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STEP BY STEP
2
CUPRINS
CUVÂNT ÎNAINTE........................................................................5
PRONUNCIATION AND THE IPA..................................................7
THE ENGLISH ALPHABET...........................................................9
GREETINGS.................................................................................11
DAILY DUTIES.............................................................................17
HOLIDAYS...................................................................................23
ON THE PHONE...........................................................................31
CAREERS.....................................................................................41
BODY LANGUAGE.....................................................................51
EATING OUT................................................................................57
MEMORY.....................................................................................63
TRANSPORT................................................................................69
AMERICAN ENGLISH.................................................................75
COMPLAINTS..............................................................................79
GRAMMAR TEST........................................................................83
GRAMMAR COMPENDIUM.......................................................91
THE PRONOUN...........................................................................................92
THE NOUN...................................................................................................98
THE ARTICLE............................................................................................102
THE VERB..................................................................................................105
THE ACTIVE VOICE.................................................................................106
INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH.............................................................120
THE PASSIVE VOICE................................................................................122
ADJECTIVES..............................................................................................126
ADVERBS...................................................................................................127
DEGREES OF COMPARISON..................................................................129
MODAL VERBS.........................................................................................133
RELATIVE CLAUSES................................................................................137
IRREGULAR VERBS..................................................................139
BIBLIOGRAPHY........................................................................143
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4
CUVÂNT ÎNAINTE
Autoarea
5
6
PRONUNCIATION AND THE IPA
Vowels
Long a: - - i: o: u: ә:
Short Λ e, ε æ i o u ә
Vowels Examples
a: arm [a:m]
Λ cup [cΛp]
e bed [bed]
æ bad [bæd]
i: see [si:]
i sit [sit]
o: four [fo:]
o hot [hot]
u: boot [bu:t]
u put [put]
ә: girl [g ә:l]
ә about [ә’baut]
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Diphthongs
Diphthongs Examples
ai lie [lai]
au now [nau]
ei make [meik]
εә hair [hεә]
iә real [riәl]
oi boy [boi]
әu note [nәut]
uә actual [‘ektjuәl]
Triphthongs
Triphthongs Examples
aiә fire [faiә]
auә flower [flauә]
Consonants
Consonants Examples
b bed [bed]
d dance [da:ns]
f film [film]
g go [gәu]
h hat [hæt]
j new [nju:]
k cat [kæt]
1 lake [leik]
m man [mæn]
n now [nau]
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p pen [pen]
r red [red]
s soon [su:n]
t ten [ten]
v victory [viktәri]
w well [wel]
z zoo [zu:]
∫ ship [∫ip]
3 television
9 ['telivi3n]
sing [siŋ]
t∫ chair [t∫eә]
θ thin [θin]
ð those[ðәus]
d3 Joy [d3oi]
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10
GREETINGS
a. Why is it natural for Diana and Tom to use each other’s first
names from the first meeting?
b. How does Diana answer to Tom’s How do you do?
c. What informal greetings does the text mention?
d. Do English people shake hands whenever they meet? Why
(not)?
Informal greetings
Tom and Diana are young people of the same age and
background and it is natural for them to use each other’s first
names as soon as they meet. When Tom first speaks to Diana he
12
uses the conventional phrase How do you do. It is quite usual for
both parties to an introduction to say How do you do and to shake
hands, and no further greeting is necessary. But many people,
young people in particular, prefer to use the less formal Pleased
to meet you, Nice to know you or just Hello when meeting others
of their own age. How do you do is always correct and when you
first go to England you should use this form of greeting until you
become familiar with English habits. It is not customary in
England to shake hands with friends and colleagues whom we
meet frequently, either socially or at work.
Country Nationality
Australia Australian
Belgium Belgian
Brazil Brazilian
Denmark Danish
France the French = the people of France
Frenchwoman/Frenchman
Germany German
Greece Greek
Japan Japanese
Portugal Portuguese
Romania Romanian
Switzerland Swiss
Turkey Turkish
The Netherlands Dutchwoman/Dutchman
Pakistan Pakistani
Language focus
With nationality nouns ending in ‘–sh’, ‘-ch’, ‘-ss’, or ‘–ese’,
we use ‘the’. With all other nationality nouns – except ‘the
Scots’ – we use zero article.
For more information read the grammar compendium.
I’m… / My name’s…
I’m 25 years old.
I’m from …
I was born in … and/but I live in/near…
I’m married/single. I have … children.
I’m interested in… (+ V-ing); I’m good at… (+ V-ing)
I like … (+ V-ing)
I play …
Language focus
In English we do not normally leave out subject
pronouns.
The possessive adjective replaces the person who
possesses something and determines the noun that
expresses the object which is possessed.
16
DAILY DUTIES
Language focus
17
During the week Helen gets up at seven o’clock. She washes
and combs her hair. Then she dresses. She feeds her pet, Domino, a
very nice cat. She has breakfast at seven thirty. She drinks a cup of
coffee and eats bread and butter and eggs. At a quarter to eight she
goes to university. There she meets her friends and talks with them
about teachers, new subjects, future jobs, fashion and music. She
sometimes listens to the teachers’ explanations. When they ask
questions, the students usually answer. They are often quiet. When
they are not, the teacher says, ‘Pay attention!’
While she is away, her cat is alone at home. In the middle of the
morning Domino visits his friend, Mrs Tucker. She usually gives
him something nice to eat. In the afternoon he sleeps. He’s got a
secret place on top of the garden shed. Half past five is Domino’s
dinner time. He usually has cat food from a tin. In the evening he
watches TV. He likes wildlife programmes.
On Monday, Tuesday, Thursday and Friday, Helen goes home
at four o’clock. Wednesday is sports afternoon and Helen goes
swimming. She watches TV from seven to eight. She has dinner at
eight o’clock. She usually eats meat and potatoes and fruit. When
she has a cold or when she has no appetite, she just drinks some tea.
After dinner she watches TV or listens to music or meets
some friends. She goes to bed at around ten o’clock. She usually
sleeps well, but she sometimes has nightmares.
Language focus
a. boils/water/100/at/degrees
b. to/very/upset/she/appears/be
c. Tom/has/always/at/lunch/noon
d. he/slowly/does/work?
e. usually/her/takes/Diana/sugar/coffee/with
11. Complete the following text with words from the box.
21
22
HOLIDAYS
24
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tickets.
(Normal adult price - £26.00, normal child price - £12.00)!
Hop-on Hop-off Sightseeing Tour
48 Hour Ticket
Live English Commentary
Recorded Commentary in 8 Languages
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www.goldentours.com/partner/visitlondon/productdetails
(adapted from http://www.goldentours.com)
To: ravi<ravinderdura@southafrica.com>
Subject: holiday
Hi Ravi,
Sorry for the delay in replying, but I’m working very
hard at the moment.
Yes, I’m coming to South Africa. I’ve booked my
flight. My friend Dora isn’t coming with me because
her child is in hospital. I’m staying for a fortnight.
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I’m flying to Johannesburg on August 12 th and I’m
arriving at 9.30 am. Could you pick me up from the
airport? I’d love to meet you.
I really want to see the Augrabies Falls and the Moon
Rock. Taking any holidays in August? Maybe you
can take some days off and come with me. I’ll be
thrilled.
Hope you’re well. See you soon!
Diana
Language focus
We use the Present Continuous for current or temporary
activities.
e.g. I’m working very hard at the moment.
We also use the Present Continuous for future arrangements.
e.g. Are you taking any holidays in June?
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Some verbs are not used in the Present Continuous.
e.g. Tom knows Diana.
Affirmative: S + to be + V-ing
Negative: S + to be + not + V-ing
Interrogative: to be + S + V-ing ?
For more information read the grammar compendium.
I have a cup of coffee for breakfast nearly every day, but today
I’m having ham and eggs.
I usually wear a black blouse, but today I’m wearing a red
one.
Now work in groups. Ask your colleagues “What are you doing
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today/tomorrow/ next holiday?” in order to find out about their
plans and arrangements for today, tomorrow and this weekend.
Decide whose plans and arrangements are the most interesting.
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ON THE PHONE
Language box:
Answering the phone
Good morning, thanks for calling the XYZ Company. My
name is AB, how may I help you?
Good morning, XYZ Hotel. How can I help you?
Good afternoon, XYZ Company.
Hello, AB speaking.
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Identifying yourself
This is AB.
My name’s AB.
I’m AB.
Making contact
I’d like to speak to AB, extension 123, please.
I’d like to speak to AB.
Could I have the X department, please?
Making excuses
I’m sorry, he’s in a meeting.
I’m afraid Mr AB is not available at the moment.
I’m afraid Mr AB is engaged right now.
I’m sorry, he’s out of the office at the moment / all day.
I’m sorry but he’s tied up all morning.
Asking for information
Could I have your name?
Can I take your number?
Checking
I’m sorry, I didn’t catch your name. Could you spell it for
me, please?
Could you spell that?
Can I read that back to you?
Messages
Would you like to leave a message?
Can I take a message?
Can I leave a message?
Promising action
I’ll make sure he gets the/your message.
I’ll tell her when she gets back.
Ending a call
Thanks for your help. Goodbye.
Goodbye. Thanks for calling.
(2 hours later)
Receptionist: Good afternoon, For Ladies Ltd.
Thompson: Good afternoon. I’m Mary Thompson. Could you
put me through to extension 123, please?
Receptionist: Certainly. I’m putting you through.
Popescu: Hello. This is Diana Popescu.
Thompson: Hello, Diana. It’s Mary Thompson here.
Popescu: Hi, Mary, how are you?
Thompson: Fine, thanks. I’m planning a trip to Bucharest and I
would like to make an appointment to see you.
Popescu: That’s great. When will you be arriving in
Bucharest?
Thompson: I’ll be arriving in Bucharest on Tarom flight
TA987 at 10:45 a.m. on Monday, 23 January 2012. I will be
staying at the Happy Hotel. Could we meet on Monday at 3:30
p.m.?
Popescu: Let me check. No sorry, I can’t make it then. My
diary’s rather full that day. Could we fix another time?
Thompson: That’s OK… Let’s see… What about Wednesday?
Popescu: Great. I’m fairly free that day. What time?
Thompson: In the morning. 10.30. Is that OK?
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Popescu: Yes. That’d be no problem at all. So, January 25th,
Wednesday, 10.30 a.m.
Thompson: Perfect. Thank you very much. It’ll be great to see
you again. We’ll have plenty to talk about.
Popescu: That’s for sure. See you next week then. Give me a
call if you have any problems.
Thompson: Right, I’ll do that. Give my regards to your partner,
Mr Ionescu.
Popescu: OK. I’ll tell him you called. Goodbye.
Thompson: Goodbye.
Language box
Suggesting/Making arrangements
Are you free on Monday?
Could we meet on Friday at 9:30?
Would Friday at 10:30 suit you?
What about January 27th?
How about next Monday?(informal)
When would suit you?
Is 10:30 convenient (for you)? (formal)
Changing arrangements
I’m afraid I can’t come on Monday.
Could we fix another time?
We’ve got an appointment on Monday, but I’m afraid
something’s come up. Could we fix another day?
I’m afraid I’m busy on Monday afternoon. What about
Tuesday?
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Unfortunately, I won’t be able to make our meeting.
Responding
That’ll be fine.
That’s OK.
No sorry, I can’t make it then. My diary’s rather full that day.
I’m out of the office until lunchtime, but any time after that
would be fine.
Sorry, I’ve already got an appointment at that time.
How, about, call, calling, do, fairly, make, p.m., ring, see,
seeing, suit, time
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Student A: you are a company employee who wants to arrange a
meeting with a colleague (student B) from one of your
subsidiaries. Try to find a time and place to meet. It’s difficult
because you’re both very busy. You are free on Monday morning,
Thursday afternoon and Friday morning. Eventually you succeed
in arranging the meeting.
Student B: you work in a company’s subsidiary. One of your
colleagues from the parent company calls you to make an
arrangement. You are free on Tuesday afternoon, Wednesday and
Friday morning. Explain why you cannot meet him/her when
he/she suggests (give a reason). Suggest an alternative time.
Finish the call by confirming the plans.
Language focus
The future is never used in temporal and conditional
clauses!
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CAREERS
2. How well a career suits you, and how satisfied you are
with it, very much depends on your personality. It also depends on
how well it matches your interests and the values that are
important to you.
What kind of personality do you have? Find out by solving
this quiz. Tick the statement you agree with:
1. I’d love to do a parachute jump.
2. I don’t like telling other people what to do.
3. I prefer spending time on my own rather than in a crowd.
4. I find it easy to set myself objectives.
5. I have difficulties in making decisions.
6. I find it difficult getting to know new people.
7. I’d love to travel abroad.
8. Friends sometimes complain that I order them around.
9. I like to have the advice and support of experienced
people.
10. I don’t like volunteering opinions in case they are
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unpopular.
11. I like to try to find new solutions to old problems.
12. I would prefer to be team captain
than team member.
13. I get embarrassed easily.
14. I don't mind where I go with my friends as long as they are
happy.
15. I like the latest fashions.
16. I like to be fully responsible for anything I do.
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3. Match the occupational interests with the aptitudes needed
for them and with the job that best reflect them.
A. Occupational interests:
1. Scientific
2. Computational
3. Artistic
4. Persuasive
5. Practical
6. Literary
7. Welfare
B. Aptitudes
a. working with tools and materials
b. investigating natural phenomena to understand how things
happen
c. concerning yourself with helping others
d. dealing with figures
e. expressing ideas and feelings through words
f. influencing others to accept your ideas
g. creating and appreciating things of beauty
C. Careers
Surgeon; lathe operator (strungar); priest; lawyer; judge;
blacksmith; pilot; novelist; salesperson; advertising agent;
teacher; plumber; accountant; nurse; counsellor.
A. positive adjectives
e.g. reliable
B. negative adjectives
e.g. tactless
Language focus
We can increase or reduce the strength of adjectives by using
modifiers. e.g. rather pessimistic, a bit boastful
A bit→ quite/fairly→ rather/pretty→ really/very→extremely
When there are two or more fact adjectives in a
sentence, they usually go in the following order:
(determiner) – opinion – size – age – shape – colour – origin
– material – used for/be about – (noun)
Language focus
Adjectives have the following degrees of comparison:
1. Positive
e.g. tall, interesting, good
2. Comparative - of superiority
e.g. taller, more interesting, better
- of equality
e.g. as tall as, as interesting as, as good as
- of inferiority
e.g. not so tall as, not so good as, not so interesting as/less
interesting than
3. Superlative -absolute
e.g. very tall, extremely good, very interesting
- relative
e.g. the tallest, the most interesting, the best
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expected.
5. Two star hotels are typically e. higher marks in her
geography exam than last
year.
6. She got f. interesting.
12. Read the text and underline the things that can help
you get a job.
Getting a good job is directly related to your success and
happiness, so you should begin your job search long before you
are ready to find employment, building relationships with people
who could help you find work when you need it. Such persons
include classmates, professors and business people. When you are
ready to search for your career job, you should start putting the
necessary papers together: the letter of application or Covering
letter and the CV/resume (in the US). The way you present
yourself on paper is a vital step in any job application.
A letter of application should mention:
• Where you have seen the advert;
• Why you are interested in the job advertised;
• Your achievements and responsibilities at school /
university / former job;
• Your suitability for the job;
• When you are available for interview.
A letter of application should be accompanied by a CV. The
CV or curriculum vitae is a short personal history which provides
48
your future employer with basic information about the applicant.
There are many ways of writing it but it should always be set out
so that it is very easy to read.
A CV should include:
• Your full name, address and telephone number;
• Date and place of birth;
• Nationality;
• Marital status;
• Exact dates and places of education;
• Examinations passed, especially those internationally
recognized;
• Knowledge of foreign languages;
• Previous employment and work experience;
• Other interests, hobbies;
• Names and addresses of two or three referees (e.g. teachers /
professors who know you well or family friends).
Dear Sir/Madam,
Stimate domn,
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BODY LANGUAGE
1. Read the text and find out what body language is.
53
Language focus
We use past simple to talk about events and actions that are
finished.
Affirmative: S + V-ed/V2
Negative: S + did+not + V
Interrogative: did + S + V?
Language focus
We use past continuous to talk about actions that were
going on at a certain moment in the past.
Affirmative: S + was/were + V-ing
Negative: S + was/were + not + V-ing
Interrogative: was/were + S + V-ing?
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EATING OUT
Language focus:
Language focus:
Language focus:
Modal verbs (requests and offers)
T: ………………………………………………………
A: Oh, yes, please. I’m really thirsty.
T: ………………………………………………………
A: Oh, yes, please. I love ice cream!
T: Are you hungry? ……………………………………
A: No, it’s all right. I’m fine, thanks…. Err… in fact I’ve got a
headache.
T: ……………………………………………………….
A: Oh, yes, please. Thank you.
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MEMORY
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A B C
1. encode a. to get something I. similar
2. store b. to represent complicated II. a dobândi
information in a simple or
short way
3. retrieve c. comparing things which III. a stoca
have similar features
4. analogous d. to repeat IV. a codifica
5. acquire e. to find and bring back V. a repeta
something
6. rehearse f. to put or keep things in a VI. a recupera,
special place for use in the a salva
future
A. B.
1. He’s really brainy. a. to be unable to take a
decision
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2. Can I pick your brains later? b. to share the ideas.
3. We need to do some c. to get some of your ideas.
brainstorming.
4. He went out of his mind (with d. to completely lose control.
anger)
5. He put it out of his mind. e. to be a little bit crazy and
unstable.
6. She’s not in her right mind. f. to be boring, repetitive.
7. His job was completely g. to be really clever.
mindless.
8. He’s in two minds. h. to decide not to think about
something any more.
Language focus:
6. Fill in the blanks with the right form of the verb to have.
Language focus:
Dear Tom,
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TRANSPORT
C A R D P I N M O T O R W A Y
T U B E L S D O Y R E O A D P
S D S T A X I T E A F A L P P
U E V U N E X O R N G D D S A
B U S S E H E R F E A B O A T
C O A C H S H B S H I P D G H
M O P E D I D I T S T R E E T
T A N T R A T K F O O L V A N
R I N G R O A E T R A M P I T
A friend or an enemy?
A B
1. In a town there is a lot of a) zebra-crossing
2. Pedestrians must walk on the b) stop
3. You must cross the street on a c) pavement
4. When you cross the street without d) go/cross
looking you can be
5. A street where the traffic goes in one e) traffic
direction is a
6. A green light means f) one way street
7. A red light means g) collide
8. When two cars drive into each other, h) double-deckers
they
9. When there are many people on the i) knocked down by
bus we say a car
10. Buses with two stores are j) the bus is
crowded
Language focus:
Language focus:
74
75
AMERICAN ENGLISH
AE BE
1. flashlight a. trousers
2. pants b. biscuits
3. jogging suit c. dustbin
4. cookies d. drugstore
5. chemist e. torch
6. trashcan f. tracksuit
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Ben: I’ll sell my lorry tomorrow.
Doris: I have just eaten some strawberry jam.
Dan: Do you have a trashcan here?
Ann: Is there a subway near here?
Tom: Can you tell me where the nearest chemist is?
Language focus:
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COMPLAINTS
Yours faithfully,
TThompson
Tom Thompson
C: Excuse me!
W: I’ll be with you in a minute, sir. Is everything all right, sir?
C: No. This steak is too rare.
W: I’m sorry, sir.
C: I’d like it medium, please.
W: Certainly, I’ll ask the chef to put it back under the grill, sir.
(…) Here you are. One medium steak.
C: Thank you.
(…)
C: Excuse me, but I think you overcharged us for the water.
W: Let me see. It says two bottles of sparkling water.
C: But we only had one bottle.
W: I’m sorry. I’m afraid there’s been a mistake. I’ll ask the cashier
to deduct one bottle.
C: Thank you.
Language focus
Language focus
83
Language focus
84
GRAMMAR TEST
85
8. I … you now.
a. am believing b. believe
c. believing d. am believe
11. They …a 20% discount for the duration of the trade fair.
a. are offering b. offer
c. offers d. is offering
20. …… English?
a. Have you ever learnt
b. Did you learnt
c. You learnt
d. You have been learning
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GRAMMAR COMPENDIUM
93
THE PRONOUN
95
The possessive pronoun replaces both the object that is possessed
and the person who possesses it.
Singular Plural
‘near’ reference this these
‘distant’ reference that those
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3.2. THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE
Singular Plural
‘near’ reference this these
‘distant’ reference that those
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5. THE INDEFINITE PRONOUN
AND THE INDEFINITE ADJECTIVE
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THE NOUN
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II. UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS [U]
Uncountable nouns have only one form. They often refer to:
- substances: coal, coffee, flour, ice, sand, sugar, water
- human qualities: courage, cruelty, honesty, patience
- feelings: anger, happiness, hope, joy, pride
- activities: help, sleep, work
- abstract ideas: freedom, fun, luck
1. singular invariable nouns, which take a verb in the singular, are:
concrete uncountable nouns: bread, meat, luggage,
baggage, furniture, money, equipment
e.g. The money is on the table. (Banii sunt pe masa.)
abstract uncountable nouns: advice, happiness, homework,
housework, information, knowledge, music, nonsense, progress, peace
e.g. Her advice is always good.. (Sfaturile ei sunt întotdeauna
bune.)
proper nouns: Mary, The Netherlands, The Danube
e.g. The Danube flows into the Black Sea.
nouns ending in "-s": news, measles, mumps, athletics,
cybernetics, economics, ethics, gymnastics, informatics, optics,
mathematics, physics, cards, billiards, darts
e.g. This news is good. (Aceste veşti sunt bune.)
To express quantity of uncountable nouns, we can use: much,
little, piece, item, bar, loaf, slice, gramme, pound, kilogram, etc.:
a piece of news - o veste/ştire
an item of information = o informaţie
a bar of soap = un săpun
a loaf of bread = o pâine
a slice of bread = o felie de pâine
a gramme of sugar
a kilogram of flour
2. plural invariable nouns, which take a verb in the plural:
- these nouns refer to single items that have two linked parts:
nouns referring to clothes or other things people wear:
(sun)glasses, jeans, pants, pyjamas, trousers, tights, shorts,
slacks, knickers;
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nouns referring to tools or other things that people use:
binoculars, compasses(the drawing instrument),
nutcrackers, pincers, scissors, scales, tongs:
- proper nouns: The Alps, The Carpathians, The Highlands
- other "pluralia tantum": barracks, clothes, customs, contents,
manners, means, wages, stairs, savings, surroundings
- substantivized adjectives: the rich, the poor, goods
- unmarked plurals: cattle, infantry, people, police
e.g. The police are here.
When we want to refer to one article of dress or instrument, we
can use the word pair:
a pair of trousers / scissors ...
COLLECTIVE NOUNS
1. the analytical genitive with the preposition “of” is used with neuter
nouns or with long noun phrases.
e.g. the leg of the table; the wife of the man you have met
2. The synthetical genitive with "’s” added to the singular form of the
noun or to irregular plurals, and " ' " added to regular plurals or to
proper nouns ending in "-s".
e.g. the boy's car; the man's results; the children's performance; the
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students' answers; Dickens' works
The synthetical genitive is used with:
- nouns denoting persons or other beings:
e.g. Mary's car; the dog's tail
- nouns denoting measurement, time, space, quantity, value:
e.g. a two months' holiday; yesterday's newspaper; a life's work; a
mile's drive; a pound's weight; five dollars' worth.
- geographical names or places:
e.g. England's weather
- collective nouns:
e.g. the firm's investment
- some phrases connected with nature (nouns that can be
personified):
e.g. the ocean's roar; the day's heat
- some words followed by "sake":
e.g. for peace's sake; for order's sake
GENDER OF NOUNS
THE ARTICLE
1. THE DEFINITE ARTICLE
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2. THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE
THE VERB
Basic form:
affirmative: S + V ; S (IIIrd person singular) + V-s
e.g. I eat (grapes in fall). He eats plums in the morning.
Spelling rules:
1. if the verb ends in "-ss, - s, -ch, -sh, -x, -z" we add "-es" /izl to that
form at the third person singular:
e.g. to wash he washes
to watch he watches
2. verbs ending in a consonant followed by "-y" change "-y" into "-i"
and add"-es" at the third person singular:
e.g. to try she tries
to spy he spies
interrogative: Do + S + V?
Does + S (IIIrd person singular) + V?
e.g. Do you understand?
Does your mother work in a hospital?
negative: S + do + not + V
S = subject (remember that a sentence should have a subject)
V = verb, the infinitive form of the verb
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S (IIIrd person singular) + does + not + V
e.g. I do not know what to say.
She does not like reading.
Basic form:
affirmative: S + to be + V-ing
e.g. I am writing now.
You are dreaming now.
He is watching TV now.
Spelling rules:
1. final mute “e” is normally dropped before the “–ing” inflection.
e.g. to behave behaving
to shave shaving
2. final base consonants are doubled before “–ing” when the
preceding vowel is stressed and spelled with a single letter.
e.g. to admit admitting
to prefer preferring
3. in bases ending in “ie”, the ending turns into “y” before “-
ing”.
e.g. to die dying
to lie lying
to tie tying
interrogative: To be + S + V-ing?
e.g. Are you drinking water?
Is your daughter teaching English this year?
negative: S + to be + V-ing
e.g. He is not sleeping now.
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Mental states: believe, doubt, expect, forget, hope, imagine,
know, realise, recognise, regret, remember, suppose, think (that),
understand
Likes and dislikes: admire, dislike, hate, like, love, want, wish
Possession: belong to, contain, have, include, own, possess
Appearance: appear, look like, resemble, seem
Being: be, consist of, depend, exist
Perception: hear, see, smell, taste
e.g.
•Jack is noisy. • Jill is being noisy.
• Tom has a Porsche. •We are having an interesting
conversation!
• This fish tastes awful! • I am just tasting the soup.
• This bag weighs a ton! • We are weighing the baby.
• It depends what you mean. • I am depending on you.
• I think you’re right. • Be quiet! I’m thinking.
Basic form:
affirmative: S + V-ed/V2
e.g. Our departments worked with the government to formulate
policies.
Spelling rules:
1. verbs ending in a consonant followed by "-y" change "-y" into "-i"
and then add"-ed":
e.g. to try I tried
to spy he spied
2. final mute “e” is dropped before the “–ed” inflection.
e.g. to behave behaved
to shave shaved
3. final base consonants are doubled before “–ed” when the preceding
vowel is stressed and spelled with a single letter.
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e.g. to admit admitted
to prefer preferred
interrogative: Did + S + V ?
e.g. Did your lawyer communicate clearly and persuasively both
orally and in writing?
negative: S + did + not + V
e.g. Unfortunately, lawyers did not show integrity in relationships.
The short form of did not is didn’t.
Basic form:
affirmative: S + was/were + V-ing
e.g. I was writing at this time yesterday.
You were dreaming at 6.30 a.m. yesterday.
He was watching TV when his friend called him.
see the ‘Spelling rules’ under the affirmative form from Present
Tense Continuous.
interrogative: Was/were + S + V-ing?
e.g. Were you drinking water when I phoned you?
Was your daughter teaching English in September?
negative: S + was/were + V-ing
e.g. He was not sleeping while the teacher was explaining.
Mary wasn’t working in a restaurant when I was living in
London.
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•Actions in progress (often interrupted by events)
e.g. She was drinking her tea at this time yesterday.
While I was learning, the phone rang.
•Background description in narrative
•Changing states
e.g. The engine was making more and more funny noises.
•Repeated actions – criticism
e.g. When David was at kindergarten, he was always crying after his
mother.
Basic form:
affirmative: S + to have + V-ed/V3
e.g. The aim has been to make the new Code more relevant and
accessible to all civil servants.
interrogative: to have + S + V-ed/V3?
e.g. Have you failed the test?
negative: S + to have + not + V-ed/V3
e.g. I haven’t done my homework yet.
Basic form:
affirmative: S + to have + been + V-ing
e.g. She’s been living in the US for over a year now.
interrogative: to have + S + been + V-ing?
e.g. How long have you been waiting for me?
negative: S + to have + not + been + V-ing
e.g. I haven’t been doing my homework since 3.20 am.
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perfect simple to talk about something that started in the past and which
affects the situation that exists now. The difference is that the present
perfect continuous focuses on the activity or event which may or may
not be finished. The present perfect simple, however, focuses on the
effect of the activity or event, or the fact that something has been
achieved.
e.g. She’s been driving for 3 years now.
We have driven all the way here without a break.
Basic form:
affirmative: S + had + V-ed/V3
e.g. Jill discovered that Tom had lied to her.
interrogative: had + S + V-ed/V3?
e.g. Had you wanted to visit the gallery before you left Florence?
negative: S + had + not + V-ed/V3
e.g. Bill hadn’t wanted to retire at 60, but they persuaded him to leave.
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PAST PERFECT TENSE CONTINUOUS
Basic form:
affirmative: S + had + been + V-ing
e.g. She had been wearing high-heeled shoes, and her feet hurt.
interrogative: had + S + been + V-ing?
e.g. Had they been riding when you met?
negative: S + had + not + been +V-ing
e.g. Bill was arrested, even though he hadn’t been doing anything
illegal.
e.g. While I had been talking on the phone, Jill had entered the room.
The whole place was deserted, but it was obvious that someone
had been living there. They’d been cooking in the kitchen for a start,
and they hadn’t bothered to wash the dishes.
USED TO
This often contrasts with the present. The contrast may be stated or
understood.
e.g. I used to go swimming a lot (but I don’t now).
affirmative:
e.g. She used to write to relatives in China, but she doesn’t anymore.
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interrogative:
e.g. Did girls use to go to school?
negative:
e.g. I didn’t use to play football when I was 10.
WOULD
These describe events intended to take place, but which did not
happen.
S + TO BE + GOING TO + V
Basic form:
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affirmative: S + will + V
e.g. The children will enjoy seeing you again.
interrogative: Will + S + V?
e.g. Will you come back this evening?
negative: S + will + not + V
e.g. The meeting won’t start at 10.00 am.
Basic form:
affirmative: S + will + be + V-ing
e.g. Next Friday, the President will be celebrating five years in power.
Tom will be taking up his place at university in July.
interrogative: Will + S + be + V-ing?
e.g. Will you be coming to the concert?
negative: S + will + not + be + V-ing
e.g. After the operation you won’t be doing any sport for a while.
Basic form:
affirmative: S + will + have + V-ed/V3
e.g. By the time you get home I will have cleaned the house from top to
bottom.
interrogative: Will + S + have + V-ed/V3?
e.g. Will you have finished reading by 10.00 pm?
negative: S + will + not + have + V-ed/V3
e.g. The meeting won’t have started by 10.00 am.
Basic form:
affirmative: S + will + have + been + V-ing
e.g. On Saturday, we will have been living in this house for a year.
interrogative: Will + S + have + been + V-ing?
e.g. Will you have been working in this company for 20 years next
week?
negative: S + will + not + have + been + V-ing
e.g. Next year I won’t have been working here for 10 years, but for 11.
2. Going to
We use S + to be + going to + V:
to talk about future activities and events that are intended or have
already been arranged.
e.g. We’re going to do some climbing in the Pyrenees.
When we talk about an intention to do something in the future,
although no definite arrangement has been made, we prefer going to
rather than the present continuous.
e.g. Before I go to China next year, I’m going to learn some Cantonese.
to talk about permanent future situations.
e.g. People are going to live longer in the future.
to make or report predictions about activities or events over
which we have no control, whose cause is present or evident.
e.g. I think it’s going to rain soon.
e.g. Look at that tree! It’s going to fall
4. Be to
S + to be to + V is used to talk about formal or official
arrangements, formal instructions, and to give orders. It is particularly
common in news reports to talk about future events. We only use S + to
be to + V to talk about things that can be controlled by people.
e.g. Children are not to be left unsupervised in the museum.
The European Parliament is to introduce a new law on safety at
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work.
If humans are to survive as a species, we must address
environmental issues now.
6. Be due to
S + to be due to + V refers to scheduled times.
e.g. The play is due to start in five minutes.
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INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH
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THE PASSIVE VOICE
Basic form:
affirmative: S + to be + V-ed/V3
e.g. A civil servant is appointed on merit on the basis of fair and
open competition.
Basic form:
affirmative: S + to be + being + V-ed/V3
e.g. The Civil Service Code is being read now.
Basic form:
affirmative: S + was/were + V-ed/V3
e.g. In UK the Civil Service Code was introduced in 1996.
Basic form:
affirmative: S + to have + been + V-ed/V3
e.g. This lawyer’s methods have been adapted by many young
lawyers.
Basic form:
affirmative: S + had + been + V-ed/V3
e.g. I had already been told that you were leaving.
Basic form:
affirmative: S + will + be + V-ed/V3
e.g. John will be told that you are leaving.
Basic form:
affirmative: S + will + have + been + V-ed/V3
e.g. Although people are now angry about what he did, I’m sure
that his behaviour will soon have been forgotten.
MODALS
Notice that not all the passive tenses are included. They are not
normally used, and we avoid them by using the active.
USING PASSIVES
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In English old information is usually preferred to be put at the
beginning of a sentence and new information at the end.
e.g. The three machines tested for the report contained different
types of safety valve. The machines were manufactured by the Boron
Group in Germany.
It is often more natural to put agents (subjects) which consist of
long expressions at the end of a sentence.
e.g. I was surprised by Ann’s decision to give up her job and move
to London.
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ADJECTIVES
Adjectives describe nouns, go before nouns and have the same form
in the singular and plural.
e.g. a huge tree/ huge trees
Adjectives can also be used alone after the verbs ‘be’, ‘look’,
‘smell’, ‘sound’, ‘feel’, ‘taste’, ‘seem’, ‘appear’, ‘become’, ‘get’, ‘stay’,
etc.
e.g. He is handsome. It smells good.
There are two kinds of adjectives:
o opinion adjectives (interesting, fantastic)which show what a
person thinks of somebody or something, and
o fact adjectives (old, fat, short) which give us factual
information about size, age, colour, origin, material, etc.
There are simple and compound adjectives. Compound adjectives
may be formed with:
present participles: long-lasting journey
past participles: broken-down car
cardinal numbers + nouns: a three-day trip
NOT: a three days trip
well, badly + past participle: well-informed people
ORDER OF ADJECTIVES
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ADVERBS
Adverbs usually describe verbs, adjectives, other adverbs or
sentences. An adverb can be one word (quickly) or a phrase (in the
afternoon).
Adverbs can describe manner (how), place (where), time
(when), frequency (how often), degree (to what extent), etc.
FORMATION OF ADVERBS
ORDER OF ADVERBS
COMPARISONS
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AS / LIKE
We use like:
• with nouns/pronouns/-ing form to express similarity.
She treats him like a servant. (He isn't a servant.)
• with feel, look, smell, taste. She looks like her sister.
We use as to say what somebody or something really is.
e.g. He works as a waiter.
DEGREES OF COMPARISON
Spelling rules:
1. for one syllable adjectives ending in a short stressed vowel + a
consonant, we double the consonant.
e.g. big-bigger-biggest
2. for adjectives ending in a consonant + y, we change the -y into
an -i.
e.g. tiny-tinier-tiniest
3. final mute “e” is dropped before –er, -est.
e.g. nice – nicer – nicest
We use the comparative to compare one person or thing with
another.
We use the superlative to compare one person or thing with more
than one person or thing of the same group.
We often use than after a comparative and the before a superlative.
e.g. He is older than me. He's the oldest person in the room.
C. The irregular comparison
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Bad/ill worse the worst
Old Older - Elder* - the oldest
- the eldest*
Far farther - further* - the farthest
- the furthest
Little less - lesser* - the least
– the last
Much More the most
/Many
Fore Former* - the foremost*
- the first*
Late - later - latter* - the latest*
- the last*
Near Nearer - the nearest*
- the next*
Types of comparisons:
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MODAL VERBS
138
RELATIVE CLAUSES
RELATIVE PRONOUNS
We use:
who(m)/that to refer to people;
which/that to refer to things;
whose with people, animals and objects to show possession
(instead of a possessive adjective).
o Who, which, and that can be omitted when they are the object
of the relative clause.
e.g. That is the book (that) I was telling you about.
o Whom can be used instead of who when it is the object of the
relative clause. Whom is always used instead of who or that
after a preposition.
e.g. She’s someone with whom I used to work.
o Who, which, or that is not omitted when it is the subject of a
relative clause.
e.g. The play which won the Tony Award was a musical.
o Whose is never omitted.
e.g. This is Bruce Weber whose photographs you must have seen.
RELATIVE ADVERBS
We use:
When/ that to refer to a time (and can be omitted).
e.g. That was the year (when/that) my son was born.
Where to refer to a place.
e.g. The flat where I live is on the top floor.
Why to give a reason, usually after the word reason (why
can be omitted).
e.g. The reason (why)she quit her job is only to be guessed.
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DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES
140
IRREGULAR VERBS
143
144
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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