reactor, would operate at temperatures
and pressures similar to current coal plants, producing comparable thermodynamic efficiency.

Electricity cost[edit]
See also: Relative cost of electricity generated by different sources

The direct cost of electric energy produced by a thermal power station is the result of cost of fuel,
capital cost for the plant, operator labour, maintenance, and such factors as ash handling and
disposal. Indirect, social or environmental costs such as the economic value of environmental
impacts, or environmental and health effects of the complete fuel cycle and plant decommissioning,
are not usually assigned to generation costs for thermal stations in utility practice, but may form part
of an environmental impact assessment.

Typical coal thermal power station[edit]

Boiler and steam cycle[edit]

In the nuclear plant field, steam generator refers to a specific type of large heat exchanger used in
a pressurized water reactor (PWR) to thermally connect the primary (reactor plant) and secondary
(steam plant) systems, which generates steam. In a nuclear reactor called a boiling water
reactor (BWR), water is boiled to generate steam directly in the reactor itself and there are no units
called steam generators.
In some industrial settings, there can also be steam-producing heat exchangers called heat recovery
steam generators (HRSG) which utilize heat from some industrial process, most commonly utilizing
hot exhaust from a gas turbine. The steam generating boiler has to produce steam at the high purity,
pressure and temperature required for the steam turbine that drives the electrical generator.
Geothermal plants do not need a boiler since they use naturally occurring steam sources. Heat
exchangers may be used where the geothermal steam is very corrosive or contains excessive
suspended solids.
A fossil fuel steam generator includes an economizer, a steam drum, and the furnace with its steam
generating tubes and superheater coils. Necessary safety valves are located at suitable points to
relieve excessive boiler pressure. The air and flue gas path equipment include: forced draft
(FD) fan, air preheater (AP), boiler furnace, induced draft (ID) fan, fly ash collectors (electrostatic
precipitator or baghouse) and the flue gas stack.[6][7][8]

Feed water heating and deaeration[edit]

The boiler feedwater used in the steam boiler is a means of transferring heat energy from the
burning fuel to the mechanical energy of the spinning steam turbine. The total feed water consists of
recirculated condensate water and purified makeup water. Because the metallic materials it contacts
are subject to corrosion at high temperatures and pressures, the makeup water is highly purified
before use. A system of water softeners and ion exchange demineralizers produces water so pure
that it coincidentally becomes an electrical insulator, with conductivity in the range of 0.3–
1.0 microsiemens per centimeter. The makeup water in a 500 MWe plant amounts to perhaps 120
US gallons per minute (7.6 L/s) to replace water drawn off from the boiler drums for water purity
management, and to also offset the small losses from steam leaks in the system.
The feed water cycle begins with condensate water being pumped out of the condenser after
traveling through the steam turbines. The condensate flow rate at full load in a 500 MW plant is
about 6,000 US gallons per minute (400 L/s).

Diagram of boiler feed water deaerator (with vertical, domed aeration section and horizontal water storage
section).

The water is pressurized in two stages, and flows through a series of six or seven intermediate feed
water heaters, heated up at each point with steam extracted from an appropriate duct on the
turbines and gaining temperature at each stage. Typically, in the middle of this series of feedwater
heaters, and before the second stage of pressurization, the condensate plus the makeup water flows
through a deaerator[9][10] that removes dissolved air from the water, further purifying and reducing its
corrosiveness. The water may be dosed following this point with hydrazine, a chemical that removes
the remaining oxygen in the water to below 5 parts per billion (ppb).[vague] It is also dosed
with pH control agents such as ammonia or morpholine to keep the residual aciditylow and thus non-
corrosive.

Boiler operation[edit]
The boiler is a rectangular furnace about 50 feet (15 m) on a side and 130 feet (40 m) tall. Its walls
are made of a web of high pressure steel tubes about 2.3 inches (58 mm) in diameter.
Pulverized coal is air-blown into the furnace through burners located at the four corners, or along
one wall, or two opposite walls, and it is ignited to rapidly burn, forming a large fireball at the center.
The thermal radiation of the fireball heats the water that circulates through the boiler tubes near the
boiler perimeter. The water circulation rate in the boiler is three to four times the throughput. As the
water in the boiler circulates it absorbs heat and changes into steam. It is separated from the water
inside a drum at the top of the furnace. The saturated steam is introduced into superheat pendant
tubes that hang in the hottest part of the combustion gases as they exit the furnace. Here the steam
is superheated to 1,000 °F (540 °C) to prepare it for the turbine.
Plants designed for lignite (brown coal) are increasingly used in locations as varied
as Germany, Victoria, Australia and North Dakota. Lignite is a much younger form of coal than black
coal. It has a lower energy density than black coal and requires a much larger furnace for equivalent
heat output. Such coals may contain up to 70% water and ash, yielding lower furnace temperatures
and requiring larger induced-draft fans. The firing systems also differ from black coal and typically
draw hot gas from the furnace-exit level and mix it with the incoming coal in fan-type mills that inject
the pulverized coal and hot gas mixture into the boiler.
Plants that use gas turbines to heat the water for conversion into steam use boilers known as heat
recovery steam generators (HRSG). The exhaust heat from the gas turbines is used to make
superheated steam that is then used in a conventional water-steam generation cycle, as described
in gas turbine combined-cycle plants section below.

Boiler furnace and steam drum[edit]

The water enters the boiler through a section in the convection pass called the economizer. From
the economizer it passes to the steam drum and from there it goes through downcomers to inlet
headers at the bottom of the water walls. From these headers the water rises through the water
walls of the furnace where some of it is turned into steam and the mixture of water and steam then
re-enters the steam drum. This process may be driven purely by natural circulation (because the
water is the downcomers is denser than the water/steam mixture in the water walls) or assisted by
pumps. In the steam drum, the water is returned to the downcomers and the steam is passed
through a series of steam separators and dryers that remove water droplets from the steam. The dry
steam then flows into the superheater coils.

Superheater[edit]
Fossil fuel power stations often have a superheater section in the steam generating furnace.[citation
needed]
The steam passes through drying equipment inside the steam drum on to the superheater, a
set of tubes in the furnace. Here the steam picks up more energy from hot flue gases outside the
tubing, and its temperature is now superheated above the saturation temperature. The superheated
steam is then piped through the main steam lines to the valves before the high-pressure turbine.
Nuclear-powered steam plants do not have such sections but produce steam at essentially saturated
conditions. Experimental nuclear plants were equipped with fossil-fired super heaters in an attempt
to improve overall plant operating cost.[citation needed]

Steam condensing[edit]
The condenser condenses the steam from the exhaust of the turbine into liquid to allow it to be
pumped. If the condenser can be made cooler, the pressure of the exhaust steam is reduced and
efficiency of the cycle increases.

Diagram of a typical water-cooled surface

condenser.[7][8][11][12]
The surface condenser is a shell and tube heat exchanger in which cooling water is circulated
through the tubes.[7][11][12][13] The exhaust steam from the low-pressure turbine enters the shell, where it
is cooled and converted to condensate (water) by flowing over the tubes as shown in the adjacent
diagram. Such condensers use steam ejectorsor rotary motor-driven exhausts for continuous
removal of air and gases from the steam side to maintain vacuum.
Typically the cooling water causes the steam to condense at a temperature of about 25 °C (77 °F)
and that creates an absolute pressure in the condenser of about 2–7 kPa (0.59–2.07 inHg), i.e.
a vacuum of about −95 kPa (−28 inHg) relative to atmospheric pressure. The large decrease in
volume that occurs when water vapor condenses to liquid creates the low vacuum that helps pull
steam through and increase the efficiency of the turbines.
The limiting factor is the temperature of the cooling water and that, in turn, is limited by the prevailing
average climatic conditions at the power station's location (it may be possible to lower the
temperature beyond the turbine limits during winter, causing excessive condensation in the turbine).
Plants operating in hot climates may have to reduce output if their source of condenser cooling water
becomes warmer; unfortunately this usually coincides with periods of high electrical demand for air
conditioning.
The condenser generally uses either circulating cooling water from a cooling tower to reject waste
heat to the atmosphere, or once-through water from a river, lake or ocean.

A Marley mechanical induced draft cooling tower

The heat absorbed by the circulating cooling water in the condenser tubes must also be removed to
maintain the ability of the water to cool as it circulates. This is done by pumping the warm water from
the condenser through either natural draft, forced draft or induced draft cooling towers (as seen in
the adjacent image) that reduce the temperature of the water by evaporation, by about 11 to 17 °C
(20 to 30 °F)—expelling waste heat to the atmosphere. The circulation flow rate of the cooling water
in a 500 MW unit is about 14.2 m³/s (500 ft³/s or 225,000 US gal/min) at full load.[14]
The condenser tubes are made of brass or stainless steel to resist corrosion from either side.
Nevertheless, they may become internally fouled during operation by bacteria or algae in the cooling
water or by mineral scaling, all of which inhibit heat transfer and reduce thermodynamic efficiency.
Many plants include an automatic cleaning system that circulates sponge rubber balls through the
tubes to scrub them clean without the need to take the system off-line.[citation needed]
Another form of condensing system is the air-cooled condenser. The process is similar to that of
a radiator and fan. Exhaust heat from the low-pressure section of a steam turbine runs through the
condensing tubes, the tubes are usually finned and ambient air is pushed through the fins with the
help of a large fan. The steam condenses to water to be reused in the water-steam cycle. Air-cooled
condensers typically operate at a higher temperature than water-cooled versions. While saving
water, the efficiency of the cycle is reduced (resulting in more carbon dioxide per megawatt-hour of
electricity).
From the bottom of the condenser, powerful condensate pumps recycle the condensed steam
(water) back to the water/steam cycle.

Reheater[edit]
Power station furnaces may have a reheater section containing tubes heated by hot flue gases
outside the tubes. Exhaust steam from the high-pressure turbine is passed through these heated
tubes to collect more energy before driving the intermediate and then low-pressure turbines.
Air path[edit]
External fans are provided to give sufficient air for combustion. The Primary air fan takes air from the
atmosphere and, first warms the air in the air preheater for better economy. Primary air then passes
through the coal pulverizers, and carries the coal dust to the burners for injection into the furnace.
The Secondary air fan takes air from the atmosphere and, first warms the air in the air preheater for
better economy. Secondary air is mixed with the coal/primary air flow in the burners.
The induced draft fan assists the FD fan by drawing out combustible gases from the furnace,
maintaining a slightly negative pressure in the furnace to avoid leakage of combustion products from
the boiler casing.

Steam turbine generator[edit]

Main article: Turbo generator

Rotor of a modern steam turbine, used in a power station

The turbine generator consists of a series of steam turbines interconnected to each other and a
generator on a common shaft. There is usually a high-pressure turbine at one end, followed by an
intermediate-pressure turbine, and finally one, two, or three low-pressure turbines, and the
generator. As steam moves through the system and loses pressure and thermal energy, it expands
in volume, requiring increasing diameter and longer blades at each succeeding stage to extract the
remaining energy. The entire rotating mass may be over 200 metric tons and 100 feet (30 m) long. It
is so heavy that it must be kept turning slowly even when shut down (at 3 rpm) so that the shaft will
not bow even slightly and become unbalanced. This is so important that it is one of only six functions
of blackout emergency power batteries on site. (The other five being emergency
lighting, communication, station alarms, generator hydrogen seal system, and turbogenerator lube
oil.)
For a typical late 20th-century power station, superheated steam from the boiler is delivered through
14–16-inch (360–410 mm) diameter piping at 2,400 psi (17 MPa; 160 atm) and 1,000 °F (540 °C) to
the high-pressure turbine, where it falls in pressure to 600 psi (4.1 MPa; 41 atm) and to 600 °F
(320 °C) in temperature through the stage. It exits via 24–26-inch (610–660 mm) diameter cold
reheat lines and passes back into the boiler, where the steam is reheated in special reheat pendant
tubes back to 1,000 °F (540 °C). The hot reheat steam is conducted to the intermediate pressure
turbine, where it falls in both temperature and pressure and exits directly to the long-bladed low-
pressure turbines and finally exits to the condenser.
The generator, 30 feet (9 m) long and 12 feet (3.7 m) in diameter, contains a stationary stator and a
spinning rotor, each containing miles of heavy copper conductor—no permanent magnets here. In
operation it generates up to 21,000 amperes at 24,000 volts AC (504 MWe) as it spins at either
3,000 or 3,600 rpm, synchronized to the power grid. The rotor spins in a sealed chamber cooled
with hydrogen gas, selected because it has the highest known heat transfer coefficient of any gas
and for its low viscosity, which reduces windage losses. This system requires special handling
during startup, with air in the chamber first displaced by carbon dioxide before filling with hydrogen.
This ensures that a highly explosive hydrogen–oxygen environment is not created.
The power grid frequency is 60 Hz across North America and 50 Hz
in Europe, Oceania, Asia (Korea and parts of Japan are notable exceptions) and parts of Africa. The
desired frequency affects the design of large turbines, since they are highly optimized for one
particular speed.
The electricity flows to a distribution yard where transformers increase the voltage for transmission
to its destination.
The steam turbine-driven generators have auxiliary systems enabling them to work satisfactorily and
safely. The steam turbine generator, being rotating equipment, generally has a heavy, large-
diameter shaft. The shaft therefore requires not only supports but also has to be kept in position
while running. To minimize the frictional resistance to the rotation, the shaft has a number
of bearings. The bearing shells, in which the shaft rotates, are lined with a low-friction material
like Babbitt metal. Oil lubrication is provided to further reduce the friction between shaft and bearing
surface and to limit the heat generated.

Stack gas path and cleanup[edit]

See also: Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion and Flue-gas desulfurization

As the combustion flue gas exits the boiler it is routed through a rotating flat basket of metal mesh
which picks up heat and returns it to incoming fresh air as the basket rotates. This is called the air
preheater. The gas exiting the boiler is laden with fly ash, which are tiny spherical ash particles. The
flue gas contains nitrogen along with combustion products carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide,
and nitrogen oxides. The fly ash is removed by fabric bag filters or electrostatic precipitators. Once
removed, the fly ash byproduct can sometimes be used in the manufacturing of concrete. This
cleaning up of flue gases, however, only occurs in plants that are fitted with the appropriate
technology. Still, the majority of coal-fired power stations in the world do not have these facilities.[citation
needed]
Legislation in Europe has been efficient to reduce flue gas pollution. Japan has been using flue
gas cleaning technology for over 30 years and the US has been doing the same for over 25 years.
China is now beginning to grapple with the pollution caused by coal-fired power stations.
Where required by law, the sulfur and nitrogen oxide pollutants are removed by stack gas
scrubbers which use a pulverized limestone or other alkaline wet slurry to remove those pollutants
from the exit stack gas. Other devices use catalysts to remove Nitrous Oxide compounds from the
flue gas stream. The gas travelling up the flue gas stack may by this time have dropped to about
50 °C (120 °F). A typical flue gas stack may be 150–180 metres (490–590 ft) tall to disperse the
remaining flue gas components in the atmosphere. The tallest flue gas stack in the world is 419.7
metres (1,377 ft) tall at the GRES-2 Power Station in Ekibastuz, Kazakhstan.
In the United States and a number of other countries, atmospheric dispersion modeling[15] studies are
required to determine the flue gas stack height needed to comply with the local air
pollution regulations. The United States also requires the height of a flue gas stack to comply with
what is known as the "Good Engineering Practice (GEP)" stack height.[16][17] In the case of existing
flue gas stacks that exceed the GEP stack height, any air pollution dispersion modeling studies for
such stacks must use the GEP stack height rather than the actual stack height.

Fly ash collection[edit]

Fly ash is captured and removed from the flue gas by electrostatic precipitators or fabric bag filters
(or sometimes both) located at the outlet of the furnace and before the induced draft fan. The fly ash
is periodically removed from the collection hoppers below the precipitators or bag filters. Generally,
the fly ash is pneumatically transported to storage silos for subsequent transport by trucks or railroad
cars.

Bottom ash collection and disposal[edit]

At the bottom of the furnace, there is a hopper for collection of bottom ash. This hopper is always
filled with water to quench the ash and clinkers falling down from the furnace. Some arrangement is
13(b) Explain the working principle of a single
acting reciprocating pump with help of a line
sketch.
Pumping Capacity Example Question
BASIC PRINCIPLES
I. The pumping action in any reciprocating pump is dependent upon the positive
displacement or the fluid pumped by a piston or plunger. The capacity of the pump is,
therefore, determined by the area of the piston and its rate of travel. In order to obtain a
practical machine, some method of reversing the direction of the pistons is required. In the
direct-acting steam pump, this is accomplished by the steam valves and valve gear; in
power pumps, this is accomplished by use of crank and connecting rods.
2. The ability of the pump to produce pressure is dependent upon the ratio of total steam
force (steam pressure per unit area x area of steam piston) to total liquid force (pump head
x area of liquid piston). In order that pumping may occur, it is necessary that the steam
force exceed the liquid force by an amount which slightly exceeds the various mechanical
and hydraulic losses encountered. The basic principles for steam pump operation are shown
below.
TYPES OF PUMPS
I. Direct-acting reciprocating pumps are classed as follows:
A. Horizontal or vertical.
B. Single or duplex. A single pump has one liquid piston or
its equivalent single or double-acting plunger; a duplex pump
has two liquid pistons or their equivalent single or double-
acting plungers.
C. Single or double-acting. A single-acting unit pumps on one
direction of piston travel only whereas double-acting units
pump on both strokes. Direct-acting steam pumps are usually
double acting.
2. Direct-acting steam pumps are conventionally described by stating the steam cylinder
diameter, the liquid cylinder diameter, the length of stroke, horizontal or vertical (H or V),
single or duplex (S or D), and single or double-acting (SA or DA). Thus a pump identified as
11 x 8 x 18
VSDA has an 11 inch steam cylinder, 8 inch water cylinder, 18 inch stroke, and is a vertical
single double-acting pump.

General Characteristics
Reciprocating pumps move water or other liquids by a plunger or piston that travels back
and forth inside a cylinder.
Positive displacement, often used for small capacities and when needed to avoid churning of
centrifugal pumps. Can pump foaming liquids and high viscosity liquids.
Can control flow by regulating speed of drive with no head loss by throttling as in a
centrifugal pump. Used often at high or very high pressures. Also often used as metering
pumps because of constancy of flow rate. The flow rate can be easily changed by adjusting
the RPM of the driver.
Pumps ideally will produce any head that is impressed on them. The maximum head is
determined by the power available and the strength of the pump parts. An automatic relief
valve set at a safe pressure is used on the discharge side of all positive displacement
pumps.
Never throttle on the discharge side to reduce the flow rate of a positive displacement
pump. The fluid has no place to go and something will break. Can throttle on the steam
driver or regulate the RPM of the electric motor to change the flow rate.
Unlike centrifugal pumps, positive displacement pumps are self priming.

USAGE IN MARITIME SERVICE

On ships a great number of applications are still served by steam reciprocating pumps,
including:
A. Auxiliary feed.
B. Standby fuel oil service.
C. Fuel oil transfer.
D. Auxiliary circulating and condensate.
E. Fire and bilge.
F. Ballast.
G. High pressure evaporator.
H. Lubricating oil transfer.
I. Cargo stripping.
J. General service.
Direct-acting steam reciprocating pumps are not obsolete. If the steam conditions are not
too severe in pressure, temperature, or superheat, they have many features of simplicity,
reliability, and economy of operation and maintenance that still warrant serious
consideration for many services.
Operation
PREPARING PUMP FOR OPERATION
The following steps .should be taken before putting a pump into operation for the first time,
after an overhaul, or after the ship has been drydocked:
1. Check alinement and correct if necessary. If pump is
operated out of line, scoring of rods and liners will result.
2. Steam and liquid lines should be free from scale and
foreign matter.
Pumping Capacity

Simplex single acting pumps discharge the cylinder volume for each 2 strokes. The forward
stroke discharges the cylinder and the back stroke or reverse stroke fills the cylinder.

Simplex double acting pumps discharge the cylinder volume for each pump stroke. The
forward stroke discharges the cylinder in front of the piston while filling the cylinder behind
the piston. The back or reverse stroke discharges the cylinder behind the piston while filling
the cylinder forward of the piston.

Duplex double acting pumps use 2 double-acting cylinders in parallel, and pump two
cylinder volumes for each pump stroke.
Duplex single acting pumps use 2 single-acting cylinders in parallel, and pump one cylinder
volume for each pump stroke.

Capacity
Pump Capacity in GPM Gallons Per / Minute = volume discharged in gallons per pump
stroke multiplied by strokes per minute.
To determine the volume of the cylinder, multiply the area of the circle by the height of
the cylinder.
Volume of a Cylinder is equal to:
= (area of the circle) * (height)
= ( R2) * (height)
=  R2 H
Example Question
If you have a simplex double acting reciprocating pump making 110 strokes/minute, with a
5" diameter cylinder, a 4" stroke and operating with 95% volumetric efficiency, what is the
capacity of this pump?
First we need to find the volume of the cylinder.
Pi The ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle
= 3.14159265358979323846... = 3.14
Radius Squared = 6.25
Height = 4
(3.14 x 6.25) x 4 = 78.5 cubic inches
Double acting pumps discharge the cylinder volume on each stroke so we multiply 78.5
cubic inches by 110 strokes per minute. If this was a single acting pump which only
discharges on the forward stroke we would divide the number of strokes in half.
78.5 cubic inches x 110 strokes per minute = 8635 Cu. In.
per minute
Convert cubic inches to gallons, 1 gallon = 231 cubic inches
8635 cubic inches divided by 231 = 37.38 gallons per minute
The question states the pump is operating with 95% volumetric efficiency. Multiply the
capacity by 95%
37.38 x .95 = 35.51 GPM

14(a) Explain the working principle of four

stroke cycle diesel engine with neat sketch.
Working of a four stroke Diesel engine

Power generation in four stroke is divided into four parts namely suction stroke,
compression stroke, expansion stroke (power stroke) and exhaust stroke.

Suction stroke:

In the suction stroke of diesel engine the piston start moves from Top Dead Centre
(TDC) of the cylinder to Bottom Dead Centre (BDC) of the cylinder and simultaneously
inlet valve opens. At this time air at atmospheric pressure drawn inside the cylinder
through the inlet valve due to the suction created. The inlet valve remains open until the
piston reaches the BDC of cylinder (not practically but theoretically.).

Pls note: All the images shows a spark plug but that is not present in Compression
ignition Engine.
Compression stroke:

After the piston passes BDC of the cylinder, it starts moving up. Both valves are closed
and hence the cylinder is sealed. The piston moves upward. This movement of piston
compresses the air into a small space between the piston and TDC of cylinder . The air is
compressed into 1/22 (compression ratio: 22, varies from engine to engine) or less of its
original volume. Due to this compression a high pressure and temperature is generated
inside the cylinder. Both the inlet and exhaust valves do not open during any part of this
stroke. At the end of compression stroke the piston is at TDC the cylinder.

Power stroke:

At the end of the compression stroke when the piston is at TDC a pre metered quantity
of diesel is injected into the cylinder by the injector. The temperature inside the cylinder
is very high which is sufficient to ignite the fuel injected and this generates tremendous
energy which is in the form of high pressure which pushes down the piston. The
connection rod carries this force to the crankshaft which turns to move the vehicle. At
the end of power stroke the piston reaches the BDC.

Exhaust stroke:

When the piston reaches the BDC after the power stroke, the exhaust valve opens. The
pressure of the burnt gases is higher than atmospheric pressure. This pressure
difference allows burnt gases to escape through the exhaust port and the piston move
through the TDC. At the end of exhaust all burn gases escape (theoretically) and exhaust
valve is
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A four-stroke engine (also known as four-cycle) is an internal combustion engine in which

the piston completes four separate strokes which constitute a single thermodynamic cycle. A
stroke refers to the full travel of the piston along the cylinder, in either direction. The four
separate strokes are termed:

1. Intake: this stroke of the piston begins at top dead center. The piston descends from
the top of the cylinder to the bottom of the cylinder, increasing the volume of the
cylinder. A mixture of fuel and air is forced by atmospheric (or greater by some form
of air pump) pressure into the cylinder through the intake port.
2. Compression: with both intake and exhaust valves closed, the piston returns to the top
of the cylinder compressing the air or fuel-air mixture into the cylinder head.
3. Power: this is the start of the second revolution of the cycle. While the piston is close
to Top Dead Centre, the compressed air–fuel mixture in a gasoline engine is ignited,
by a spark plug in gasoline engines, or which ignites due to the heat generated by
compression in a diesel engine. The resulting pressure from the combustion of the
compressed fuel-air mixture forces the piston back down toward bottom dead centre.
4. Exhaust: during the exhaust stroke, the piston once again returns to top dead centre
while the exhaust valve is open. This action expels the spent fuel-air mixture through
the exhaust valve(s).
Is this answer still relevant and up to date?

Dipender Gahlaut, Btech from Dronacharya College of Engineering

Answered Oct 27

Diesel engine which is also known as compression ignition engine is widely used in
automobile industries. Many big vehicles such as truck, bus, car etc. used diesel engine
as the power unit because of its higher torque and greater mileage than petrol engine.
Diesel engine is very popular in Indian market as well as in other countries because of
lower price of diesel than petrol in many countries. So the requirement of diesel engine
is much more than petrol engine.

The ignition temperature of diesel is lower than petrol so the working of diesel engine is
slightly different than petrol engine.

Working of Four Stroke Diesel Engine

The power generation process in four stroke diesel engine is also divided into four parts.
Each part is known as piston stroke. In IC engine, stroke is referred to the maximum
distance travel by the piston in a single direction. The piston is free to move only in
upward and downward direction. In four stroke engine the piston move two time up and
down and the crankshaft move two complete revolution to complete four piston cycle.
These are suction stroke, compression stroke, expansion stroke and exhaust stroke.

Suction stroke:

In the suction stroke or intake stroke of diesel engine the piston start moves from top
end of the cylinder to bottom end of the cylinder and simultaneously inlet valve opens.
At this time air at atmospheric pressure drawn inside the cylinder through the inlet
valve by a pump. The inlet valve remains open until the piston reaches the lower end of
cylinder. After it inlet valve close and seal the upper end of the cylinder.

Compression stroke:

After the piston passes bottom end of the cylinder, it starts moving up. Both valves are
closed and the cylinder is sealed at that time. The piston moves upward. This movement
of piston compresses the air into a small space between the top of the piston and
cylinder head. The air is compressed into 1/22 or less of its original volume. Due to this
compression a high pressure and temperature generate inside the cylinder. Both the
inlet and exhaust valves do not open during any part of this stroke. At the end of
compression stroke the piston is at top end of the cylinder.
Power stroke:

At the end of the compression stroke when the piston is at top end of the cylinder a
metered quantity of diesel is injected into the cylinder by the injector. The heat of
compressed air ignites the diesel fuel and generates high pressure which pushes down
the piston. The connection rod carries this force to the crankshaft which turns to move
the vehicle. At the end of power stroke the piston reach the bottom end of cylinder.

Exhaust stroke:

When the piston reaches the bottom end of cylinder after the power stroke, the exhaust
valve opens. At this time the burn gases inside the cylinder so the cylinder pressure is
slightly high from atmospheric pressure. This pressure difference allows burn gases to
escape through the exhaust port and the piston move through the top end of the
cylinder. At the end of exhaust all burn gases escape and exhaust valve closed. Now
again intake valve open and this process running until your vehicle starts.

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It’s simple, really!

You don’t say how much you do know, so let me start at the very beginning.

A “stroke” is a single pass of a piston in a cylinder: either up or down. The piston is like
your knee when riding a bike: it goes up and down whilst the feet on the pedals go in a
circular motion, thus converting up-down motion into round-round, and the push you
apply to the down strokes makes the bike go!

So, in an engine, the pedals are replaced by a crankshaft which goes round and round.

The piston is in a cylinder and slides up and down inside it. There is a lid which seals the
top of the cylinder which is called the cylinder head, but there are valves (minimum of 2)
which can open to let gasses in or out.

The sequence then is as follows:

The inlet valve opens as the piston starts to go down, sucking air into the cylinder.

The valve closes when the piston is at the bottom of the “stroke” and…..

the piston rises up the closed cylinder, compressing the air and making it hot.
At the top of the stroke, when the compressed air is at its hottest, diesel fuel is sprayed
into the hot air and it ignites.

The burning fuel expands rapidly and the pressure rises and therefore the piston is
pushed down and the crankshaft is turned.

When the piston reaches the bottom of its stroke the exhaust valve opens and the spent
gas is expelled by the piston rising again.

When it reaches the top again the exhaust valve closes, the inlet valve opens and the
sequence starts over again.

So, to summarise:

INLET > COMPRESSION > COMBUSTION > EXHAUST

14(b) Discuss the working of two stroke cycle

petrol engine with help of neat sketch.
Working of Two-Stroke Petrol Engine
Design of two-stroke engine was given by Dugald-Clerk in 1878. In this engine, suction and
exhaust strokes are eliminated. Instead of valves, ports are used. The exhaust gases are driven out
of the cylinder by the fresh charge entering the cylinder.

All the events in the two-stroke cycle are completed in two strokes. In two strokes crank shaft
makes one revolution; so the cycle is completed in one revolution of crank shaft. The control of
admission and exhaust in the engine is by ports; which open and close by movement of piston.
The charge enters the crankcase through inlet port due to pressure difference when the piston is
moving upward for compression. The crankcase works as an air pump as the piston moves up and
down. The charge is compressed by the pumping action of the piston due to the design of
crankcase. The partially compressed charge is supplied to engine cylinder through transfer port from
the crankcase. This compressed air traces a contour after striking the deflector and helps the
exhaust gases to move out of the cylinder.

As the piston continues to move upward, exhaust and transfer port get closed and the compression
is continued. In the end of compression the spark is created which ignites the charge and the
products of combustion thrust the piston from TDC to BDC. This cycle is repeated again and again.

Study of working of two stroke petrol and two stroke diesel engine with the help of cut section
models. DESCRIPTION : TWO-STROKE CYCLE ENGINES •Two Stroke Petrol engine •Two
Stroke Diesel engine TWO STROKE ENGINES In 1878, a British engineer introduced a cycle
which could be completed in two strokes of piston rather than four strokes as is the case with the
four-stroke cycle engines. In this engine suction and exhaust strokes are eliminated.

Here instead of valves, ports are used. The exhaust gases are driven out from engine cylinder by
the fresh charge of fuel entering the cylinder nearly at the end of the working stroke. A two-
stroke petrol engine (used in scooters, motor cycles etc.).The cylinder L is connected to a closed
crank chamber C.C. During the upward stroke of the piston M, the gases in L are compressed
and at the same time fresh air and fuel (petrol) mixture enters the crank chamber through the
valve V.

When the piston moves downwards, V closes and the mixture in the crank chamber is
compressed the piston is moving upwards and is compressing an explosive change which has
previously been supplied to L. Ignition takes place at the end of the stroke. The piston then
travels downwards due to expansion of the gases and near the end of this stroke the piston
uncovers the exhaust port (E.P.)and the burnt exhaust gases escape through this port.

The transfer port (T.P.) then is uncovered immediately, and the compressed charge from the
crank chamber flows into the cylinder and is deflected upwards by the hump provided on the
head of the piston.It may be noted that the incoming air-petrol mixture helps the removal of
gases from the engine-cylinder; if, in case these exhaust gases do not leave the cylinder ,the fresh
charge gets diluted and efficiency of the engine will decrease.

A two-stroke minibike
Lateral view of a two-stroke Forty series British Seagull outboard engine, the serial number dates it to
1954/1955

Two-stroke petrol engines are preferred when mechanical simplicity, light weight, and high power-to-
weight ratio are design priorities. With the traditional lubrication technique of mixing oil into the fuel,
they also have the advantage of working in any orientation, as there is no oil reservoir dependent on
gravity; this is an essential property for hand-held power tools such as chainsaws.
A number of mainstream automobile manufacturers have used two-stroke engines in the past,
including the Swedish Saab and German manufacturers DKW, Auto-Union, VEB Sachsenring
Automobilwerke Zwickau, and VEB Automobilwerk Eisenach. The Japanese
manufacturer Suzuki did the same in the 1970s.[2] Production of two-stroke cars ended in the 1980s
in the West, due to increasingly stringent regulation of air pollution.[3] Eastern Bloc countries
continued until around 1991, with the Trabant and Wartburg in East Germany. Two-stroke engines
are still found in a variety of small propulsion applications, such as outboard motors, high-
performance, small-capacity motorcycles, mopeds, and dirt bikes, underbones, scooters, tuk-
tuks, snowmobiles, karts, ultralight airplanes, and model airplanes and other model vehicles. They
are also common in power tools used outdoors, such as lawn mowers, chainsaws, and weed-
wackers.
With direct fuel injection and a sump-based lubrication system, a two-stroke engine produces air
pollution no worse than a four-stroke, and it can achieve higher thermodynamic efficiency.
Therefore, the cycle has historically also been used in large diesel engines, mostly large industrial
and marine engines, as well as some trucks and heavy machinery. There are several experimental
designs intended for automobile use: for instance, Lotus of Norfolk, UK, has a prototype direct-
injection two-stroke engine intended for alcohol fuels called the Omnivore[4][5] which it is
demonstrating in a version of the Exige.[6]

Different two-stroke design types[edit]

A two-stroke engine, in this case with an expansion chamber illustrates the effect of a reflected pressure wave
on the fuel charge. This is important for maximum charge pressure (volumetric efficiency) and fuel economy. It
is used on most high-performance engine designs.

Although the principles remain the same, the mechanical details of various two-stroke engines differ
depending on the type. The design types vary according to the method of introducing the charge to
the cylinder, the method of scavenging the cylinder (exchanging burnt exhaust for fresh mixture) and
the method of exhausting the cylinder.

Piston-controlled inlet port[edit]

Piston port is the simplest of the designs and the most common in small two-stroke engines. All
functions are controlled solely by the piston covering and uncovering the ports as it moves up and
down in the cylinder. In the 1970s, Yamaha worked out some basic principles for this system. They
found that, in general, widening an exhaust port increases the power by the same amount as raising
the port, but the power band does not narrow as it does when the port is raised. However, there is a
mechanical limit to the width of a single exhaust port, at about 62% of the bore diameter for
reasonable ring life. Beyond this, the rings will bulge into the exhaust port and wear quickly. A
maximum 70% of bore width is possible in racing engines, where rings are changed every few races.
Intake duration is between 120 and 160 degrees. Transfer port time is set at a minimum of 26
degrees. The strong low pressure pulse of a racing two-stroke expansion chamber can drop the
pressure to -7 PSI when the piston is at bottom dead center, and the transfer ports nearly wide open.
One of the reasons for high fuel consumption in two-strokes is that some of the incoming
pressurized fuel-air mixture is forced across the top of the piston, where it has a cooling action, and
straight out the exhaust pipe. An expansion chamber with a strong reverse pulse will stop this out-
going flow.[7] A fundamental difference from typical four-stroke engines is that the two-
stroke's crankcase is sealed and forms part of the induction process in gasoline and hot bulb
engines. Diesel two-strokes often add a Roots blower or piston pump for scavenging.

Reed inlet valve[edit]

Main article: Reed valve

A Cox Babe Bee 0.049 cubic inch (0.8 cubic cm) reed valve engine, disassembled, uses glow plug ignition. The
mass is 64 grams.

The reed valve is a simple but highly effective form of check valve commonly fitted in the intake tract
of the piston-controlled port. They allow asymmetric intake of the fuel charge, improving power and
economy, while widening the power band. They are widely used in motorcycle, ATV and marine
outboard engines.

Rotary inlet valve[edit]

The intake pathway is opened and closed by a rotating member. A familiar type sometimes seen on
small motorcycles is a slotted disk attached to the crankshaft which covers and uncovers an opening
in the end of the crankcase, allowing charge to enter during one portion of the cycle (aka disc valve).
Another form of rotary inlet valve used on two-stroke engines employs two cylindrical members with
suitable cutouts arranged to rotate one within the other - the inlet pipe having passage to the
crankcase only when the two cutouts coincide. The crankshaft itself may form one of the members,
as in most glow plug model engines. In another embodiment, the crank disc is arranged to be a
close-clearance fit in the crankcase, and is provided with a cutout which lines up with an inlet
passage in the crankcase wall at the appropriate time, as in Vespa motor scooters.
The advantage of a rotary valve is that it enables the two-stroke engine's intake timing to be
asymmetrical, which is not possible with piston-port type engines. The piston-port type engine's
intake timing opens and closes before and after top dead center at the same crank angle, making it
symmetrical, whereas the rotary valve allows the opening to begin and close earlier.
Rotary valve engines can be tailored to deliver power over a wider speed range or higher power over
a narrower speed range than either piston port or reed valve engine. Where a portion of the rotary
valve is a portion of the crankcase itself, it is particularly important that no wear is allowed to take
place.
Cross-flow-scavenged[edit]

Deflector piston with cross-flow scavenging

In a cross-flow engine, the transfer and exhaust ports are on opposite sides of the cylinder, and
a deflector on the top of the piston directs the fresh intake charge into the upper part of the cylinder,
pushing the residual exhaust gas down the other side of the deflector and out the exhaust port.[8]The
deflector increases the piston's weight and exposed surface area, affecting piston cooling and also
making it difficult to achieve an efficient combustion chamber shape. This design has been
superseded since the 1960s by the loop scavenging method (below), especially for motorbikes,
although for smaller or slower engines, such as lawn mowers, the cross-flow-scavenged design can
be an acceptable approach.

Loop-scavenged[edit]

The two-stroke cycle

1. Top dead center (TDC)

2. Bottom dead center (BDC)
A: Intake/scavenging
 B: Exhaust

C: Compression

D: Expansion (power)

Main article: Schnuerle porting

This method of scavenging uses carefully shaped and positioned transfer ports to direct the flow of
fresh mixture toward the combustion chamber as it enters the cylinder. The fuel/air mixture strikes
the cylinder head, then follows the curvature of the combustion chamber, and then is deflected
downward.
This not only prevents the fuel/air mixture from traveling directly out the exhaust port, but also
creates a swirling turbulence which improves combustion efficiency, power and economy. Usually, a
piston deflector is not required, so this approach has a distinct advantage over the cross-flow
scheme (above).
Often referred to as "Schnuerle" (or "Schnürle") loop scavenging after the German inventor of an
early form in the mid-1920s, it became widely adopted in that country during the 1930s and spread
further afield after World War II.
Loop scavenging is the most common type of fuel/air mixture transfer used on modern two-stroke
engines. Suzuki was one of the first manufacturers outside of Europe to adopt loop-scavenged two-
stroke engines. This operational feature was used in conjunction with the expansion chamber
exhaust developed by German motorcycle manufacturer, MZ and Walter Kaaden.
Loop scavenging, disc valves and expansion chambers worked in a highly coordinated way to
significantly increase the power output of two-stroke engines, particularly from the Japanese
manufacturers Suzuki, Yamaha and Kawasaki. Suzuki and Yamaha enjoyed success in grand Prix
motorcycle racing in the 1960s due in no small way to the increased power afforded by loop
scavenging.
An additional benefit of loop scavenging was the piston could be made nearly flat or slightly dome
shaped, which allowed the piston to be appreciably lighter and stronger, and consequently to
tolerate higher engine speeds. The "flat top" piston also has better thermal properties and is less
prone to uneven heating, expansion, piston seizures, dimensional changes and compression losses.
SAAB built 750 and 850 cc 3-cylinder engines based on a DKW design that proved reasonably
successful employing loop charging. The original SAAB 92 had a two-cylinder engine of
comparatively low efficiency. At cruising speed, reflected wave exhaust port blocking occurred at too
low a frequency. Using the asymmetric three-port exhaust manifold employed in the identical DKW
engine improved fuel economy.
The 750 cc standard engine produced 36 to 42 hp, depending on the model year. The Monte Carlo
Rally variant, 750 cc (with a filled crankshaft for higher base compression), generated 65 hp. An 850
cc version was available in the 1966 SAAB Sport (a standard trim model in comparison to the deluxe
trim of the Monte Carlo). Base compression comprises a portion of the overall compression ratio of a
two-stroke engine. Work published at SAE in 2012 points that loop scavenging is under every
circumstance more efficient than cross-flow scavenging.
Uniflow-scavenged[edit]

Uniflow scavenging

The uniflow two-stroke cycle

In a uniflow engine, the mixture, or "charge air" in the case of a diesel, enters at one end of the
cylinder controlled by the piston and the exhaust exits at the other end controlled by an exhaust
valve or piston. The scavenging gas-flow is therefore in one direction only, hence the name uniflow.
The valved arrangement is common in on-road, off-road and stationary two-stroke engines (Detroit
Diesel), certain small marine two-stroke engines (Gray Marine), certain railroad two-stroke diesel
locomotives (Electro-Motive Diesel) and large marine two-stroke main propulsion engines (Wärtsilä).
Ported types are represented by the opposed piston design in which there are two pistons in each
cylinder, working in opposite directions such as the Junkers Jumo 205 and Napier Deltic.[9]The once-
popular split-single design falls into this class, being effectively a folded uniflow. With advanced
angle exhaust timing, uniflow engines can be supercharged with a crankshaft-driven (piston[10] or
Roots) blower.

Stepped piston engine[edit]

he piston of this engine is "top-hat" shaped; the upper section forms the regular cylinder, and the
lower section performs a scavenging function. The units run in pairs, with the lower half of one piston
charging an adjacent combustion chamber.
This system is still partially dependent on total loss lubrication (for the upper part of the piston), the
other parts being sump lubricated with cleanliness and reliability benefits. The piston weight is only
about 20% heavier than a loop-scavenged piston because skirt thicknesses can be less. Bernard
Hooper Engineering Ltd. (BHE) is one of the more recent engine developers using this approach.[11]

Power valve systems[edit]

Main article: Two-stroke power valve system

Many modern two-stroke engines employ a power valve system. The valves are normally in or
around the exhaust ports. They work in one of two ways: either they alter the exhaust port by closing
off the top part of the port, which alters port timing, such
as Rotax R.A.V.E, YamahaYPVS, Honda RC-Valve, Kawasaki K.I.P.S., Cagiva C.T.S.
or Suzuki AETC systems, or by altering the volume of the exhaust, which changes the resonant
frequency of the expansion chamber, such as the Suzuki SAEC and Honda V-TACS system. The
result is an engine with better low-speed power without sacrificing high-speed power. However, as
power valves are in the hot gas flow they need regular maintenance to perform well.

Direct injection[edit]
Main article: Gasoline direct injection § In two-stroke engines

Direct injection has considerable advantages in two-stroke engines, eliminating some of the waste
and pollution caused by carbureted two-strokes where a proportion of the fuel/air mixture entering
the cylinder goes directly out, unburned, through the exhaust port. Two systems are in use, low-
pressure air-assisted injection, and high pressure injection.
Since the fuel does not pass through the crankcase, a separate source of lubrication is needed.

Main article: Two-stroke diesel engine

Diesel engines rely solely on the heat of compression for ignition. In the case of Schnuerle
ported and loop-scavenged engines, intake and exhaust happens via piston-controlled ports.
A uniflow diesel engine takes in air via scavenge ports, and exhaust gases exit through an
overhead poppet valve. Two-stroke diesels are all scavenged by forced induction. Some designs
use a mechanically driven Roots blower, whilst marine diesel engines normally use exhaust-driven
turbochargers, with electrically driven auxiliary blowers for low-speed operation when exhaust
turbochargers are unable to deliver enough air.
Marine two-stroke diesel engines directly coupled to the propeller are able to start and run in either
direction as required. The fuel injection and valve timing is mechanically readjusted by using a
different set of cams on the camshaft. Thus, the engine can be run in reverse to move the vessel
backwards.

Lubrication[edit]

ost small petrol two-stroke engines cannot be lubricated by oil contained in their crankcase and
sump, since the crankcase is being used to pump fuel-air mixture into the cylinder. Over a short
period of time, the constant stream of fuel-air mixture would carry away the lubricating oil into the
combustion chamber while thinning the remainder with condensing petrol. Traditionally, the moving
parts (both rotating crankshaft and sliding piston) were instead lubricated by a premixed fuel-oil
mixture (at a ratio between 16:1 and 100:1). As late as the 1970s, petrol stations would often have a
separate pump to deliver such a premix fuel to motorcycles. Even then, in many cases, the rider
would carry a bottle of their own two-stroke oil.
Two-stroke oils which became available worldwide in the 1970s are specifically designed to mix with
petrol and be burnt in the combustion chamber without leaving undue unburnt oil or ash. This led to
a marked reduction in spark plug fouling, which had previously been a factor in two-stroke engines.
More recent two-stroke engines might pump lubrication from a separate tank of two-stroke oil. The
supply of this oil is controlled by the throttle position and engine speed. Examples are found in
Yamaha's PW80 (Pee-wee), a small, 80cc two-stroke dirt bike designed for young children, and
many two-stroke snowmobiles. The technology is referred to as auto-lube. This is still a total-loss
system with the oil being burnt the same as in the pre-mix system; however, given that the oil is not
properly mixed with the fuel when burned in the combustion chamber, it translates into a slightly
more efficient lubrication. This lubrication method also pays dividends in terms of user friendliness
by eliminating the user's need to mix the gasoline at every refill, makes the motor much less
susceptible to atmospheric conditions (Ambient temperature, elevation) and ensures proper engine
lubrication, with less oil at light loads (such as idle) and more oil at high loads (such as full throttle).
Some companies, such as Bombardier, had some oil pump designs have no oil injected at idle to
reduce smoke levels, as the loading on the engine parts was light enough to not require additional
lubrication beyond the low levels that the fuel provides.[12] Ultimately oil injection is still the same as
premixed gasoline in that the oil is burnt in the combustion chamber (albeit not as completely as pre-
mix) and the gas is still mixed with the oil, although not as thoroughly as in pre-mix. In addition, this
method requires extra mechanical parts to pump the oil from the separate tank, to the carburetor or
throttle body. In applications where performance, simplicity and/or dry weight are significant
considerations, the pre-mix lubrication method is almost always used. For example, a two-stroke
engine in a motocross bike pays major consideration to performance, simplicity and weight.
Chainsaws and brush cutters must be as light as possible to reduce user fatigue and hazard,
especially when used in a professional work environment.
All two-stroke engines running on a petrol/oil mix will suffer oil starvation if forced to rotate at speed
with the throttle closed, e.g. motorcycles descending long hills and perhaps when decelerating
gradually from high speed by changing down through the gears. Two-stroke cars (such as those that
were popular in Eastern Europe in the mid-20th century) were in particular danger and were usually
fitted with freewheel mechanisms in the powertrain, allowing the engine to idle when the throttle was
closed, requiring the use of the brakes in all slowing situations.
Large two-stroke engines, including diesels, normally use a sump lubrication system similar to four-
stroke engines. The cylinder must still be pressurized, but this is not done from the crankcase, but by
an ancillary Roots-type blower or a specialized turbocharger (usually a turbo-compressor system)
which has a "locked" compressor for starting (and during which it is powered by the engine's
crankshaft), but which is "unlocked" for running (and during which it is powered by the engine's
exhaust gases flowing through the turbine).
See also: API-TC

Two-stroke reversibility[edit]
For the purpose of this discussion, it is convenient to think in motorcycle terms, where the exhaust
pipe faces into the cooling air stream, and the crankshaft commonly spins in the same axis and
direction as do the wheels i.e. "forward". Some of the considerations discussed here apply to four-
stroke engines (which cannot reverse their direction of rotation without considerable modification),
almost all of which spin forward, too.
Regular gasoline two-stroke engines will run backwards for short periods and under light load with
little problem, and this has been used to provide a reversing facility in microcars, such as
the Messerschmitt KR200, that lacked reverse gearing. Where the vehicle has electric starting, the
motor will be turned off and restarted backwards by turning the key in the opposite direction. Two-
stroke golf carts have used a similar kind of system. Traditional flywheel magnetos (using contact-
breaker points, but no external coil) worked equally well in reverse because the cam controlling the
points is symmetrical, breaking contact before top dead center (TDC) equally well whether running
forwards or backwards. Reed-valve engines will run backwards just as well as piston-controlled
porting, though rotary valve engines have asymmetrical inlet timing and will not run very well.
There are serious disadvantages to running many engines backwards under load for any length of
time, and some of these reasons are general, applying equally to both two-stroke and four-stroke
engines. This disadvantage is accepted in most cases where cost, weight and size are major
considerations. The problem comes about because in "forwards" running the major thrust face of the
piston is on the back face of the cylinder which, in a two-stroke particularly, is the coolest and best-
lubricated part. The forward face of the piston in a trunk engine is less well-suited to be the major
thrust face since it covers and uncovers the exhaust port in the cylinder, the hottest part of the
engine, where piston lubrication is at its most marginal. The front face of the piston is also more
vulnerable since the exhaust port, the largest in the engine, is in the front wall of the cylinder. Piston
skirts and rings risk being extruded into this port, so it is always better to have them pressing hardest
on the opposite wall (where there are only the transfer ports in a crossflow engine) and there is good
support. In some engines, the small end is offset to reduce thrust in the intended rotational direction
and the forward face of the piston has been made thinner and lighter to compensate - but when
running backwards, this weaker forward face suffers increased mechanical stress it was not
designed to resist.[13] This can be avoided by the use of crossheads and also using thrust bearings to
isolate the engine from end loads.
Large two-stroke ship diesels are sometimes made to be reversible. Like four-stroke ship engines
(some of which are also reversible) they use mechanically operated valves, so require additional
camshaft mechanisms. These engine use crossheads to eliminate sidethrust on the piston and
isolate the under-piston space from the crankcase.
On top of other considerations, the oil-pump of a modern two-stroke may not work in reverse, in
which case the engine will suffer oil starvation within a short time. Running a motorcycle engine
backwards is relatively easy to initiate, and in rare cases, can be triggered by a back-fire. It is not
advisable.
Model airplane engines with reed-valves can be mounted in either tractor or pusher configuration
without needing to change the propeller. These motors are compression ignition, so there are no
ignition timing issues and little difference between running forward and running backward.

15(a) Explain the domestic refrigerator

with neat sketch.
efrigerator (colloquially fridge or fridgefreezer in the UK) is a popular household appliance that
consists of a thermally insulatedcompartment and a heat pump (mechanical, electronic or chemical)
that transfers heat from the inside of the fridge to its external environment so that the inside of the
fridge is cooled to a temperature below the ambient temperature of the room. Refrigeration is an
 essential food storage technique in developed countries. The lower temperature lowers the
reproduction rate of bacteria, so the refrigerator reduces the rate of spoilage. A refrigerator maintains
a temperature a few degrees above the freezing point of water. Optimum temperature range for
perishable food storage is 3 to 5 °C (37 to 41 °F).[1] A similar device that maintains a temperature
below the freezing point of water is called a freezer. The refrigerator replaced the icebox, which had
been a common household appliance for almost a century and a half. For this reason, a refrigerator
is sometimes referred to as an icebox in American usage.
The first cooling systems for food involved using ice. Artificial refrigeration began in the mid-1750s,
and developed in the early 1800s. In 1834, the first working vapor-compression refrigeration system
was built. The first commercial ice-making machine was invented in 1854. In 1913, refrigerators for
home use were invented. In 1923 Frigidaire introduced the first self-contained unit. The introduction
of Freon in the 1920s expanded the refrigerator market during the 1930s. Home freezers as
separate compartments (larger than necessary just for ice cubes) were introduced in 1940. Frozen
foods, previously a luxury item, became commonplace.
Freezer units are used in households and in industry and commerce. Commercial refrigerator and
freezer units were in use for almost 40 years prior to the common home models. The freezer-on-top-
and-refrigerator-on-bottom style has been the basic style since the 1940s, until modern refrigerators
broke the trend. A vapor compression cycle is used in most household refrigerators, refrigerator–
freezers and freezers. Newer refrigerators may include automatic defrosting, chilled water, and ice
from a dispenser in the door.
Domestic refrigerators and freezers for food storage are made in a range of sizes. Among the
smallest is a 4 L Peltier refrigerator advertised as being able to hold 6 cans of beer. A large domestic
refrigerator stands as tall as a person and may be about 1 m wide with a capacity of 600 L.
Refrigerators and freezers may be free-standing, or built into a kitchen. The refrigerator allows the
modern household to keep food fresh for longer than before. Freezers allow people to buy food in
bulk and eat it at leisure, and bulk purchases save money.

Contents
[hide]

 1History
o 1.1Refrigeration technology
o 1.2Domestic refrigerator

History[edit]
Refrigeration technology[edit]
See also: Refrigeration and Timeline of low-temperature technology

Before the invention of the refrigerator, icehouses were used to provide cool storage for most of the
year. Placed near freshwater lakes or packed with snow and ice during the winter, they were once
very common. Natural means are still used to cool foods today. On mountainsides, runoff from
melting snow is a convenient way to cool drinks, and during the winter one can keep milk fresh much
longer just by keeping it outdoors. The word "refrigeratory" was used at least as early as the 17th
century[2]
The history of artificial refrigeration began when Scottish professor William Cullen designed a small
refrigerating machine in 1755. Cullen used a pump to create a partial vacuumover a container
of diethyl ether, which then boiled, absorbing heat from the surrounding air.[3] The experiment even
created a small amount of ice, but had no practical application at that time.
Schematic of Dr. John Gorrie's 1841 mechanical ice machine.

In 1805, American inventor Oliver Evans described a closed vapor-compression refrigeration cycle
for the production of ice by ether under vacuum. In 1820, the British scientist Michael
Faraday liquefied ammonia and other gases by using high pressures and low temperatures, and in
1834, an American expatriate in Great Britain, Jacob Perkins, built the first working vapor-
compression refrigeration system. It was a closed-cycle device that could operate continuously.[4] A
similar attempt was made in 1842, by American physician, John Gorrie,[5] who built a working
prototype, but it was a commercial failure. American engineer Alexander Twining took out a British
patent in 1850 for a vapor compression system that used ether.
The first practical vapor compression refrigeration system was built by James Harrison, a British
journalist who had emigrated to Australia. His 1856 patent was for a vapor compression system
using ether, alcohol or ammonia. He built a mechanical ice-making machine in 1851 on the banks of
the Barwon River at Rocky Point in Geelong, Victoria, and his first commercial ice-making machine
followed in 1854. Harrison also introduced commercial vapor-compression refrigeration to breweries
and meat packing houses, and by 1861, a dozen of his systems were in operation.

Ferdinand Carré's ice-making device

The first gas absorption refrigeration system using gaseous ammonia dissolved in water (referred to
as "aqua ammonia") was developed by Ferdinand Carré of France in 1859 and patented in
1860. Carl von Linde, an engineering professor at the Technological University Munich in Germany,
patented an improved method of liquefying gases in 1876. His new process made possible the use
of gases such as ammonia (NH3), sulfur dioxide (SO2) and methyl chloride (CH3Cl) as refrigerants
and they were widely used for that purpose until the late 1920s.

Domestic refrigerator[edit]

McCray pre-electric home refrigerator ad (1905) This company, founded in 1887, is still in business.

In 1913, refrigerators for home and domestic use were invented by Fred W. Wolf of Fort Wayne,
Indiana with models consisting of a unit that was mounted on top of an ice box.[6] In 1914,
engineer Nathaniel B. Wales of Detroit, Michigan, introduced an idea for a practical electric
refrigeration unit, which later became the basis for the Kelvinator. A self-contained refrigerator, with
a compressor on the bottom of the cabinet was invented by Alfred Mellowes in 1916. Mellowes
produced this refrigerator commercially but was bought out by William C. Durant in 1918, who
started the Frigidaire company to mass-produce refrigerators. In 1918, Kelvinator company
introduced the first refrigerator with any type of automatic control. The absorption refrigerator was
invented by Baltzar von Platen and Carl Munters from Sweden in 1922, while they were still students
at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm. It became a worldwide success and was
commercialized by Electrolux. Other pioneers included Charles Tellier, David Boyle, and Raoul
Pictet. Carl von Linde was the first to patent and make a practical and compact refrigerator.
These home units usually required the installation of the mechanical parts, motor and compressor, in
the basement or an adjacent room while the cold box was located in the kitchen. There was a 1922
model that consisted of a wooden cold box, water-cooled compressor, an ice cube tray and a 9-
cubic-foot (0.25 m3) compartment, and cost $714. (A 1922 Model-T Ford cost about $450.) By 1923,
Kelvinator held 80 percent of the market for electric refrigerators. Also in 1923 Frigidaire introduced
the first self-contained unit. About this same time porcelain-covered metal cabinets began to appear.
Ice cube trays were introduced more and more during the 1920s; up to this time freezing was not an
auxiliary function of the modern refrigerator.

General Electric "Monitor-Top" refrigerator, introduced in 1927.

The first refrigerator to see widespread use was the General Electric "Monitor-Top" refrigerator
introduced in 1927, so-called because of its resemblance to the gun turret on the ironclad
warship USS Monitor of the 1860s. The compressor assembly, which emitted a great deal of heat,
was placed above the cabinet, and enclosed by a decorative ring. Over a million units were
produced. As the refrigerating medium, these refrigerators used either sulfur dioxide, which is
corrosive to the eyes and may cause loss of vision, painful skin burns and lesions, or methyl
formate, which is highly flammable, harmful to the eyes, and toxic if inhaled or ingested. Many of
these units are still functional today, after requiring little more service than a replacement start relay
or thermostat if at all. These cooling systems cannot legally be recharged with the hazardous original
refrigerants if they leak or break down.
The introduction of Freon in the 1920s expanded the refrigerator market during the 1930s and
provided a safer, low-toxicity alternative to previously used refrigerants. Separate freezers became
common during the 1940s; the popular term at the time for the unit was a deep freeze. These
devices, or appliances, did not go into mass production for use in the home until after World War
II.[7] The 1950s and 1960s saw technical advances like automatic defrosting and automatic ice
making. More efficient refrigerators were developed in the 1970s and 1980s, even
though environmental issues led to the banning of very effective (Freon) refrigerants. Early
refrigerator models (from 1916) had a cold compartment for ice cube trays. From the late 1920s
fresh vegetables were successfully processed through freezing by the Postum Company (the
forerunner of General Foods), which had acquired the technology when it bought the rights
to Clarence Birdseye's successful fresh freezing methods.
The first successful application of frozen foods occurred when General Foods heiress Marjorie
Merriweather Post (then wife of Joseph E. Davies, United States Ambassador to the Soviet Union)
deployed commercial-grade freezers in Spaso House, the US Embassy in Moscow, in advance of
the Davies’ arrival. Post, fearful of the USSR's food processing safety standards, fully stocked the
freezers with products from General Foods' Birdseye unit. The frozen food stores allowed the Davies
to entertain lavishly and serve fresh frozen foods that would otherwise be out of season. Upon
returning from Moscow, Post (who resumed her maiden name after divorcing Davies) directed
General Foods to market frozen product to upscale restaurants.
Home freezers as separate compartments (larger than necessary just for ice cubes), or as separate
units, were introduced in the United States in 1940. Frozen foods, previously a luxury item, became
commonplace.

Freezer[edit]
Freezer units are used in households and in industry and commerce. Food stored at or below
−18 °C (0 °F) is safe indefinitely.[8] Most household freezers maintain temperatures from −23 to
−18 °C (−9 to 0 °F), although some freezer-only units can achieve −34 °C (−29 °F) and lower.
Refrigerators generally do not achieve lower than −23 °C (−9 °F), since the same coolant loop
serves both compartments: Lowering the freezer compartment temperature excessively causes
difficulties in maintaining above-freezing temperature in the refrigerator compartment. Domestic
freezers can be included as a separate compartment in a refrigerator, or can be a separate
appliance. Domestic freezers are generally upright units resembling refrigerators or chests (upright
units laid on their backs). Many modern upright freezers come with an ice dispenser built into their
door. Some upscale models include thermostat displays and controls, and sometimes flatscreen
televisions as well.

Commercial and domestic refrigerators[edit]

Commercial refrigerator and freezer units, which go by many other names, were in use for almost 40
years prior to the common home models. They used gas systems such as ammonia (R-717)
or sulfur dioxide (R-764), which occasionally leaked, making them unsafe for home use. Practical
household refrigerators were introduced in 1915 and gained wider acceptance in the United States
in the 1930s as prices fell and non-toxic, non-flammable synthetic refrigerants such as Freon-12 (R-
12) were introduced. However, R-12 damaged the ozone layer, causing governments to issue a ban
on its use in new refrigerators and air-conditioning systems in 1994. The less harmful replacement
for R-12, R-134a (tetrafluoroethane), has been in common use since 1990, but R-12 is still found in
many old systems today.
A common commercial refrigerator is the glass fronted beverage cooler. These type of appliances
are typically designed for specific re-load conditions meaning that they generally have a larger
cooling system. This ensures that they are able to cope with a large throughput of drinks and
frequent door opening. As a result, it is common for these types of commercial refrigerators to have
energy consumption of >4 kWh/day.[9]

Styles of refrigerators[edit]

Frigidaire Imperial "Frost Proof" model FPI-16BC-63, top refrigerator/bottom freezer with brushed chrome door
finish made by General Motors Canada in 1963

In the early 1950s most refrigerators were white, but from the mid-1950s through present day
designers and manufacturers put color onto refrigerators. In the late-1950s/early-1960s, pastel
colors like turquoise and pink became popular, brushed chrome-plating (similar to stainless finish)
was available on some models from different brands. In the late 1960s and throughout the
1970s, earth tone colors were popular, including Harvest Gold, Avocado Green and almond. In the
1980s, black became fashionable. In the late 1990s stainless steel came into vogue, and in 2009,
one manufacturer introduced multi-color designs.
Production by country[edit]

[10]

[show]Country Production Year

General technical explanation[edit]

See also: Heat pump and refrigeration cycle

Basic functioning of a refrigerator

Process and components of a conventional refrigerator

Vapor compression cycle – A: hot compartment (kitchen), B: cold compartment (refrigerator box), I: insulation,
1: Condenser, 2: Expansion valve, 3: Evaporator unit, 4: Compressor

An Embraco compressor and fan-assisted condenser coil

A vapor compression cycle is used in most household refrigerators, refrigerator–freezers and

freezers. In this cycle, a circulating refrigerant such as R134a enters a compressor as low-pressure
vapor at or slightly below the temperature of the refrigerator interior. The vapor is compressed and
exits the compressor as high-pressure superheated vapor. The superheated vapor travels under
pressure through coils or tubes that make up the condenser; the coils or tubes are passively cooled
by exposure to air in the room. The condenser cools the vapor, which liquefies. As the refrigerant
leaves the condenser, it is still under pressure but is now only slightly above room temperature. This
liquid refrigerant is forced through a metering or throttling device, also known as an expansion valve
(essentially a pin-hole sized constriction in the tubing) to an area of much lower pressure. The
sudden decrease in pressure results in explosive-like flash evaporation of a portion (typically about
half) of the liquid. The latent heat absorbed by this flash evaporation is drawn mostly from adjacent
still-liquid refrigerant, a phenomenon known as auto-refrigeration. This cold and partially vaporized
refrigerant continues through the coils or tubes of the evaporator unit. A fan blows air from the
refrigerator or freezer compartment ("box air") across these coils or tubes and the refrigerant
completely vaporizes, drawing further latent heat from the box air. This cooled air is returned to the
refrigerator or freezer compartment, and so keeps the box air cold. Note that the cool air in the
refrigerator or freezer is still warmer than the refrigerant in the evaporator. Refrigerant leaves the
evaporator, now fully vaporized and slightly heated, and returns to the compressor inlet to continue
the cycle.
Domestic refrigerators are extremely reliable because the moving parts and fluids are sealed from
the atmosphere for life, with no possibility of leakage or contamination. In comparison, mechanically-
driven refrigeration compressors, such as those in automobile air conditioning, inevitably leak fluid
and lubricant past the shaft seals. This leads to a requirement for periodic recharging and, if ignored,
possible compressor failure.
An absorption refrigerator works differently from a compressor refrigerator, using a source of heat,
such as combustion of liquefied petroleum gas, solar thermal energy or an electric heating element.
These heat sources are much quieter than the compressor motor in a typical refrigerator. A fan or
pump might be the only mechanical moving parts; reliance on convection is considered impractical.
The Peltier effect uses electricity to pump heat directly; refrigerators employing this system are
sometimes used for camping, or in situations where noise is not acceptable. They can be totally
silent (if a fan for air circulation is not fitted) but are less energy-efficient than other methods.
Other uses of an absorption refrigerator (or "chiller") include large systems used in office buildings or
complexes such as hospitals and universities. These large systems are used to chill a brine solution
that is circulated through the building.
Many modern refrigerator/freezers have the freezer on top and the refrigerator on the bottom. Most
refrigerator-freezers—except for manual defrost models or cheaper units—use what appears to be
two thermostats. Only the refrigerator compartment is properly temperature controlled. When the
refrigerator gets too warm, the thermostat starts the cooling process and a fan circulates the air
around the freezer. During this time, the refrigerator also gets colder. The freezer control knob only
controls the amount of air that flows into the refrigerator via a damper system.[11] Changing the
refrigerator temperature will inadvertently change the freezer temperature in the opposite direction.
Changing the freezer temperature will have no effect on the refrigerator temperature. The freezer
control may also be adjusted to compensate for any refrigerator adjustment.
This means the refrigerator may become too warm. However, because only enough air is diverted to
the refrigerator compartment, the freezer usually re-acquires the set temperature quickly, unless the
door is opened. When a door is opened, either in the refrigerator or the freezer, the fan in some units
stops immediately to prevent excessive frost build up on the freezer's evaporator coil, because this
coil is cooling two areas. When the freezer reaches temperature, the unit cycles off, no matter what
the refrigerator temperature is. Modern computerized refrigerators do not use the damper system.
The computer manages fan speed for both compartments, although air is still blown from the freezer.
A few manufacturers offer dual compressor models. These models have separate freezer and
refrigerator compartments that operate independently of each other, sometimes mounted within a
single cabinet. Each has its own separate compressor, condenser and evaporator coils, insulation,
thermostat, and door. Typically, the compressors and condenser coils are mounted at the top of the
cabinet, with a single fan to cool them both.
This design, where no air passes between the two compartments, provides for more appropriate
humidity levels and much tighter temperature control in each compartment. It also requires much
less energy to operate, since each compressor & coolant system can be optimized for a specific
temperature range. Further, opening the door of one compartment does not affect the temperature of
the air or humidity level in the other compartment. Thus, it avoids many of the disadvantages of the
much more common single compressor designs described above, although at a higher initial cost
and increased system noise.[citation needed] Manufacturers of such designs argue that the increased cost
is compensated over time due to reduced energy use and less food waste due to reduced spoilage.
Alternatives to the vapor-compression cycle not in current use include:

 Acoustic cooling
 Air cycle
 Magnetic cooling
 Malone engine
 Pulse tube
 Stirling cycle
 Thermoelectric cooling and thermionic cooling
 Vortex tube
 Water cycle systems.[12]

Features[edit]

The inside of a home refrigerator containing a large variety of everyday food items.

Newer refrigerators may include:

 Automatic defrosting
 A power failure warning that alerts the user by flashing a temperature display. It may display the
maximum temperature reached during the power failure, and whether frozen food has defrosted
or may contain harmful bacteria.
 Chilled water and ice from a dispenser in the door. Water and ice dispensing became available
in the 1970s. In some refrigerators, the process of making ice is built-in so the user doesn't have
to manually use ice trays. Some refrigerators have water chillers and water filtration systems.
 Cabinet rollers that lets the refrigerator roll out for easier cleaning
 Adjustable shelves and trays
 A status indicator that notifies when it is time to change the water filter

15(b) Explain the vapour compression of refrigeration

system with neat sketch . Compare it with absorption
system.
The specific objectives of the lesson: This lesson discusses the most commonly used systems are
available to suit almost all applications with the refrigeration capacities ranging from few Watts to few
megawatts. A wide variety of refrigerants can be used in these systems to suit different applications,
capacities etc. The actual vapour compression cycle is based on Evans-Perkins cycle, which is also called
as reverse Rankine cycle. Before the actual cycle is discussed and analysed, it is essential to find the
upper limit of performance of vapour compression cycles. This limit is set by a completely reversible
cycle. 10.3. The Carnot refrigeration cycle Carnot refrigeration cycle is a completely reversible cycle,
hence is used as a model of perfection for a refrigeration cycle operating between a constant
temperature heat source and sink. It is used as reference against which the real cycles are compared.
Figures 10.1 (a) and (b) show the schematic of a Carnot vapour compression refrigeration system and
the operating cycle on T-s diagram. As shown in Fig.10.1(a), the basic Carnot refrigeration system for
pure vapour consists of four components: compressor, condenser, turbine and evaporator. Refrigeration
effect (q4- 1 = qe) is obtained at the evaporator as the refrigerant undergoes the process of vaporization
(process 4-1) and extracts the latent heat from the low temperature heat source. The low temperature,
low pressure vapour is then compressed isentropically in the compressor to the heat sink temperature
Tc. The refrigerant pressure increases from Pe to Pc during the compression process (process 1-2) and
the exit vapour is saturated. Next the high pressure, high temperature saturated refrigerant undergoes
the process of condensation in the condenser (process 2-3) as it rejects the heat of condensation (q2-3 =
qc) to an external heat sink at Tc. The high pressure saturated liquid then flows through the turbine and
undergoes isentropic expansion (process 3-4). During this process, the pressure and temperature fall
from Pc,Tc to Pe, Te. Since a saturated liquid is expanded in the turbine, some amount of liquid flashes
into vapour and the exit condition lies in the two-phase region. This low temperature and low pressure
liquid-vapour mixture then enters the evaporator completing the cycle. Thus as shown in Fig.10.1(b),
the cycle involves two isothermal heat transfer processes (processes 4-1 and 2-3) and two isentropic
work transfer processes (processes 1-2 and 3-4). Heat is extracted isothermally at evaporator
temperature Te during process 4-1, heat is rejected isothermally at condenser temperature Tc during
process 2-3. Work is supplied to the compressor during the isentropic compression (1-2) of refrigerant
vapour from evaporator pressure Pe to condenser pressure Pc, and work is produced by the system as
refrigerant liquid expands isentropically in the turbine from condenser pressure Pc to evaporator
pressure Pe. All the processes are both internally as well as externally reversible, i.e., net entropy
generation for the system and environment is zero. Applying first and second laws of thermodynamics
to the Carnot refrigeration cycle, ∫ ∫ δ = δwq ∫ δ = − −− = − qqqqq ce3214 (10.1) ∫ =δ − −− = − CT2143 = −
wwwwww net 3 Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur ⇒ − ec = w)qq( net C E Heat sink Heat source qc qe Qe T C
1 3 2 4 wnet Fig.10.1(a): Schematic of a Carnot refrigeration system T Tc Te s Pc Pe 1 2 3 4 qc Fig.
10.1(b): Carnot refrigeration cycle on T-s diagram w1-2 w3-4 qe 4 Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur now for
the reversible, isothermal heat transfer processes 2-3 and 4-1, we can write: − ∫ −=−=−= 3 2 32c 32c q
)ss(Tds.Tq (10.2) − ∫ −=== 1 4 14e 41e q )ss(Tds.Tq (10.3) where Te and Tc are the evaporator and
condenser temperatures, respectively, and, 21 43 = = ssandss (10.4) the Coefficient of Performance
(COP) is given by: ⎟ ⎟ ⎠ ⎞ ⎜ ⎜ ⎝ ⎛ − = −−− − = == ec e 41e32c 41e net e Carnot TT T )ss(T)ss(T )ss(T w q
inputworknet effectionrefrigerat COP (10.5) thus the COP of Carnot refrigeration cycle is a function of
evaporator and condenser temperatures only and is independent of the nature of the working
substance. This is the reason why exactly the same expression was obtained for air cycle refrigeration
systems operating on Carnot cycle (Lesson 9). The Carnot COP sets an upper limit for refrigeration
systems operating between two constant temperature thermal reservoirs (heat source and sink). From
Carnot’s theorems, for the same heat source and sink temperatures, no irreversible cycle can have COP
higher than that of Carnot COP. qe b a 1 3 2 4 s T Tc Te wnet Fig.10.2. Carnot refrigeration cycle
represented in T-s plane 5 Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur It can be seen from the above expression that
the COP of a Carnot refrigeration system increases as the evaporator temperature increases and
condenser temperature decreases. This can be explained very easily with the help of the T-s diagram
(Fig.10.2). As shown in the figure, COP is the ratio of area a-1-4-b to the area 1-2-3-4. For a fixed
condenser temperature Tc, as the evaporator temperature Te increases, area a-1-4-b (qe) increases and
area 1-2-3-4 (wnet) decreases as a result, COP increases rapidly. Similarly for a fixed evaporator
temperature Te, as the condensing temperature Tc
increases, the net work input (area 1-2-3-4) increases, even though cooling output remains constant, as
a result the COP falls. Figure 10.3 shows the variation of Carnot COP with evaporator temperature for
different condenser temperatures. It can be seen that the COP increases sharply with evaporator
temperatures, particularly at high condensing temperatures. COP reduces as the condenser
temperature increases, but the effect becomes marginal at low evaporator temperatures. It will be
shown later that actual vapour compression refrigeration systems also behave in a manner similar to
that of Carnot refrigeration systems as far as the performance trends are concerned. Fig.10.3. Effects of
evaporator and condenser temperatures on Carnot COP Practical difficulties with Carnot refrigeration
system: It is difficult to build and operate a Carnot refrigeration system due to the following practical
difficulties: i. During process 1-2, a mixture consisting of liquid and vapour have to be compressed
isentropically in the compressor. Such a compression is known as wet compression due to the presence
of liquid. In practice, wet compression is very difficult especially with reciprocating compressors. This
problem is particularly severe in case of high speed reciprocating compressors, which get damaged due
to the presence of liquid droplets in the vapour. Even though some types of compressors can tolerate
the presence of liquid in 6 Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur vapour, since reciprocating compressors are most
widely is refrigeration, traditionally dry compression (compression of vapour only) is preferred to wet
compression. ii. The second practical difficulty with Carnot cycle is that using a turbine and extracting
work from the system during the isentropic expansion of liquid refrigerant is not economically feasible,
particularly in case of small capacity systems. This is due to the fact that the specific work output (per
kilogram of refrigerant) from the turbine is given by: − = ∫ Pc Pe 43 dP.vw (10.6) since the specific
volume of liquid is much smaller compared to the specific volume of a vapour/gas, the work output from
the turbine in case of the liquid will be small. In addition, if one considers the inefficiencies of the
turbine, then the net output will be further reduced. As a result using a turbine for extracting the work
from the high pressure liquid is not economically justified in most of the cases1 . One way of achieving
dry compression in Carnot refrigeration cycle is to have two compressors – one isentropic and one
isothermal as shown in Fig.10.4. qc qe 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 4 3 5 C C T Condenser Evaporator Fig.10.4.

Carnot refrigeration system with dry compression Pc Pi Pc > Pi > Pe Pe w1-2 w2-3 qe qc q2-3 As shown
in Fig.10.4, the Carnot refrigeration system with dry compression consists of one isentropic compression
process (1-2) from evaporator pressure Pe to an intermediate pressure Pi and temperature Tc, followed
by an isothermal compression process (2-3) from the intermediate pressure Pi to the condenser
pressure Pc. Though with this modification the problem of wet compression can be avoided, still this
modified system is not practical due to the difficulty in achieving true isothermal compression using
highspeed compressors. In addition, use of two compressors in place of one is not economically
justified. 1 However, currently efforts are being made to recover this work of expansion in some
refrigeration systems to improve the system efficiency. 7 Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur From the above
discussion, it is clear that from practical considerations, the Carnot refrigeration system need to be
modified. Dry compression with a single compressor is possible if the isothermal heat rejection process
is replaced by isobaric heat rejection process. Similarly, the isentropic expansion process can be
replaced by an isenthalpic throttling process. A refrigeration system, which incorporates these two
changes is known as Evans-Perkins or reverse Rankine cycle. This is the theoretical cycle on which the
actual vapour compression refrigeration systems are based.