BB - Development and Validation of A Work Values Scale For Assessing High School Students

Multistudy Report
Development and Validation of a

Work Values Scale for Assessing
${protocol}://econtent.hogrefe.com/doi/pdf/10.1027/1015-5759/a000408 - Sunday, May 27, 2018 4:45:00 PM - IP Address:140.123.218.190
High School Students

A Mixed Methods Approach
Yao-Ting Sung, Yun-Tim Yvonne Chang, Tzu-Ying Cheng, and Hsiu-Lan Shelly Tien
Department of Educational Psychology and Counseling, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan
Abstract: Assessing work values with high school students is a critical component of career counseling practice, however it remains a
relatively understudied area of research. The purpose of this study was to develop and provide psychometric evaluation of a Work Values
Assembly (WVA) scale for assessing high school students. This study employed a mixed methodology to gather research data and conduct data
analyses. In the first study, 30 participants were involved in focus-group interviews about their work values. The interview data were analyzed
through a grounded theory approach and a framework of seven-dimension work values was derived. In the second study, the WVA scale was
constructed based on the descriptions and dimensions of the first study. Seven hundred fifty three high school students participated in the
pilot study. The revised scale was then administered to 896 high school students in a formal test. The exploratory- and confirmatory factor
analyses re-verified the quality of the items and the construct validity of the WVA scale. The scale also demonstrated good test-retest
reliability and criterion-related validity. Finally, 896 and 592 participants from high schools and colleges, respectively, participated in a test of
measurement invariance between the two groups. Implications for counseling as well as suggestions for future research were discussed.
Keywords: work values, scale development, high school students, mixed methodology
The Meaning and Importance be a barometer for objective appraisal and behavioral
guidance. Researchers (Judge & Bretz, 1992; Maynard &
of Work Values Parfyonova, 2013) also view work values and work-related
objectives as the internalized standards by which an indi-
The concept of work values is derived from the concept of vidual selects a vocation or evaluates a job. Work values,
values; values are all of a person’s long-term preferences as seen in this light, do not merely aid in the selection of
and enduring convictions that are used to gauge the impor- an occupation or the appraisal of a job, but also reveal a
tance and agreeableness of an experience, or those that are worker’s expectations of the ideal career, becoming the
used to incite a person to action or decision (Rokeach, basis for the explanation as to why we work (Dose, 1997;
1973). Thus work values are those lasting values that act Jambrak, Deane, & Williams, 2014; Wöhrmann, Fasbender,
as standards in the field of work, and are therefore used & Deller, 2016).
to judge work-related phenomenon, behaviors, and goals, Super (1970) and Gerpott (1988) both asserted that work
as well as provide the basis for the assessment of an individ- values tests also have implications for applicable aspects of
ual’s career choices (Super, 1970). career guidance. Their importance, like similar aptitude and
The implications of work values are quite extensive with interest tests, lies in their usefulness in the understanding of
many scholars considering them able to explain, predict, internalized criteria for on-the-job expectations of satisfac-
and even become the basis or standard for career decisions. tion and cognitive preferences toward the content of the
For example, researchers (Rokeach, 1973; Sortheix, Chow, work, becoming the referential basis for career planning.
& Salmela-Aro, 2015) consider work values capable of In Asia and Europe, streaming is a very important educa-
providing for a relatively stable psychological system, and, tion system (Sung, Chao, & Tseng, 2016; Sung, Huang,
as a result, able to explain and even predict an individual’s Tseng, & Chang, 2014; Sung, Cheng, & Hsueh, 2017;
internalized traits and behaviors in a variety of work Trautwein, Lüdtke, Marsh, Köller, & Baumert, 2006). High
environments. Schwartz (1992) considers work values to school especially is an important time for the designation of
European Journal of Psychological Assessment (2017) Ó 2017 Hogrefe Publishing. Distributed under the
DOI: 10.1027/1015-5759/a000408 Hogrefe OpenMind License http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/a000001
2 Y.-T. Sung et al., Work Values Assembly
a career path (Sung & Chao, 2015; Sung, Cheng, & Wu, brief descriptions of several of the measurement tools that
2016; Super, 1980); it is the time when students, according are used most frequently by researchers.
to their abilities, are separated into academic or vocational A commonly used work values assessment is the Work
tracks (Betts, 2011; Sung et al., 2014), and as a result, their Values Inventory (WVI), developed in 1957 by Super and
future university majors or other vocational directions are Crites. WVI included 15 types of work values and 45 items,
determined. Students, at this time, find themselves in the including altruism, esthetics, creativity, intellectual stimula-
midst of the formative period for work values, where they tion, achievement, independence, prestige, management,
must, based on the ebb and flow of societal experiences, economic returns, security, surroundings, supervisory rela-
come up with their own preferences, capabilities, and val- tions, associates, way of life, and variety. Later, WVI mea-
ues, thereby committing themselves to a future career surements were expanded through extensive research,
(Super, 1980). Therefore, if information on work values such as the Work Importance Study (WIS; Super & Sverko,
and interests, prior to career designation, can be amalga- 1995) and Super’s Work Values Inventory-Revised
mated and applied to the field of career counseling, then (SWVI-R; Zytowski, 2006); both have modified the dimen-
besides providing high school students with more opportu- sions and content of WVI.
nities to explore suitable career options via links between Rounds and Armstrong (2005) recommended adopting
various assessments and relevant occupations, this counsel- the experience gained from tools used for job adjustments
ing will also be able to enhance student self-awareness, as a means to supplement career counseling so as to extend
avoiding the development of negative attitudes toward edu- it beyond the campus and into the work site. Based on the
cation due to the selection of an inappropriate academic Theory of Work Adjustment, the purpose of the Minnesota
discipline (Dawis, 1991; Lent & Brown, 2006). Importance Questionnaire (MIQ; Paired Comparison
Version; Rounds, Henly, Dawis, Lofquist, & Weiss 1981)
was to estimate the impact of the work environment on
the worker, focusing on the needs and values that the job
The Dimensions and Measurement role brings to the worker and whether or not the work envi-
of Work Values ronment meets the worker’s expectations and satisfaction.
The MIQ comprises 20 separate work needs items related
Dimensions of Work Values to work requirement descriptions differentiated through
factor analysis into six work values: achievement, comfort,
Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad, and Herma (1951) formulated
status, altruism, safety, and autonomy. Based on the MIQ,
one of the earlier classifications of work values, proposing
McCloy et al. (1999a) developed the Work Importance
three types based on what kind of reward they are associ-
Profile (WIP) for the American career consulting agency
ated with: intrinsic, extrinsic, and concomitant (as cited in
Occupational Information Network (O*NET). WIP included
Ros, Schwartz, & Surkiss, 1999). Intrinsic rewards can be
similar 6 value dimensions and 21 needs.
achieved by doing the job itself, which in itself can motivate
Based on Table 1, we can also find some limitations of
an individual to work, such as autonomy (Super, 1970).
those existent tools. Firstly, in the examination of reliability
Extrinsic rewards are the things of value brought about as
and validity, although the majority of scales conform with
a result of doing the work, such as financial rewards and
Nunnally’s (1978) criterion that reliability coefficients be
convenience (Super, 1970). Concomitant rewards are lar-
greater than .70, most studies did not demonstrate appro-
gely related to social values, examples of which are social
priate validity. Scholars (Cabrera, Nora, & Castaneda,
relationships with coworkers or contributions to society
1993; Long, 1983) have proposed that exploratory factor
(Zytowski, 1994). Rokeach (1973) classified values into
analysis (EFA) alone cannot reveal the complete structure
two major types: terminal and instrumental. Terminal
of the factors, and so suggested that confirmatory factor
values emphasize the goals the individual hopes to achieve
analysis (CFA) should be used to confirm the existence of
in his or her lifetime, such as personal values and social
factor structure and goodness-of-fit indices. However,
values, while instrumental values focus on the beliefs, prac-
CFA has been applied to only a few work values scales to
tical actions, and modes of behavior for achieving those
analyze their construct validity, and even if researchers
goals, such as moral and behavioral values.
employed CFA, the studies suffered from the limitations
of small samples and poor model fit. For example, the
Work Values Assessments and Their WIP (McCloy et al., 1999a) included CFA in its analyses,
the value for root-mean-square error of approximation
Limitations
(RMSEA) was .11, the comparative fit index (CFI) was .8,
Recognizing the importance of work values, various tools to and TLI was .76, thus most of the indicators failed to meet
assess work values have been developed. Table 1 provides the criteria proposed by Hu and Bentler (1999).
Ó 2017 Hogrefe Publishing. Distributed under the European Journal of Psychological Assessment (2017)
Hogrefe OpenMind License http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/a000001
Table 1. Summary of work values scales

Scale Author(s) Year Sample Factors Reliability coefficient Validity
Work Values Inventory Super 1970 – Way of life, prestige, security, economic .74–.83 EFA
rewards, altruism, creativity, intellectual
stimulation, variety independence,
esthetics, achievement, management,
surroundings, supervisory relations,
associates
Minnesota Importance Gay, Weiss, Hendel, 1971 College students Achievement, comfort, status, altruism, .50–.86 Discriminant validity
Questionnaire Dawis, and Lofquist & adults (N = 999) safety, autonomy Convergent validity
Y.-T. Sung et al., Work Values Assembly
EFA
Rokeach Value Survey Rokeach 1973 – Terminal values, instrumental values .71–.78 EFA
European Journal of Psychological Assessment (2017)

Work Aspect Preference Pryor 1979 Senior-high-school Security, self-development, altruism, .61–.84 EFA
Scale students & adults lifestyle, physical activity, detachment,
independence, prestige, management,
coworkers, creativity, money
Schwartz Work Value Ros, Schwartz, 1999 College students Personal growth, autonomy, interest, Not reported Content validity
and Surkiss (N = 999) creativity, pay and security, contact with Similarity structure analysis
people, contribution to society, prestige,
authority, influence
Work Importance Profile McCloy et al. 1999a Graduate college Achievement, comfort, status, altruism, .50–.86 EFA
students (N = 941) safety, autonomy CFA
Career Value Scale Macnab, Bakker 2005 Aged 15–60 years Service orientation, teamwork, influence, .75–.89 Concurrent validity
and Fitzsimmons (N = 140,00) creativity, independence, excitement, Construct validity
career development, financial rewards, EFA
prestige, security
Super’s Work Values Zytowski 2006 Senior-high-school Achievement, prestige, security, .70–.89 EFA
Inventory-Revised Students (N = 99) associates, supervisory relations, Construct validity
creativity, surroundings, economic
returns, variety, independence, way of life,
intellectual stimulation
Work Values Leuty and Hansen 2011 College students Working environment, challenging work, Not reported EFA
(N = 347) status, income, autonomy, organizational Construct validity
support, relationships
Note. EFA = exploratory factor analysis; CFA = confirmatory factor analysis.
Ó 2017 Hogrefe Publishing. Distributed under the

3

Secondly, cultural issues need to be emphasized more in Because of different backgrounds or mental sets,
the construction of work value scales. Many researchers different groups of participants may conceptualize con-
have asserted that work values scales are influenced by structs within the same measurement tool differently.
cultural factors. For example, Robinson and Betz (2008) Therefore, directly comparing the testing results of two
using SWVI-R, and Hartung, Fouad, Leong, and Hardin groups with the same measurement tools may not be
(2010) using the WVI scale both found that African appropriate (Raju, Laffitte, & Byrne, 2002). Previous
Americans placed more importance on intrinsic work research usually focused on the evaluation of the reliability
values than did Americans of European descent. Fuller, and validity of a measurement tool through a single group
Edwards, Sermsri, and Vorakitphokatorn (1993) used theo- of participants with little consideration for the appropriate-
retical constructs and measurement tools developed by ness of using the same tool for another group.
American academia in their cross-cultural research that Thankfully, there exist statistical tools for testing the
surveyed local Thai sociological phenomenon. The research generalizability of a measurement method. Measurement
results indicated that, despite back-translation, many of the invariance has been proposed as a way to evaluate the
statements in the English questionnaire were too abstract plausibility of applying testing tools to different groups
and confusing and needed to be reworded. while measuring the same construct (Cheung & Rensvold,
Furthermore, comparisons of foreign versus domestic 2002). The testing of measurement invariance is a kind
research also revealed that differences in environments of multigroup confirmatory factor analysis (MGCFA), which
and samples could lead to the extraction of different factor can evaluate if there exists invariance or equivalence in the
constructs between various studies even though the scales estimated parameters of factor models in different groups
adopted were the same. Using a WVI scale as an example, (Cheung & Rensvold, 2002). By testing the configural
White (2006) extracted four factors from a sampling of invariance (model 1; same factor structures across groups),
college students in an English-speaking country, namely, metric invariance (model 2; same factor loadings across
comfort-independent, stimulation, affiliation, and achieve- groups), and scalar invariance (model 3; same item inter-
ment. Dolan, Díez-Piñol, Fernández-Alles, Martín-Prius, cepts across groups), researchers can get more objective
and Martínez-Fierro (2004), on the other hand, extracted information about the appropriateness of comparing the
four factors of extrinsic work values, social, economic work test results of different groups with the same measurement
status, intrinsic work values, and self-realization values tool (e.g., Marsh, Nagengast, & Morin, 2013). Based on the
based on their Spanish participants. Moreover, Lee, Hung, importance of evaluating the measurement invariance, this
and Ling (2012) in a sampling of Malaysian teachers classi- study will test the measurement invariance of a Work
fied three different factors, that is, environment, intrinsic, Values Assembly (WVA) scale among high school and
and security. The above research findings reveal that using college students.
the same WVI scale for different cultures will result in
different factor structures; different ethnic and cultural back-
grounds must therefore be considered when constructing a
values scale, but in most cases the work value dimensions Aim of the Current Research
of respondents from different cultural backgrounds are not
taken into account when values scales are constructed. In Taiwan the most frequently used work value scales were
Thirdly, although research indicates an individual’s compiled some years ago, with most of the scales having
work values change greatly during the transition from been based on scales developed in the Western societies,
adolescence to adulthood (Johnson, 2002), current theory such as Wu, Li, Liu, and Ou (1996) and Chen, Wang, Liu,
suggests that the structure of work values in a culture does Ou, and Li (1987). Those scales suffered from the three
not change due to age (Harpaz & Fu, 2002; Jin & Rounds, limitations mentioned above: They have a lack of rigorous
2012). However, when formulating a work values scale using evaluation for construct validity, they directly adopted the
one age group, this theory must still be validated for that structure/dimension of values from other countries with
particular scale if researchers intend to apply it to a different little consideration for indigenous culture, and they need
age group. Unfortunately, most current work values scales more evaluation for the appropriateness of application
were developed surveying working adults, and never to cross-age groups of participants (Hung & Liu, 2003).
rigorously validated with a high school sample. For example, To help compensate for these limitations, our research
the widely used work values scale of Super (1970) was has four aims:
constructed on the basis of the researcher’s work with (a) Determine the work values dimensions of Taiwanese
middle school students; whether or not the scale is suitable students and compare those with Western cultural
for use with high school students still awaits validation. values by means of qualitative research.
Y.-T. Sung et al., Work Values Assembly 5
(b) Develop a WVA scale suitable for use with high school to the research topic, and, thereby, assist the researcher
students based on the work values dimensions to collect information-rich qualitative data and to examine
obtained by qualitative research. the topic from a totally new point of view (Morgan &
(c) Empirically examine the psychometric properties of the Krueger, 1993).
WVA scale, including its reliability and validity with
representative samples and abundant participants.
(d) Evaluate the measurement invariance in the WVA Method
scale’s structure between groups of high school and Participants
college students. The main purposes of this qualitative study were to eluci-
date the dimensions of work values in contemporary
We employed mixed methodology (Tashakkori & Teddlie, Taiwanese culture and to establish a structural framework
2003) with an exploratory design of the instrument devel- for the WVA scale. According to previous researchers, while
opment model (Creswell, Plano Clark, Gutmann, & the emphasis people place on different work values dimen-
Hanson, 2003) to fulfill the above purposes. The first study sions may change substantially from adolescence to adult-
employed a grounded theory approach to collect the quali- hood (Johnson, 2002), the actual structure of those
tative data on the work value dimensions. The second study dimensions should remain stable over time (Harpaz & Fu,
evaluated various facets of measurement theory, including 2002; Jin & Rounds, 2012). Therefore, we believe that the
reliability of internal consistency, validity from EFA, CFA, structure/dimensions derived from Taiwanese adults may
and criterion-relatedness, and measurement invariance also represent the work values structure of Taiwanese
for the WVA scale across high school and university senior high school students. Furthermore, because each
students. During the construction and evaluation process participant of this study needed to attend the focus group
of the WVA scale, the principles of the Standards for at least twice, and because Taiwanese high school students
Educational and Psychological (AERA/APA/NCME, 2014) are so intensely busy studying for entrance examinations,
were referred to as a major guide. For example, the content which are very high stakes for their future career develop-
and relative importance of aspects of the content in the ment (Sung & Chao, 2015), recruiting senior high school
WVA scale were carefully derived from the interview students for investigating work value structure/dimensions
results of focus groups, to ensure the representativeness would be impractical for this study. Based on the two
of the work value content and dimensions in Taiwanese reasons above, this study recruited college-aged adults as
culture; the validity evidence based on internal structure our focus-group sample while using senior high school
was gathered and evaluated by EFA and CFA; the validity students as the sample for evaluating the reliability and
evidence based on external criteria was evaluated by validity of the WVA scale developed based on the dimen-
comparing the WVA scores with the scores of another sions provided by the college students. However, conscious
validated work value scale, the Work Importance Locator of the risks of generalizing across age groups, we addition-
(WIL; McCloy et al., 1999b); and for the evidence of ally tested the scale measurement invariance between these
generalizability for the WVA scale across different groups, two groups in Study 2.
a measurement-invariance analysis was conducted for both The study followed Krueger’s (1988) suggestions on the
data sets from high school and college students. use of purposive sampling for focus-group research. First,
a pool of candidates was selected that met the objectives
(identifying work value dimensions) and conditions (college
students or graduates aged from 20 to 30 years with part-
Study 1: Qualitative Research on the or full-time work experience) of the study, and then actual
Content of Taiwanese Work Values participants were randomly chosen from this pool; so that,
in this way, sampling errors could be reduced to a mini-
In this study, a qualitative dual-approach (inductive mum. The study utilized online advertisements with web-
and deductive) research methodology was implemented. based registration, and personal contact via campus
The focus-group interview is often used for the process bulletins to solicit participants. The participants were
of identifying dimensions and compiling statements in a recruited based on their gender and work experiences;
scale or questionnaire (Krueger & Casey, 2000). The participants with different work fields were given priority.
unique characteristic of focus-group interviews is their In the end we recruited 30 Taiwanese nationals split evenly
ability, through group dynamics, to allow members to between men and women and divided into five separate
express, in a relaxed setting, a diversity of opinions on groups in such a fashion as to maximize the diversity of
all types of experiences, perspectives, and views related each group.
The participants included four students from technology- 5. “What do you feel you can do to obtain the most from
related university departments, seven students from liberal your job?”
arts and business departments, seven individuals with more
than 2 years of working experience in technology-related Researchers followed the interview questionnaire outline
fields, four individuals with liberal arts or business back- and modified the questions according to the participants’
grounds who were working in related areas, and eight background, such that individuals who were employed were
individuals working in fields unrelated to their university asked to share their on-the-job experiences and to describe
majors. Each interview lasted 1.5 hr and was recorded with what they hoped to gain from their jobs, while students
the respondents’ permission. Due to the length of each shared information about what they desired in their future
session and the desire to obtain high-quality data, each work.
group met 2 or 3 times to ensure each participant could
fully express themselves without time constraints. Data Analysis
As a means to avoid overlap between work value dimen-
sions, the researchers considered the need to increase the
Procedure
clarity of the boundaries between the conceptual meanings
Data Collection for each representative category. Therefore Corbin and
Following Krueger and Casey (2000), each discussion Strauss’ (2007) grounded theory approach, which is based
group consisted of six members, as too many in a group on methods of coding and separation for real-time data
would hinder opportunities for experiential and observa- via hierarchical classifications and analysis, was selected
tional exchanges between group members. At the begin- for further analysis of the textual data. In formulating the
ning of the first focus-group session, the researcher first basis of a statement, each derivative dimension was
gave a brief self-introduction and explained the purpose explained and named. Not only were the concepts and
of the research. If members were still willing to participate properties of each dimension clarified in this manner, but
in the focus group they then filled out a consent form that so was the meaning of the statement it represented.
included basic data. The researcher also verbally notified This process was divided into the following steps:
the participants that the entire session would be taped (1) Reading of the transcripts. Transcripts derived from the
and transcribed word-for-word, and notes would be taken, recordings were read from beginning to end to gain a
so as to collect data from the group’s discussions and comprehensive understanding of the material. While
record the opinions of participants. The researcher further reviewing each group, thorough coding was done that
explained that privacy would be guaranteed and that, showed the date the session took place, number of
should any participant feel uncomfortable, they could leave sessions, participant code names, and positions of
at any time during the session. Only after all members important junctures. Following this, the materials were
expressed agreement did a focus-group session begin. stored, using specific rule-based filing so as to be
The duration for each focus-group session lasted easily indexed for future reference.
between 90 and 120 min with a semi-structured interview (2) Open coding. Three research assistants with psychol-
format, and each group met 2 or 3 times. Prior to a session, ogy master degrees and a background of qualitative
developmental questions, covering the scope of the study, research reviewed and coded the transcripts. The
were drafted as a means to keep the focus on research coding process was as follows: first, each researcher
objectives and to allow time for participants to reply. Once read and open-coded the transcripts while searching
a session was over, analysis of the data proceeded only after for descriptive content related to work values. The
researchers had completed the verbatim transcription of descriptive statements were collated. Similar descrip-
source material and participants had been given the tive statements were grouped together into a code
opportunity to review transcripts for accuracy (Krueger & until all were coded. Researchers compiled a total
Casey, 2000). of 231 descriptive sentences. A codebook was cre-
Adhering to the guidelines on question types applicable ated, which included a comprehensive list of all
to focus-groups interviews proposed by Krueger (1988), codes, the properties of each code, and descriptive
the interviewers asked the following questions: statements.
1. “Please state your name and briefly describe a day at (3) Axis coding. During this process, researchers inter-
work.” preted and analyzed the open-coded data, summariz-
2. “What do you think of when you hear ‘work values’?” ing concretely interviewee discourse, assigning label
3. “What do you get out of your current job?” names with close associations to content meaning,
4. “What concerns you most when looking for a job?” and assembling a hierarchical classification structure.
and The three researchers named the 231 descriptive
Table 2. Example of optional translated code table

Selecting coding Axis coding Open coding
Main category Subcategory Concept Meaning of content
Compensation and benefits Source of financial stability Salary is fixed A fixed salary amount is wired monthly.
Monetary compensation is stable Work results in stable monetary
compensation.
Salary increases incrementally If one remains in the company then salary
will gradually increase.
Suitable working environment Good office environment Working in a good office environment is
good for both body and mind.
Office atmosphere is amicable The office atmosphere is harmonious and
pleasant; everybody diligently does their
work.
Working environment is very good The office working environment is very
good, much like a family.
sentences appropriately according to the implica- approval (14 sentences, 6.0%), (8) prestige (12 sentences,
tions they carried. When there was disagreement 5.2%), (9) happiness (11 sentences, 4.8%), (10) prosocial
between the three researchers regarding how a motivation (9 sentences, 3.9%), (11) work pressures (8 sen-
particular statement should be classified, discussions tences, 3.5%), and (12) importance of family (4 sentences,
were held to obtain a consensus on the construct 1.7%). In order to ensure that scale measurements were
classification. clear and unambiguous, researchers reviewed the 12 cate-
(4) Selecting coding. Researchers referenced open-coded gories in an attempt to identify any overlap between the
and axial coded categories as units. Over the course categories. For example, social approval and prestige were
of extensive classification, shared characteristics were merged due to similarity. Additionally, the work-pressures
captured until core categories, comprising the full category has a negative connotation and is not something
meaning of the research, could be selected, linking that people would hope to obtain from their jobs (Super,
each category and forming a preliminary explanatory 1980), and was thus discarded. Happiness was also dis-
structure. Then the data was reinspected for struc- carded because the concept was too vague; in addition to
tural completeness and superfluous categories were it being the result of the satisfaction of needs, it is also
eliminated while insufficient ones were augmented, affected by satisfaction with other work values (Dawis &
constituting a complete explanatory structure (Corbin Lofquist, 1984). Therefore, the 12 core categories were
& Strauss, 2007). See Table 2 for additional examples. reduced to seven dimensions, and they are presented in
After repeated cycles of selective coding, the research- the next section. We utilized qualitative methods and
ers constructed an initial framework of 21 categories. constructed a conceptual work values framework from
empirical data, as shown in Table 3.
Following several reclassifications and in-depth discussion,
six categories, which were biased toward personality traits,
were eliminated, for example, sense of responsibility,
Results and Discussion
devotion, patience, conscientiousness, avoidance of compe-
tition, and emotional maturity. Afterward similarity of The seven dimensions that we derived in this study
meanings was compared and categories were merged with corresponded to the following four main typical dimensions
a total of five being combined into two, for example, that scholars have previously obtained through factor anal-
“upward mobility,” “office amenities,” and “stable living,” ysis: intrinsic values, extrinsic values, social values, and
being combined into the category of “compensation and prestige values (Duffy & Sedlacek, 2007; Elizur, 1984;
benefits,” and “interaction with colleagues” was merged Ros, Schwartz, & Surkiss, 1999).
with “social interaction.” There were 231 descriptive When comparing the work values framework revealed by
sentences belonging to the following 12 core categories: this study with commonly used work values measures of the
(1) compensation and benefits (57 sentences, 24.7%), past, that is, WVI and MIQ, the self-actualization category
(2) professional development (37 sentences, 16.0%), of our framework belongs to the intrinsic values dimension;
(3) social relationships (26 sentences, 11.3%), (4) autonomy its implications include the importance of achieving goals
(20 sentences, 8.7%), (5) variety (17 sentences, 7.4%), and actualizing their competence; this dimension is similar
(6) self-actualization (16 sentences, 6.9%), (7) social to achievement in the WVI (Super, 1970) and the MIQ.
Table 3. Work values structural framework

Dimension Content Sample item
Comfort Includes a stable life, salary, and benefits; the degree of The job would provide for a stable lifestyle.
importance individuals place on obtaining a steady
source of income or stable life and a comfortable work
environment from their jobs.
Prestige Includes the concepts of social approval and social The job would enable me to achieve higher social
status; the degree of importance individuals place on status.
obtaining social status and the recognition of others.
Growth Includes professional growth and challenges; the degree I could gain specialized skills working at the job.
of importance individuals place on professional
development and their willingness to accept challenges
at work.
Autonomy Emphasizes the power of autonomy that an individual I could be free to make decisions on my own at work.
possesses, and whether he or she has the flexibility to
control working conditions and job content.
Self-actualization Includes the implementation of abilities and The job enables me to make use of my expertise.
actualization of ideals, with an emphasis on whether the
individual can achieve self-actualization through his or
her work and whether the job content is engaging, does
the job allow an individual to realize his or her full
potential, and does he or she feel that the work is
meaningful.
Prosocial motivation Includes serving others, social responsibility, and moral The job allows me to make some contribution to the
conscience; importance is placed on whether an society.
individual’s job helps or affects others positively.
Interpersonal connections Includes expanding social networks and engaging in I would be able to meet different people and make
teamwork; importance is placed on whether the job friends.
requires the individual to come into contact with others
or take part in cooperative efforts.
The professional growth dimension also belongs to the dimensions. “Comfort,” which included receiving compen-
intrinsic values, and it includes the need for job challenges, sation and benefits associated with work, was the most
the application of knowledge, and the importance of widely mentioned dimension. The focus-group interviewees
developing professional ability. This dimension is similar also suggested that “professional growth” was important to
to the creativity, variety, and intellectual stimulation cate- them at a job, and it was the second most widely discussed
gories in the WVI; the implications of the autonomy and value category.
prosocial motivation dimensions correspond to those found Taiwanese also emphasized work setting features that are
in both the WVI and MIQ. interesting and challenging, autonomy in decision-making,
As for extrinsic values, comfort emphasizes the stability, and the opportunity to achieve ideals with colleagues. They
rewards, and benefits obtained from work; this dimension placed more emphasis on meeting self-actualization, self-
is similar to that of economic rewards and surroundings expression, and self-development needs. More and more
from the WVI and to that of comfort and safety from MIQ. are seeing work as a way to accomplish intrinsic needs,
In terms of social values, the descriptive sentences for which stands in contrast to previous generations (Lu & Lin,
the interpersonal factor indicate that Taiwanese respon- 2002; Wong & Yuen, 2012). “Social relationships” was the
dents place importance on interacting with others and third most commonly mentioned category. Unlike the
having good relationships with colleagues; when compared WVI, supervisory relationships were rarely mentioned in
with the WVI, supervisory relationships are mentioned less, our sample, and hence a dimension could not be constructed
and hence a dimension could not be constructed for this for this value. In Western interpersonal values, good relation-
value. Prestige emphasizes power and status; this dimen- ships require the satisfaction of an individual’s emotional
sion is similar to that of prestige from the WVI and to that needs and his or her desire for achieving security through
of status from MIQ. interaction with others, whereas in East Asian cultures, in
A comparison of Taiwanese work values and Western addition to satisfying individual emotional needs, good
work values reveals some similarities in the structural impli- relationships include maintaining a harmonious atmosphere
cations. The findings of this study indicate that Taiwanese and cooperating in the sharing of resources (Huang, Eveleth,
work values are characterized by multiple work value & Huo, 1998; Wong & Yuen, 2012). Also, comparing our
transcripts with the literature, past methods of classifying holding doctorates conducted dimension classification of
values dimensions often categorized power, status, eco- the 60 items and revised the item dimension relevance.
nomic reward, and work environment as extrinsic values. Items were revised to ensure consistency and to discard
However, in the present study these four dimensions were items that had relatively weak or ambiguous relationships
classified into two separate categories. By comparing our with the dimensions. After the review, 58 items derived
transcripts with the relevant literature on the subject, it can from the item development remained in the WVA scale.
be seen that the needs for power and status (i.e., an individ- The seven dimensional subscales were as follows: prosocial
ual’s desire to obtain the approval and respect of others) motivation (10 items), interpersonal connections (9 items),
belong to the satisfaction of intrinsic psychological needs. prestige (9 items), comfort (9 items), professional growth
Needs expressed in surroundings and economic rewards (8 items), self-actualization (7 items), and autonomy
(i.e., an individual’s desire for a job that provides a good (6 items). The 5-point Likert rating scale was utilized.
living environment, salary, and benefits) belong to the satis- Respondents answered according to the degree of impor-
faction of extrinsic material needs. Therefore, power and tance they placed on each work values item, choosing one
status were renamed as prestige, and work environment of the following five options: “not important,” “somewhat
and rewards were subsumed into comfort. important,” “important,” “very important,” and “extremely
Our work values structural framework was established important.”
with the goal to develop a work value scale designed to
be used in Taiwan for high school students. Although it Participants
was found that the value dimensions that we obtained For the pilot test, the sample was comprised of 753 senior-
from the qualitative study reflect universal values, distinct high-school students, aged 16–19 years, from Northern
cultural differences were also found. However, to see exist- Taiwan. Among them were 306 males (40.64%) and 444
ing cultural differences will require future studies to acquire females (58.96%); three students did not specify their
cross-national samples for qualitative studies. The develop- gender on the questionnaire.
ment of the work values framework in this study demon-
strates a potential research instrument that measures a Procedure
number of intrinsic and extrinsic values for studying The pilot-test data were collected between late March and
cultures and values in future studies. mid-April 2012. The purpose of the scale and the method of
completing it were explained to the participating students
before the scale was administered to them. After they com-
pleted the scale, the students received a gift in appreciation
Study 2: Quantitative Evaluation of their participation. The administration of the WVA scale
of the WVA Scale lasted for around 15–20 min.
Results
Pilot Study
The exploratory factor analysis (EFA) with principal axis
Item Development and Review for the WVA Scale oblimin rotation was conducted. Oblimin (Promax) rotation
After confirming the seven work values dimensions was used to assist interpretation of the components (Fabri-
described in Study 1, the content of the 231 qualitative gar, Wegener, MacCallum, & Strahan, 1999; Thompson,
descriptive statements was reexamined, and the items were 2004). The Bartlett’s test value was significant at
rewritten and revised according to the implications of their 15,780.647 (p < .001) and the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure
dimensions, so that the rewritten items corresponded more of sampling adequacy was .928. Therefore, exploratory
closely to the category meanings. Finally, researchers factor analysis was appropriate for these data. According
selected the items they considered to be the most represen- to the criterion of eigenvalue-greater-than-one (Kaiser,
tative of the dimensions. In total, 60 items were selected. 1958), seven factors were extracted, which accounted for
In order to assure the suitability of scale content, items 56.77% of the variance. Eigenvalues ranged from 1.24 to
underwent a two-stage review process conducted by experts 11.73. According to the item deletion threshold proposed
in the field. In the first stage, 13 Taiwanese experts with by Tabachnick and Fidell (2007), a factor loading smaller
practical experience in the field of education and counseling than 0.45 indicates that the factors explain less than 20%
reviewed each of the 60 descriptive sentences, checking of the observed variance, which is less than ideal for the
and scoring items for readability and content; in total, 27 purposes of the present study (Leuty & Hansen, 2011).
items were revised. In the second stage, nine Taiwanese Among the 58 items, there were 14 items (PS08, IP07,
experts including three licensed psychologists, three high IP08, IP09, CS07, PR09, PR08, PS10, SA07, GR07,
school and university counselors, and three professors GR08, AU04, AU05, and AU06) with factor loadings
Table 4. Rotated factor loadings and internal consistency reliability for the seven-factor model in the pilot test
Factor Internal consistency
Item No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Communality estimates Residuals Cronbach’s α
PS01 .87 .19 .32 .19 .46 .38 .19 .79 .21 .92
PS02 .84 .17 .32 .23 .43 .39 .20 .75 .25
PS03 .82 .18 .40 .22 .47 .46 .22 .72 .28
PS06 .80 .21 .36 .24 .43 .39 .22 .70 .30
PS05 .77 .12 .42 .21 .40 .43 .17 .68 .32
PS04 .72 .20 .48 .20 .47 .48 .30 .69 .31
IP01 .14 .88 .22 .33 .20 .20 .31 .72 .28 .89
IP02 .09 .86 .20 .32 .16 .16 .33 .70 .30
IP03 .08 .86 .24 .32 .13 .18 .31 .73 .27
IP05 .23 .72 .32 .40 .29 .41 .24 .64 .36
IP06 .29 .71 .38 .44 .30 .44 .26 .62 .38
IP04 .24 .66 .29 .40 .26 .16 .29 .60 .40
PR01 .14 .28 .94 .26 .34 .40 .35 .81 .19 .88
PR02 .42 .25 .81 .22 .36 .34 .28 .72 .28
PR03 .25 .20 .79 .17 .31 .31 .34 .67 .33
PR06 .35 .32 .76 .26 .34 .47 .41 .66 .34
PR05 .43 .31 .66 .39 .38 .45 .30 .62 .38
PR04 .29 .20 .64 .19 .35 .23 .19 .56 .44
CS02 .26 .31 .28 .74 .24 .36 .25 .70 .30 .82
CS05 .15 .36 .21 .70 .21 .32 .22 .67 .33
CS01 .12 .45 .28 .62 .21 .41 .23 .59 .41
CS03 .12 .52 .31 .61 .22 .29 .32 .51 .49
CS04 .22 .36 .16 .59 .21 .14 .19 .62 .38
CS06 .34 .19 .28 .57 .25 .31 .28 .62 .38
GR02 .35 .25 .32 .27 .81 .34 .20 .71 .29 .85
GR01 .45 .13 .25 .20 .80 .36 .12 .68 .32
GR06 .37 .17 .31 .28 .77 .39 .22 .64 .36
GR03 .45 .22 .46 .18 .51 .49 .19 .58 .42
GR04 .39 .29 .36 .09 .49 .44 .30 .53 .47
GR05 .42 .08 .36 .12 .48 .37 .16 .64 .36
SA01 .51 .22 .37 .30 .42 .70 .25 .59 .41 .81
SA02 .35 .37 .34 .34 .43 .68 .31 .61 .39
SA04 .26 .12 .26 .30 .27 .65 .36 .68 .32
SA06 .34 .17 .36 .19 .55 .57 .37 .54 .46
SA03 .45 .18 .36 .22 .41 .55 .21 .60 .40
SA05 .51 .22 .37 .30 .42 .55 .25 .65 .35
AU01 .23 .35 .34 .30 .28 .35 .72 .79 .21 .87
AU02 .32 .37 .38 .32 .27 .38 .70 .82 .18
AU03 .18 .29 .40 .25 .21 .38 .61 .68 .32
Note. Bold values indicate items belonging to the same factor.
smaller than 0.45, therefore they were deleted from the conducted again for the remaining 39 items. In Table 4,
scale. Furthermore, five items (PS07, PR07, PS09, SA03, we can see that the factor loadings of the dimensions were
and SA04) showed cross-loading with other items, which .72–.87 for prosocial motivation, .66–.88 for interpersonal
means that those items were correlated with more than connections, .64–.94 for prestige, .57–.74 for comfort,
one factor, which may increase bias and reduce the inter- .48–.81 for growth, .55–.70 for self-actualization, and
pretability of the scale, therefore those cross-loaded items .61–.72 for autonomy. The communalities ranged from .41
were deleted (Hair et al., 2006, pp. 149–151). After the to .81. Since only three item loadings in the autonomy
selection, an EFA with principal axis oblimin rotation was dimension met the criterion, only those three items were
Table 5. The correlation matrix of factors in pilot study Department of Labor (McCloy et al., 1999b), for the
Factor PS IP PR CS GR SA AU measurement of job seekers’ work values, which included
PS 1 20 needs/items for respondents’ sorting through 5-point
IP .49 1 Likert scales ranging from “5 = very important” to “1 = least
PR .23 .35 1 important.” The test interface and statements were changed
CS .29 .37 .53 1 to Chinese whereby the test prompts and translated
GR .62 .53 .28 .34 1 statements underwent rigorous back-translation to ensure
SA .61 .52 .31 .45 .71 1 that the translated item meanings completely matched those
AU .35 .48 .44 .41 .36 .52 1 of the WIL English version. WIL had several dimensions
Notes. AU = autonomy, CS = comfort, GR = growth, IP = interpersonal
closely related with the dimensions of the WVA scale, such
connections, PR = prestige, PS = prosocial motivation, SA = self- as altruism (WIL) versus prosocial motivation (WVA) and
actualization. self-actualization (WVA) versus utilization of ability (WIL).
The Pearson’s Moment-Product correlation coefficients
between the related dimensions of the WVA scale and WIL
selected. The correlation matrix of the seven factors is pre- were used as the indicators of criterion-related validity.
sented in Table 5. Overall, 19 items were removed and the
remaining 39 items were retained. There were six items in Procedure
each of the six dimensions except for the autonomy dimen- The formal-test data were collected between September,
sion. The factor loadings and the internal consistency relia- 2012 and March, 2013. For the first sample, the procedure
bility coefficient (Cronbach’s α) of the seven dimensions are of administration was identical to the pilot study. For the
listed in Table 4. Since only three items remained in the second sample, the retest of the WVA scale was adminis-
autonomy dimension after the pilot test, seven new items tered two weeks after the first test, and the procedure of
were developed using the same method as those items pro- both tests was identical to the pilot study. The administra-
duced by the pilot study and were added to this dimension tion of WIL was done immediately after the retest of the
for the formal test. WVA scale, the administration of the two tests lasted for
around 30 min. For the third sample, the recruitment of
college students and the administration of the WVA scale
Formal Study were conducted in January and March, 2013. The proce-
dure was identical to the pilot test of the WVA scale.
Participants
Three samples of students were recruited in this study.
The first sample comprised 896 high school students from
Results
Taipei City and New Taipei City. There were 445 males
(49.67%) and 451 females (50.33%), aged 15–19 years. Item Analysis and Exploratory Factor Analysis
They were sampled for the item analysis, reliability of inter- Because seven new items of the autonomy dimension
nal consistency, and construct validity. The second sample were added and tested along with the 39 old items,
comprised 491 students (46.8% males and 53.2% females) we re-conducted the item analysis and EFA as in the pilot
from public and private high schools and vocational high test to reconfirm the quality of items. The EFA was
schools in Taipei City. They were recruited for the test- subsequently conducted with the principal axis factor with
retest reliability and the criterion-related validity of the promax rotation. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin coefficient
WVA scale. The third sample included 896 students of was .944, and Bartlett’s test value was significant at
the first sample and 592 students (41.72% males and 19,243.192 (p < .001). Therefore, exploratory factor analysis
58.28% females), aged 19–23 years, from public and private was appropriate for these data. The EFA of the 42-item
colleges in Taipei City. The two groups of students were version identified the most plausible models based on a
sampled for the testing of measurement invariance. scree plot. The eigenvalue 1 was used as the criterion
for determining the number of factors to retain (Thompson,
Measurement Tools 2004). As illustrated in Figure 1, these models were
This study employs two measurement tools. The first one is composed of seven factors, the eigenvalues ranged from
the WVA scale developed in the pilot study. Including the 1.28 to 11.94. A total of 62.6% of the variance was
seven new items for the autonomy dimension, there was a accounted for by the seven components. The factor load-
total of 46 items in the WVA scale. The second tool is the ings (Table 6) of the dimensions were .77–.85 for prosocial
Work Importance Locator (WIL), which was used as the motivation, .60–.86 for interpersonal connections, 56–.89
criterion of the criterion-related validity. The WIL was for prestige, .50–.77 for comfort, .46–.83 for growth,
\produced and funded by the O*NET project of the US .36–.68 for self-actualization, and .61–.75 for autonomy.
reasonable fit, those between .08 and .10 indicate mediocre

fit, and values greater than .10 indicate unacceptable fit; the
SRMR values acceptable for model fit are .08 or greater.
For the model evaluation as a whole, w2 (798,
N = 896) = 2,199.86 (p < .001) did not support the fit of
the model. The other values (RMSEA = .004, CFI = .98,
and SRMR = .05) met the criteria recommended by
Hu and Bentler (1999) as being indicative of a good model
fit. The CFA results are also shown in Figure 2. These

analyses show that there was a good fit between the frame-
work model proposed by this study and the research data
collected in the study.
Criterion-Related Validity Analysis

Table 8 indicates that the coefficient (r = .52) of the
Figure 1. Exploratory Factor Analysis scree plot of the 42 items.
prosocial motivation dimension from the WVA scale and
that of the social service dimension from the WIL were
The communalities ranged from .47 to .78. The correlation significant (p < .05). The autonomy dimension from the
matrix of factor loading is given in Table 7. Three items of WVA scale and the creativity, autonomy, and responsibility
the newly added seven items in the autonomy dimensions dimensions from WIL were all significantly and positively
were selected based on their factor loadings and item-total correlated (r = .29, .36, and .39, respectively; p < .01 for
correlations and were integrated into the formal version of all). The comfort dimension from the WVA scale and the
the WVA scale, for a total of 42 items, 6 items per dimen- work conditions, company policies, security, and rewards
sion. The results reconfirmed the quality of the items and dimensions from WIL were also all significantly positively
the robustness of the seven dimensions (factors) of the correlated (r = .19, .21, .27, and .29, respectively; p < .01).
WVA scale. The professional growth dimension from the WVA scale
and the ability utilization and achievement dimensions
Reliability Analysis from WIL were significantly and positively correlated
The internal consistency reliability coefficient ranged from (r = .25 and .27, respectively; p < .05). The coefficient of
.81 to .92. The overall scale reliability coefficient was .95. the interpersonal connections dimension from the WVA
The test-retest reliability coefficients ranged from .83 to scale and the coworkers dimension from WIL was .21,
.91 (see Table 6). (p < .01). The prestige from the WVA scale and advance-
ment and compensation from WIL were significantly
Construct Validity Analysis and positively correlated (r = .22 and .37, respectively;
LISREL 8.70 (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 2004) statistical soft- p < .01). The self-actualization dimension from the WVA
ware was used to conduct CFA to validate the 42 formal scale and the ability utilization and achievement dimen-
items obtained by EFA and to determine whether a reliable sions from WIL were significantly and positively correlated
7-factor work values model had been established. The max- (r = .33 and .35, respectively; p < .05). The results that
imum likelihood estimates from the sample covariance scores of the WVA dimensions were significantly correlated
matrix were used in the CFA. with the relevant dimensions of WIL provided supporting
For CFA, the chi-square (w2) values are regularly used as evidence for the criterion-related validity of the WVA scale.
a criterion for model fit. However, because an excessive
sample size or a stronger correlation between variables Measurement-Invariance Analysis
may have been the reason for the increased chi-square Previous research proposed the tests of configural invari-
values (Kline, 2010), approximate fit indices, such as the ance, metric invariance, and scalar invariance for measure-
Comparative Fit Index (CFI), which is less sensitive to large ment invariance (Schmitt & Kuljanin, 2008). Three steps,
samples, the root-mean-square error of approximation each step corresponding to a test model, were conducted
(RMSEA), and the Standardized Root-Mean-Square to test the measurement of invariance of the WVA scale
Residual (SRMR), were also assessed (Byrne, 2001). between the groups of college and high school students.
According to the criteria of Hu and Bentler (1999), the The first was testing the model of configural invariance,
CFI values acceptable for model fit are .90 or greater which implies that there should be the same number of
(Hu & Bentler, 1999); RMSEA values less than .05 indi- factors in each group and the same pattern of fixed and
cate close model fit, values between .05 and .08 indicate free parameters. The second step is testing the metric
Table 6. Rotated factor loadings and reliability indices for the 7-factor model in the formal test
Factor Internal Consistency
Item no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Communality estimates Residuals Cronbach’s α Test-retest reliability
PS01 .85 .00 .05 .01 .01 .05 .04 .77 .23 .92 .91
PS02 .85 .05 .03 .01 .06 .04 .02 .73 .27
PS03 .79 .03 .04 .04 .04 .03 .10 .72 .28
PS06 .79 .00 .12 .02 .08 .03 .00 .68 .32
PS05 .77 .04 .02 .01 .02 .02 .05 .69 .31
PS04 .77 .09 .04 .00 .03 .06 .03 .71 .29
IP01 .09 .86 .02 .02 .04 .01 .06 .72 .28 .89 .90
IP02 .06 .83 .02 .05 .04 .02 .10 .71 .29
IP03 .06 .77 .00 .02 .10 .07 .04 .69 .31
IP05 .02 .70 .05 .03 .08 .03 .13 .58 .42
IP06 .10 .70 .01 .03 .05 .01 .15 .62 .38
IP04 .01 .60 .05 .09 .06 .04 .26 .64 .36
PR01 .06 .01 .89 .01 .12 .01 .10 .75 .25 .88 .87
PR02 .01 .04 .86 .04 .06 .07 .00 .74 .26
PR03 .07 .03 .79 .02 .05 .08 .07 .67 .33
PR06 .08 .05 .65 .08 .00 .11 .01 .54 .46
PR05 .03 .02 .58 .03 .15 .05 .04 .54 .46
PR04 .01 .08 .56 .06 .06 .08 .03 .56 .44
CS02 .09 .06 .01 .77 .09 .08 .23 .55 .45 .82 .84
CS05 .01 .03 .01 .68 .13 .02 .13 .63 .37
CS01 .03 .02 .04 .67 .20 .05 .13 .51 .49
CS03 .09 .02 .01 .61 .00 .07 .16 .46 .54
CS04 .03 .05 .05 .54 .09 .00 .07 .59 .41
CS06 .01 .01 .02 .50 .02 .02 .16 .54 .46
GR02 .08 .01 .03 .04 .83 .01 .02 .63 .37 .85 .84
GR01 .09 .04 .01 .05 .77 .06 .07 .70 .30
GR06 .02 .04 .10 .07 .66 .05 .01 .58 .42
GR03 .10 .10 .06 .05 .60 .02 .00 .57 .43
GR04 .18 .19 .14 .14 .46 .12 .12 .48 .52
GR05 .08 .08 .08 .08 .46 .00 .32 .60 .40
SA01 .01 .02 .02 .07 .04 .68 .02 .56 .44 .81 .83
SA02 .06 .09 .01 .07 .04 .66 .08 .57 .43
SA04 .19 .03 .01 .03 .08 .63 .04 .48 .52
SA06 .06 .08 .04 .00 .04 .56 .02 .58 .42
SA03 .20 .14 .01 .04 .02 .51 .02 .42 .58
SA05 .05 .30 .04 .06 .02 .36 .08 .54 .46
AU01 .09 .14 .06 .02 .07 .10 .75 .62 .38 .87 .88
AU02 .03 .13 .01 .04 .03 .01 .74 .61 .39
AU06 .23 .10 .01 .01 .01 .05 .74 .61 .39
AU08 .05 .08 .07 .21 .02 .14 .72 .65 .35
AU09 .04 .04 .05 .04 .13 .04 .69 .65 .35
AU11 .09 .00 .04 .15 .30 .04 .61 .56 .44
Note. Bold values indicate items belonging to the same factor.
invariance model, which implies equal factor loadings across The most commonly used model estimation parameter is
groups. The third step is testing the scalar invariance model, Δw2, but Δw2 is very sensitive to the slight difference
which indicates the invariance of the item intercepts linking between two comparative models for large sample size data
the indicators (items) to the latent variable (Steinmetz, sets, so four other criteria of invariance analysis proposed
Schmidt, Tina-Booh, Wieczorek, & Schwartz, 2009). by researchers (Chen, 2007; Cheung & Rensvold, 2002;
Table 7. The correlation matrix of factors in formal study |ΔCFI| .01 (Cheung & Rensvold, 2002), |ΔTLI| .05
Factor PS IP PR CS GR SA AU (Little, 1997), |ΔRMSEA| .02 (Meade et al., 2008), and
PS 1 |ΔSRMR| .03 (Chen, 2007), it would suggest that the
IP .21 1 two comparative models were not substantially different
PR .42 .39 1 from each other. However, according to previous research-
CS .23 .44 .37 1 ers, there is not a single criterion that is powerful enough to
GR .55 .28 .41 .37 1 support the claim of measurement invariance; therefore, a
SA .18 .37 .28 .29 .22 1 compromised way was proposed: the results that the major-
AU .38 .35 .39 .49 .51 .28 1 ity of criteria are within the suggested thresholds can be
Notes. AU = autonomy, CS = comfort, GR = growth, IP = interpersonal
interpreted as evidence for measurement invariance
connections, PR = prestige, PS = prosocial motivation, SA = self- (Vandenberg & Lance, 2000; Wu & Hughes, 2015).
actualization. University and high school student WVI scale samples
and their nested assays on invariance have been conducted
Little, 1997; Meade, Johnson, & Braddy, 2008), including (see Table 9). With respect to configural invariance
changes in the |ΔCFI|, |ΔRMSEA|, |ΔSRMR|, and the Tucker (model 1), except for w2 (798, N = 1,488) = 2,945.168
Lewis Index (ΔTLI), were also used for evaluation. When (p < .001), the model’s other indices of goodness-of-fit
Figure 2. Confirmatory factor analysis of the seven work values dimensions.
Table 8. Criterion-related validity for the WVA scale and WIL scale
WIL
WVA A1 A2 I1 I2 I3 E1 E3 S1 W2 W3 W4 W6 R1 R2 R3
Prosocial motivation .11* .16* –.01 –.11* .01 .04 .52* –.14* –.23* –.17** –.19 –.15* –.23* .23** .04
Interpersonal connections .05 .07 .02 –.05 –.03 .21* .03 –.13* .04 –.15* –.13** –.01 –.01 .11* .03
Prestige –.03 .18* –.04 –.03 –.03 .01 –.16** .05 .37** –.06 .04 .03 .22** –.07 .07
Comfort –.13* .01 –.13* –.14* –.06 .03 –.13** .21** .29** –.05 .27* .19* .16** –.14 –.03
Growth .25* .27* –.02 –.08 .07 –.10 .11* –.13* –.15 –.05 –.15** –.03 –.15** .07 .03
Self-actualization .33* .35* .10* .05 .14* –.06 .12* –.17** –.13** –.02 –.22* –.12* –.19** .04 .13*
Autonomy .08 .12* .36** .38** .29** –.18* –.03 –.18** .04 .08 –.20** –.10* –.15 –.03 –.03
Notes. WVA = Work Values Assembly, WIL = Work Importance Locator, A1 = ability utilization, A2 = achievement, I1 = creativity, I2 = responsibility,
I3 = autonomy, E1 = coworkers, E3 = social service, S1 = company policies, W2 = compensation, W3 = independence, W4 = security, W6 = working
conditions, R1 = advancement, R2 = authority, R3 = recognition; numbers in bold represent significant, positive correlations that support the validity of WVA.
The following dimensions of WIL had no significant correlations: activity (W1), variety (W5), moral values (E2), human relations (S2), and techniques (S3).
*p < .05; **p < .01.
Table 9. Measurement-invariance analyses of WVA for students of different education levels

Model Explanation w2 (df) Δw2 (df) CFI ΔCFI RMSEA ΔRMSEA SRMR Δ SRMR TLI ΔTLI
Model 1 Configural invariance 2,945.168 (798) – 0.947 – .043 – 0.041 – 0.943 –
Model 2 Metric invariance 4,946.953 (1,631) 2,001.78*** (833) 0.900 0.047 .052 0.009 0.058 0.017 0.893 0.050
Model 3 Scalar invariance 5,757.759 (759) 810.806*** (35) 0.880 0.020 .057 0.005 0.067 0.009 0.871 0.022
Note. *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.
(e.g., CFI = .947; TLI = .943; RMSEA = .043; and values dimensions were derived. In Study 2, quantitative
SRMR = .041) are acceptable, which indicated that config- research methods were implemented to conduct scale
ural invariance has been established and the two samples evaluations in order to verify that the seven derived work
had the same number of factors in the WVA scale. values dimensions are appropriate for, and capable of,
The metric invariance test revealed that Δw2 (833, explaining the framework of a Taiwan work values scale.
N = 1,488) = 2,001.785, p < .001, |ΔSRMR| = .017, The dimension content is clear and, with no content overlap,
|ΔRMSEA| = .009, |ΔCFI| = .047, and |ΔTLI| = .05. Except is an improvement on existing work values scales, the
for Δw2 and |ΔCFI|, all other indicators met the criteria pro- dimensions of which are often vague or redundant.
posed by researchers (Chen, 2007; Meade et al., 2008). Moreover, items were revised or deleted, and those with
According to Vandenberg and Lance (2000) and Wu and low factor loadings or a conceptually vague content were
Hughes (2015), the majority of indicators supported the discarded, thus ensuring that items adhere to the core
model fit of metric invariance. The intercept invariance test concepts of the dimensions.
(model 3) showed that the Δw2 (833, N = 1,488) = 2,001.785 In terms of reliability, the scale derived herein compared
(p < .001), |ΔSRMR| = .009, |ΔRMSEA| = .005, |ΔTLI| = .022, favorably with other work values scales in which high
and |ΔCFI| = .02. Except for Δw2, all other indicators met the school students were used as samples. The internal consis-
recommended threshold values for measurement invari- tency reliability coefficients for the WVA scale developed in
ance (Chen, 2007; Meade et al., 2008). Accordingly, the the present study ranged from .84 to .92, with an overall
seven-dimension model of the WVA scale demonstrated scale reliability coefficient of .95 and a test-retest reliability
appropriate cross-group invariance and can be used to mea- coefficient of .94. All of the above values indicate good
sure the work values for both university and high school reliability that is generally superior to similar scales (see
students in Taiwan. Zytowski, 1970, or Pryor, 1979; for some comparisons).
The values indicate that when reapplied to samples of high
school students, the WVA scale should obtain consistent
General Discussion and Conclusions and stable results.
In terms of validity, previous studies have rarely
There are several features in the current research. In Study 1, employed CFA to explore construct validity, such as in
a qualitative research methodology was employed to the Career Value Scale developed by Macnab, Bakker,
obtain 231 descriptive statements related to work values, and Fitzsimmons (2005). The O*NET WIP utilized CFA,
and after repeated coding and classification, seven work but the model fit index was poor. Nevertheless, appropriate
sample sizes of participants enabled the WVA scale to use Byrne, B. M. (2001). Structural equation modeling with
two types of statistical analyses to yield even more rigorous AMOS, EQS, and LISREL: Comparative approaches to test-
ing for the factorial validity of a measuring instrument.
results, and the model fit was within the reasonable range International Journal of Testing, 1, 55–86. doi: 10.1207/
suggested by Hu and Bentler (1999). Furthermore, the sig- S15327574IJT0101_4
nificant correlations between dimensions of the WVA scale Cabrera, A. F., Nora, A., & Castaneda, M. B. (1993). College
and WIL provided solid evidence that the WVA scale has persistence: Structural equations modeling test of an inte-
grated model of student retention. Journal of Higher Education,
the capability of measuring relevant work value constructs 64, 123–139. doi: 10.2307/2960026
which had been measured in other popularly used Western Chen, F. F. (2007). Sensitivity of goodness of fit indexes to lack of
tools. The measurement-invariance analysis revealed that, measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 14,
whether for preemployment high school of university 464–504. doi: 10.1080/10705510701301834
Chen, Y. H., Wang, J. T., Liu, Y. S., Ou, T. H., & Li, K. J. (1987). Work
students, the WVA scale developed through this research values scale revised report. Journal of National University of
had identical factor structure and measurement capability, Tainan, 20, 1–33.
the test items did not demonstrate inconsistent meanings Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-
for students with different education levels, and can be of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance.
Structural Equation Modeling, 9, 233–255. doi: 10.1207/
trusted with considerable validity between the different S15328007SEM0902_5
groups. This finding also supported the claims of Harpaz Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. (2007). Basics of qualitative research:
and Fu (2002) that the structure of meanings of work Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory
remains consistent during the transition of adolescence to (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Creswell, J. W., Plano Clark, V. L., Gutmann, M. L., &
adulthood. Hanson, W. E. (2003). Advanced mixed methods research
In terms of practical application, the WVA scale will designs. In A. Tashakkori & C. Teddlie (Eds.), Handbook of
provide students with a better understanding of their own mixed methods in social and behaviour research (pp. 209–240).
work values, which, for high school students especially Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Dawis, R. V. (1991). Vocational interests, values, and preferences.
(Ginzberg et al., 1951; Super, 1980), may still be developing. In M. D. Dunnette & L. M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial
School counselors may provide adolescents with the oppor- organizational psychology (pp. 833–871). Palo Alto, CA: Con-
tunity to engage in self-exploration related with their sulting Psychologist Press.
emphasized values based on the results of the WVA scale, Dawis, R. V., & Lofquist, L. H. (1984). A psychological theory of
work adjustment. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota
which may greatly benefit their later career development. Press.
Hence, helping young people to understand their own work Dolan, S. L., Díez-Piñol, M., Fernández-Alles, M., Martín-Prius, A.,
values is an important function of the WVA scale. & Martínez-Fierro, S. (2004). Exploratory study of within-
Qualitative research methods were used in this study to country differences in work and life values: The case of Spanish
business students. International Journal of Cross Cultural
derive work values dimensions that reflect local culture. Management, 4, 157–180. doi: 10.1177/1470595804044747
Although the WVA scale was constructed based on work Dose, J. J. (1997). Work values: An integrative framework and
values dimensions that reflect local culture, this study also illustrative application to organizational socialization. Journal
found that the work value dimensions in the WVA scale are of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 70, 219–240.
doi: 10.1111/j.2044-8325.1997.tb00645.x
also highly similar to those for Western society. Despite the Duffy, R. D., & Sedlacek, W. E. (2007). The work values of first-year
similarity of the framework and dimensions, future college students: Exploring group differences. The Career
research may investigate whether there exist different Development Quarterly, 55, 359–364. doi: 10.1002/j.2161-0045.
emphases for different dimensions between different 2007.tb00090.x
Elizur, D. (1984). Facets of work values: A structural analysis of
cultures. In addition, multi-sample structural equation work outcomes. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 69,
modeling can be used to conduct intercultural measure- 379–389. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.69.3.379
ment invariance to test whether the extension validity of Fabrigar, L. R., Wegener, D. T., MacCallum, R. C., & Strahan, E. J.
the structural model of the present study is stable in (1999). Evaluating the use of exploratory factor analysis in
psychological research. Psychological Methods, 4, 272–299.
cross-cultural settings. doi: 10.1037/1082-989X.4.3.272
Fuller, T. D., Edwards, J. N., Sermsri, S., & Vorakitphokatorn, S.
(1993). Housing, stress, and physical well-being: Evidence from
References Thailand. Social Science and Medicine, 36, 1417–1428.
doi: 10.4135/9781483349008.n6
American Educational Research Association. American Psycho- Gay, E. G., Weiss, D. J., Hendel, D. D., Dawis, R. V., &
logical Association. National Council on Measurement in Lofquist, L. H. (1971). Minnesota studies in vocational rehabil-
Education. (2014). The standards for educational and psycho- itation: Vol. XXVIII. Manual for the Minnesota Importance
logical testing. Washington, DC: AERA/APA/NCME. Questionnaire. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota,
Betts, J. (2011). The economics of tracking in education. In Industrial Relations Center.
E. Hanushek, S. Machin, & L. Woessmann (Eds.), Handbook of Gerpott, T. J. (1988). Career orientations in different countries and
the economics of education (Vol. 3, pp. 341–381). Amsterdam: companies. Journal of Management Studies, 25, 439–462.
North Holland. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6486.1988.tb00709.x
Ginzberg, E., Ginsburg, S. W., Axelrad, S., & Herma, J. L. (1951). Lu, L., & Lin, G. C. (2002). Work values and job adjustment of
Toward a theory of occupational choice. New York, NY: Taiwanese workers. Research and Practice in Human Resource
Columbia University Press. Management, 10, 70–76.
Hair, J. F. Jr., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, Macnab, D., Bakker, S., & Fitzsimmons, G. (2005). Career values
R. L. (2006). Multivariate data analysis (6th ed.). Upper Saddle scale manual and user’s guide. Alberta, CA: Psychometrics
River, NJ: Pearson-Prentice Hall. Canada.
Harpaz, I., & Fu, X. (2002). The structure of the meaning of work: A Marsh, H. W., Nagengast, B., & Morin, A. J. S. (2013). Measure-
relative stability amidst change. Human Relations, 55, ment invariance of big-five factors over the life span: ESEM
639–667. doi: 10.1177/0018726702556002 tests of gender, age, plasticity, maturity, and La Dolce
Hartung, P. J., Fouad, N. A., Leong, F. T., & Hardin, E. E. (2010). Vita effects. Developmental Psychology, 49, 1194–1218.
Individualism-collectivism links to occupational plans and work doi: 10.1037/a0026913

values. Journal of Career Assessment, 18, 34–45. doi: 10.1177/ Maynard, D. C., & Parfyonova, N. M. (2013). Perceived overqual-
1069072709340526 ification and withdrawal behaviours: Examining the roles of job
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in attitudes and work values. Journal of Occupational and Orga-
covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus nizational Psychology, 86, 435–455. doi: 10.1111/joop.12006
new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55. McCloy, R., Waugh, G., Medsker, G., Wall, J., Rivkin, D., & Lewis, P.
doi: 10.1080/10705519909540118 (1999a). Development of the O*NET computerized work impor-
Huang, H. J., Eveleth, D. M., & Huo, Y. P. (1998, December). tance profiler. Raleigh, NC: National Center for O*NET
Chinese work-related value system: Developing a “GCF-LEACH” Development.
framework for comparative studies among Chinese societies. McCloy, R., Waugh, G., Medsker, G., Wall, J., Rivkin, D., & Lewis, P.
Paper presented at the Inaugural Conference of the Asia (1999b). Development of the O*NET paper-and-pencil work
Academy of Management, Hong Kong. importance locator. Raleigh, NC: National Center for O*NET
Hung, J. P., & Liu, C. M. (2003). Studies on work values in Development.
Taiwan: A critical review. Research in Applied Psychology, 19, Meade, A. W., Johnson, E. C., & Braddy, P. W. (2008). Power and
219–250. sensitivity of alternative fit indices in tests of measurement
Jambrak, J., Deane, F. P., & Williams, V. (2014). Value motivations invariance. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 568–592.
predict burnout and intentions to leave among mental health doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.93.3.568
professionals. Journal of Mental Health, 23, 120–124. Morgan, D. L., & Krueger, R. A. (1993). When to use focus groups
doi: 10.3109/09638237.2013.869576 and why. In D. L. Morgan (Ed.), Successful focus groups:
Jin, J., & Rounds, J. (2012). Stability and change in work values: A Advancing the state of the art (pp. 3–19). Thousand Oaks, CA:
meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Journal of Vocational Sage.
Behavior, 80, 326–339. doi: 10.1016/j.jvb.2011.10.007 Nunnally, J. C. (1978). Psychometric theory. New York, NY:
Johnson, M. K. (2002). Social origins, adolescent experiences, and McGraw Hill, Inc.
work value trajectories during the transition to adulthood. Pryor, R. (1979). In search of a concept: Work values. Vocational
Social Forces, 80, 1307–1340. doi: 10.1353/sof.2002.0028 Guidance Quarterly, 27, 250–258. doi: 10.1002/j.2164-585X.
Jöreskog, K. G., & Sörbom, D. (2004). LISREL 8.7 for Windows 1979.tb00993.x
[Computer Software]. Lincolnwood, IL: Scientific Software Raju, N. S., Laffitte, L. J., & Byrne, B. M. (2002). Measurement
International. equivalence: A comparison of methods based on confirmatory
Judge, T. A., & Bretz, R. D. (1992). Effects of work values on job factor analysis and item response theory. The Journal of
choice decisions. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 77, Applied Psychology, 87, 517–529. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.
261–271. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.77.3.261 87.3.517
Kaiser, H. F. (1958). The varimax criterion for analytic rotation in factor Robinson, C. H., & Betz, N. E. (2008). A psychometric evaluation of
analysis. Psychometrika, 23, 187–200. doi: 10.1007/BF02289233 Super’s Work Values Inventory-Revised. Journal of Career
Kline, R. B. (2010). Principles and practice of structural equation Assessment, 16, 456–473. doi: 10.1177/1069072708318903
modeling (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Rokeach, M. (1973). The nature of human values. New York, NY:
Krueger, R. A. (1988). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied Free Press.
research. London, UK: Sage. Ros, M., Schwartz, S. H., & Surkiss, S. (1999). Basic individual
Krueger, R. A., & Casey, M. A. (2000). Focus groups:A practical values, work values, and the meaning of work. Applied
guide for applied research (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Psychology, 48, 49–71. doi: 10.1111/j.1464-0597.1999.
Lee, C. S., Hung, D. K. M., & Ling, T. C. (2012). Work values of tb00048.x
Generation Y preservice teachers in Malaysia. Procedia-Social Rounds, J. B. Jr., & Armstrong, P. I. (2005). Assessment of needs
and Behavioral Sciences, 65, 704–710. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro. and values. In D. Brown & R. Lent (Eds.), Career development
2012.11.187 and counseling: Putting theory and research to work (pp.
Lent, R. W., & Brown, S. D. (2006). On conceptualizing and 305–329). New York, NY: Wiley.
assessing social cognitive constructs in career research: A Rounds, J. B. Jr., Henly, G. A., Dawis, R. V., Lofquist, L. H., &
measurement guide. Journal of Career Assessment, 14, 12–35. Weiss, D. J. (1981). Manual for the Minnesota importance
doi: 10.1177/1069072705281364 questionnaire. Minnesota, MA: Vocational Psychology Research
Leuty, M. E., & Hansen, J. I. C. (2011). Evidence of construct Center. University of Minnesota.
validity for work values. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 79, Schmitt, N., & Kuljanin, G. (2008). Measurement invariance:
379–390. doi: 10.1016/j.jvb.2011.04.008 Review of practice and limitations. Human Resource
Little, T. D. (1997). Mean and covariance structures (MACS) Management Review, 18, 210–222. doi: 10.1016/j.hrmr.2008.
analyses of cross-cultural data: Practical and theoretical 03.003
issues. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 32, 53–76. Schwartz, S. H. (1992). Universals in the content and structure of
doi: 10.1207/s15327906mbr3201_3 values: Theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 coun-
Long, J. S. (1983). Confirmatory factor analysis: A preface to tries. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 25, 1–65.
LISREL. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. doi: 10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60281-6
Sortheix, F. M., Chow, A., & Salmela-Aro, K. (2015). Work values Trautwein, U., Lüdtke, O., Marsh, H. W., Köller, O., & Baumert, J.
and the transition to work life: A longitudinal study. Journal of (2006). Tracking, grading, and student motivation: Using group
Vocational Behavior, 89, 162–177. doi: 10.1016/j.jvb.2015. composition and status to predict self-concept and interest in
06.001 ninth-grade mathematics. Journal of Educational Psychology,
Steinmetz, H., Schmidt, P., Tina-Booh, A., Wieczorek, S., & 98, 788–806. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.98.4.788
Schwartz, S. H. (2009). Testing measurement invariance using Vandenberg, R. J., & Lance, C. E. (2000). A review and synthesis
multigroup CFA: Differences between educational groups in of the measurement invariance literature: Suggestions,
human values measurement. Qualitative and Quantitative, 43, practices, and recommendations for organizational research.
599–616. doi: 10.1007/s11135-007-9143-x Organizational Research Methods, 3, 4–70. doi: 10.1177/
Sung, Y. T., & Chao, T. Y. (2015). Construction of the examination 109442810031002
stress scale for adolescent students. Measurement and Eval- White, C. (2006). Towards an understanding of the relationship
uation in Counseling and Development, 48, 44–58. doi: 10.1177/ between work values and cultural orientations. International
0748175614538062 Journal of Hospitality Management, 25, 699–715. doi: 10.1016/
Sung, Y. T., Chao, T. Y., & Tseng, F. L. (2016). Reexamining j.ijhm.2005.07.002
the relationship between test anxiety and learning achieve- Wöhrmann, A. M., Fasbender, U., & Deller, J. (2016). Using work
ment: An individual-differences perspective. Contemporary values to predict post-retirement work intentions. Career
Educational Psychology, 46, 241–252. doi: 10.1016/j.cedpsych. Development Quarterly, 64, 98–113. doi: 10.1002/cdq.12044
2016.07.001 Wong, S. W., & Yuen, M. (2012). Work values of university students
Sung, Y. T., Cheng, Y. W., & Hsueh, J. H. (2017). Identifying the in Chinese Mainland, Taiwan, and Hong Kong. International
career-interest profiles of junior-high-school students through Journal for the Advancement of Counseling, 34, 269–285.
latent profile analysis. Journal of Psychology, 151(3), 229–246. doi: 10.1007/s10447-012-9155-7
doi: 10.1080/00223980.2016.1261076 Wu, J. Y., & Hughes, J. N. (2015). Teacher network of relationships
Sung, Y. T., Cheng, Y. W., & Wu, J. S. (2016). Constructing a inventory: Measurement invariance of academically at-risk
situation-based career interest assessment for junior high students across ages 6 to 15. School Psychology Quarterly,
school students and examining their interest structure. 30, 23–36. doi: 10.1037/spq0000063
Journal of Career Assessment, 24, 347–365. doi: 10.1177/ Wu, T. S., Li, K. C., Liu, Y. S., & Ou, H. M. (1996). Work values
1069072715580419 scale development. Taipei, Taiwan: Youth Development
Sung, Y. T., Huang, L. Y., Tseng, F. L., & Chang, K. E. (2014). The Administration, Ministry of Education.
aspects and ability groups in which little fish perform Zytowski, D. G. (1970). The concept of work values. Vocational
worse than big fish: Examining the big-fish-little-pond effect Guidance Quarterly, 18, 176–186. doi: 10.1002/j.2164-585X.
in the context of school tracking. Contemporary Educational 1970.tb00231.x
Psychology, 39, 220–232. doi: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2014.05.002 Zytowski, D. G. (1994). A super contribution to vocational theory:
Super, D. E. (1970). Work values inventory. Boston, MA: Houghton Work values. The Career Development Quarterly, 43, 25–31.
Mifflin. Zytowski, D. G. (2006). Super Work Values Inventory-Revised:
Super, D. E. (1980). A life-span, life-space approach to career Technical manual (version 1.0). Retrieved from http://www.
development. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 16, 282–298. Kuder.com/PublicWeb/swv_manual.aspx
doi: 10.1016/0001-8791(80)90056-1
Super, D. E., & Crites, J. O. (1957). Vocational development: A
Received January 19, 2015
framework for research. New York, NY: Teachers College Press,
Revision received November 6, 2016
Columbia University.
Accepted November 14, 2016
Super, D. E., & Sverko, B. (1995). Life roles, values and careers:
Published online June 28, 2017
International findings of the Work Importance Study. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
Yun-Tim Yvonne Chang
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statis-
Department of Educational Psychology and Counseling
tics (5th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
National Taiwan Normal University
Tashakkori, A., & Teddlie, C. (2003). Handbook of mixed methods in
162, Sec. 1, Ho-Ping E. Rd.
social and behavior research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
10610 Taipei
Thompson, B. (2004). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis:
Taiwan
Understanding concepts and applications. Washington, DC:
sungtc@ntnu.edu.tw
American Psychological Association.

BB - Development and Validation of A Work Values Scale For Assessing High School Students

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Título original

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

BB - Development and Validation of A Work Values Scale For Assessing High School Students

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Multistudy Report

Development and Validation of a

High School Students

Table 1. Summary of work values scales

European Journal of Psychological Assessment (2017)

Ó 2017 Hogrefe Publishing. Distributed under the

Hogrefe OpenMind License http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/a000001

Table 2. Example of optional translated code table

Table 3. Work values structural framework

reasonable fit, those between .08 and .10 indicate mediocre

fit. The CFA results are also shown in Figure 2. These

Criterion-Related Validity Analysis

Figure 2. Confirmatory factor analysis of the seven work values dimensions.

Table 9. Measurement-invariance analyses of WVA for students of different education levels

Individualism-collectivism links to occupational plans and work doi: 10.1037/a0026913

Você também pode gostar