z ) ,

, a

S oap M -
ak in g”
Manu al
A p r ac ti c a l h an dg o o k o n th e r aw
material s , th ei r m an i p u l ati o n , an al
y s is a n d c o n t r o l in t h e m o d e rn
s o ap pl an t .

By
E G T ho mssen ,P h D
. . . .

I LLU STR A T E D

N EW YO R K

D . V AN N O S T R A N D C O M PA N Y
E IGH T WARRE N STREET
1 92 2
 fi t k

C O P YR I G H T 1 9 2 2
BY

N O ST R A N D C O M P AN Y

P r i n te d in the U n i te d
 P R EFA T O R Y N O TE .

T h e m a t e ri a l co n tai n e d in t h i s w o rk a p p e a r e d s ev
'

era l y e a r s a go i n s e r i al fo r m i n th e A m e ri c a n P e rfu m e r
a n d E s s en ti a l O i l R ev i e w O w in g t o th e n u m e r o u s r e
.

qu e s t s r e c eiv e d , it h a s b e e n d e c i d e d t o n o w p l a c e b efo r e
th o s e i n tere s t e d , th e s e a r t i c le s i n b o ok f o r m W h il e i t
.

i s t ru e t h a t th e w o rk s p e r tai n i n g t o th e s o a p m aki n g
i n d u s try a r e r e a s o n ab l y p l e n ti f u l , b o ok s a r e q u i t e r a r e ,
h o w ev e r , w h i c h , i n a b r i e f v o l u m e , w i ll c l e ar l y o u tli n e
th e p r o c e s s e s e m p l o y e d t o ge t h er w i t h th e n ec e s
s a ry m e th o d s o f a n al y s e s fr o m a p u r el y p ra c ti c al
s ta n d p o i n t
. I n th e w o rk p r e s e n t e d th e au th o r h a s
a t t e m p t e d t o b ri e fly , c le a rl y , a n d f u l ly e xp l ai n th e
m an ufa c tu r e of s o a p i n s u c h l a n gu a ge th a t i t m i gh t b e
u n d er s to o d b y al l th o s e i n t er e s t e d i n th i s i n d u s t ry . In
m a n y ca s e s th e s m al l e r p l a n t s fi n d i t n e c e s s a ry to d i s
p e n s e w i th t h e s er vi c e s o f a c h e m i s t , s o th a t i t i s n e c e s
s a ry fo r t h e s o a p m ak e r to m a k e h i s o w n t e s t s . The
te s t s o u tli n e d , th e r efo r e , a r e gi v e n a s s i m p l e a s p o s s i
b l e t o m e e t th i s c o n d i ti o n . T h e fo r m u la e s u b m i tte d
a r e a u th en ti c , a n d i n m an y c a s e s a r e n o w b ei n g u s e d
i n s o a p m aki n g .

In t aking up th e indu stry fo r su rvey it ha s be en tho u ght

d es irabl e to fi rs t men t ion an d descr ibe the raw m ate r ials
u s ed ; s e c o n d , to o u tli n e th e p r o c e s s e s o f m an u
fa c tu r e ; th ir d , t o c l a s s ify t h e m e t h o d s an d i l lu s t r a t e
by formul ae th e c ompo sitio n o f v ar iou s s oap s toge ther
w i t h th ei r mod e o f manu fac t u re ; fou rt h , to enu merate the
v ar ious metho ds o f glycer in e r ecove r y , i n c lud ing the
p r o c e sse s o f sapo nific ation, and , fi ft h , t o giv e t h e m o s t im
p o rt an t an alytical me th o d s wh i c h a r e o f v alu e t o c on t rol
III

55 4 5 7 7
th e p r oc e s s o f manu fac t u re and t o d e t e r min e the pu r i ty
an d fi t nes s o f the r aw ma t er i al e n t e r ing in t o it .

I t i s n ot t h e in t en t ion o f t h e au t h or t o go in t o grea t
de t a il in thi s wo rk , no r to ou t lin e to any g r ea t e xten t the
theo r e t ical si de o f t h e subj ec t , but ra t h er t o m ake t h e wo rk
as br ief a s po s sible , k eep ing th e prac t ical s i de o f th e s ub
j ec t be f o r e hi m an d not going i nto con ci s e descr ip t i ons o f
m a c h i n er y a s is v e r y u s u a l i n w o rk s o n th i s s u b j e c t .

I l lu s t r a t io n s a r e m e r e l y a d d e d t o s h o w ty p i c a l k i n d s
o f m a c h in e ry u s e d .

T h e au t h o r w i s h e s to t ak e t h i s o p p o r t u n i ty o f t h a nk
i n g M e s s r s L S L ev y a n d E W D r e w fo r t h e r e a d i n g
. . . . .

o f p r o o f , a n d M r C W A i k e n o f th e H o u ch i n A ik e n C o ,
. . .
-
.

fo r h is aid in making th e il l u strations a s u ccess , a s

well as other s who have contribu t e d in the c o mpil
i n g o f t h e f o r m u l a e fo r v a ri o u s s o a p s H e t ru s t s t h a t
.

t h i s w o r k m a y p ro v e o f v al u e t o t h o s e e n ga g e d i n s o a p
m a n u fa c t u r e
.

G T
. .

J an ua ry , 1 922
 T AB L E OF C O NTE NTS .

C H AP T E R I .

RA w M ATt RI ALS U S ED IN S OA P M A K I N G
I . S oap D e fi n e d
2 . O il s an d Fats . .

3 . S ap o n ifie atio n D efi ned

4 . F ats an d O il s Us e d in S oa p M an u f ac t u r e
F u ll e r s E ar t h P r oc es s f o r B l e ac hi n g T all o w
’

M eth o d f o r F u r the r Imp r ov e m e n t o f C o l o r in T all o w

Ve ge tabl e O il s
C hr o m e B le ac h i n g o f P alm O il
Air B l e ac h i n g o f P al m O il
S . Ran c idi ty o f O il s an d Fat s .

P reven ti o n o f Ran c i di ty .

6 . C hemi c al C o n s tan ts o f O i l s an d Fat s

7 . Oi l H ar d e n i n g o r H yd r o g e n at i n g
8 . G reas e
9 . R o si n ( C o l o p ho n y , Y e ll o w R os i n , R e s i n a)
10 . R os i n S ap on i fic ati o n
l l . N ap ht h eni c A c i d s
12 . A l kali s
C a u st i c S o d a 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Cau st i c P o tas h
S o di u m C ar b o nate ( S o d a As h )
P otas s i u m C ar b o n at e
13 . A dditi on al M at e r i al U s e d in S o ap M ak i n g
C H A P TE R II .

C O N S T R U CT I O N A N D E Q U I P M EN T or A S O A P P LA N T 31 34

C H A P TE R I II
CLA SS I F I CA T I O N O F SO A P M A K I N G M ET H ODS
1 .F u ll B o il e d S oap s
2 C ol d P r o c e ss
.

3 C ar b o n at e S ap o n ific atio n
.

C H APT E R I V .

C LA S S I F I CA T I ON O F S O A P S . .

1 .Lau n d ry S o ap
S emi B o il e d L au n d r y S o ap
- .

S e ttl e d R o s i n S oap
2 C h i p S o ap
.
 S OAP MAKI N G-
M A N UA L

C o l d M ad e Ch i p S o ap
U n fill e d C hi p S o ap
J . S o ap P o wd e r s a

Li g ht P o wd e r s
4 . S c ou r i n g P o wd e r s
S . S c ou tin g S o ap
6 . F l o ati n g S oap
7 . T o il et S oap
C he ap e r T o il et S o ap s
R u n an d Gl u e d u p S o ap s
-

C u r d S oap
C ol d M ad e T o il et S o ap s .

P e r fu mi n g an d C o l ori n g T o il e t S o ap s
C o l o r i n g S oap
8 . M e di c i nal S o ap s
S u lp hu r S oap s
T ar S oap
S o ap s C o n tai n i n g P h e n o l s
P e r oxid e S oap
M erc u r y S oap s
L e s s I mp o rtant M e di c i n al S o ap s
9 . C ast il e S oap
10 . E sc hwe g e r S o ap
11 . T ransp are nt S oap
C o ld M ad e T r an s p ar e nt S oap
12 . S havi n g S oap s
S havi n g P o wd e r
S havi n g Cr e am
13 . P u mi ce o r S an d S o ap s
14 . L i q u i d S oap s
15 . Us e o f H ar d e n e d O il s in T o il e t S o ap s
16 . T extil e S oap s
S c ou r i n g an d F u lli n g S oap s f or W o ol
W o o l T hrower s S o ap
’

W o r st e d F i n i s h i n g S o ap s .

S oap s Use d in the S il k I n d u st r y

S o ap s Use d f o r C ott on G o o d s
17 . S u lp h on at e d O il s
C H APTE R V .

GL Y C ER I N E R ECOVE R Y
1 M e tho d s o f Sap o nific atio n
. .

VI
 TA B L E O F CO N T E NT S

R ec o ve r y of Gly c e ri ne f r om S p ent Ly e
T witc he ll P r oc e s s
A u t oc l ave S apo n ific atio n
L im e Sapo n ificati on
A c i d Sap on ification
Aq u e o us S apo ni fic atio n
S pli tti n g F ats wi th F e rm e n t s
K r eb itz P r o c e ss
2 . D i st ill at i o n o f F atty A c id s

C H A PT E R VI .

A N AL YT I C A L M ET H OD S
1 A n a ly s i s o f O il s an d F at s
.

F r e e F atty Ac id s
M o i stu r e
T i te r 1 30 1 32
-

De te r m i nati o n o f U n sap o n ifiab l e M atte r 1 3 2 -1 3 3

T e st f or C o l o r o f S oap 1 33 1 34
-

T e st i n g o f A l k al i s Us e d in S o ap M ak i n g 1 34 1 3 7
-

2 S o ap A n aly s i s
. 1 3 7- 1 3 8
M o i stu r e 1 3 8 -1 3 9
F r e e A l k al i o r A c id 1 39 1 4 2
-

I n s o l u bl e M atter'
143
S tar c h an d G e l ati n e 143 144
-

T otal Fatty an d R e s i n A c i ds 144

D e te r mi n at i o n o f R o s i n 144 147
-

T o t al Al k ali 147 148

-

U n s ap o nifiab l e M atte r 1 48
S ili c a an d S ili c at e s 148 149
-

Gly c e r i n e in S o ap 1 4 9 1 50
-

S u g ar in S o ap 1 50

3 Gly ce ri n e An aly s i s
. 1 50 - 1 5 1
S ampli n g 1 51
A n aly s i s 1 5 1 - 1 54
A c e ti n P r o c e ss f o r the D e t e m i n ati o n o f Gly c e r o l
r . . 1 55 1 5 6
-

T he M e th o d 1 56- 1 59
W ay s o f C al c u l ati n g A c t u al Gly c e r o l C o nt e n t s 1 5 9 1 60
-

B i c hr o m ate P r o c e ss f o r Gly c e o l D e te r mi n ati o n

r Re
age n t s R e q u i r e d
T he M eth o d
S am p lin g C r u d e Gly c e ri n e
VI I
 SO A P M A K I N G
-
M A N UA L
C H A PT E R V I I
S T A N D AR D M ET H O D S F O R T H E S A M P L I N G AN D A N A L Y S I S O F
C O M M E R C I A L F A T S AN D O I L S 1 65 1 95
-

1
. S c o p e , A ppli c ab ili ty an d L i m i tati o n s o f th e M e th o d s 1 6 5 l 6 6
. .
-

S co p e
A ppli c ab ili ty 1 66
L imi t ati o n s 1 66
S am pli n g 1 6 6 1 69
-

T an k C a s r Z 1 66 1 6 7
-

B ar r e l s T i e r e s C ask s D r m an d O th e P ac k ag e s
, c , , u s, r . 1 68
2 A n aly s i s
. 1 69 1 8 3
-

S amp l e
M o i stu r e an d Vol atil e M atte r

I n so l u b l e I m p u r i t i e s
S o l u b l e M i n e r al M att e r
F e e F atty A c id s
r

T i te r
U n s ap o n ifiab l e M at te r
I o di n e N u m b e r W ij s M eth o d
-

S ap o n ific ati o n N u mb e r ( K o e tts to r fe r N u mb e r )

M e l ti n g P o i n t
C l ou d T est
3 N o t e s o f th e A b o v e M e th o d s
.

S amp li n g
M o i stu r e an d V ol atil e M atte r
I n s o l u b l e I m p u i ti e s
r

S o l u bl e M i n e r al M atte r

F r ee F att y A c i d
T i ter
U n sap o n ifie d M atte r
M el t i n g P o i n t
P l an t an d M ac h i n e y r

I ll u s t ati o n s o f M ac h i n e r y an d L ay o u ts o f th e P l an t
r

o f a M o d e r n S o ap M ak i n g E s tab li sh m en t
A pp en dix
U s e fu l T ab l es
I n d ex

V I II
 C H AP T E R I

R aw M at e r i al s U s ed in S o ap M akin g .

So ap i s o rdinarily t hough t of a s the co mmo n cl ean sin g

agen t w ell known to eve r yon e In a gener al and strictl y
.

chemical sen se t hi s te rm i s appl ied to th e salt s o f th e non

-

volatil e fa tt y acid s T he se salts a re not only t hos e fo rmed

.

by th e alkal i metal s , s odi u m and potas si um , but als o t h o se

forme d by th e h eavy m etals an d alkal in e eart hs T hus .

w e h ave th e in solubl e so aps o f l ime an d magn e si a fo r med

“
w hen we attempt to wa sh i n ha r d w ate r agai n alu m
i nu m soap s a re u sed exten sively in poli shing materi als
“
and to th icken lub ri cating o il s ; ammon ia o r ben zine
so ap s a r e empl oyed am ong th e d ry clean ers Com monly,
.

how ev er , when w e sp eak o f s oap w e li mi t i t to th e s o dium

o r po t a s siu m sal t o f a h igh e r fatty acid .

I t i s ve ry gen erally kn own that soap i s made by com

bining a fat o r oil w i t h a w ate r sol u tion o f s odiu m hy d ro x
i de ( cau stic soda lye ) , o r po t as siu m hyd rox id e ( cau s t i c
potash ) S od ium soaps are always h ar de r than pota s sium
.

soap s , p rovi ded th e s am e fat o r o il i s u sed in both case s .

Th e dete rge nt p rop erti es o f soap a re d u e to th e fact

tha t it act s a s an alkali regulato r , that i s , wh en w ater
com e s into contact wit h so ap , it u nde rgoe s what i s called
hyd r olytic di s s oci ation . Th i s mean s th at it i s b roken
dow n by wate r i nto othe r sub stances J u s t what th e se
.

s u bs t ance s a re is subj ect to controv er sy , th ough it i s pre

s ume d cau s tic alkal i and th e acid alkali s al t o f t h e fatty
aci ds are forme d .

O ILS A N D FATS .

Th ere i s n o sharp di s tinctio n be t w een fat an d o il By .

”
o il th e l a ym an ha s the impres s ion o f a l iqui d which at
 -
MAR 1 N G M A N UA L

warm tenipefr atu r e wi ll fl d was a s lippery, l ubri cating, v i s

i t
i t “ s ”

“ ”
cou s fl ui d ; by fa t h e un de rst an d s a g r e asy, s oli d sub
st an c e unc t uou s t o th e t ouch I t thu s be c o me s ne c e s sary
.

to diff e rentiat e t h e oil s an d fa ts u s ed i n t h e manufactu re

o f s oap .

In asmuch as a soap i s t he alkal i s alt of a fa t ty acid , the

o il o r f a t f r om w h ich s o ap i s ma de mu s t h av e as a con
st itu ent pa rt , t h es e f a t ty aci ds Hydroca r bon o il s or p a r
.

affi
“
nes, inclu ded i n the t erm o il , ar e t hu s u s el es s in t he

p ro c e s s o f soap making, a s fa r a s ente r ing i n t o c h emi c al

-

combinati on with the cau stic alkali s i s con cern e d The .

o il s an d fa t s wh ich fo r m s oap ar e tho s e w hich a r e a com

bin at i on of fa t ty aci ds and glyce r in e , t h e glyceri n e being
ob t aine d a s a by p ro duct t o th e s o ap making in du s tr y
- -
.

NATU RE O F A FAT OR O IL US ED I N S O AP M AN UFA CTU RE .

Glycerin e, being a tryhyd r ic alcohol , ha s t h ree a t om s o f

hyd r og en wh ich a re r eplaceable by th re e uni v alen t ra dical s
o f t h e highe r m ember s o f th e fatty aci d s , e g , .
i
.

OH OR
c, H, O H 3 RO H C, H. O R + 3 mo
OH OR
Gly c e r in e plu s 3 Fa tt y Alcoh ol s equal s Fa t o r O il plu s
3 Wa t e r .

Thu s th re e fa tt y aci d radical s comb in e w i t h one g l yc er

in e t o fo rm a tru e n eu t ral oil o r fa t whi ch ar e called
tr i g l y c e r i des Th e fa t ty acid s wh ich mo st com monly en
.

t e r in t o combina t ion o f fa t s an d oil s a re lau r i c , my r i s t i c , -

pal mi t i c , steari c an d olei c aci d s an d fo r m t h e n eutral o il s

o r tr iglycer ide s derived from th es e , e g , s t ea rin ; p al mat . in,
.

olein Mono an d diglycerid es are also presen t in f a t s

. .

SAPO NIFI C AT I O N DE FI N ED .

Wh en a fa t o r o il en t e r s in t o ch emical c ombina t ion w i t h

one o f the caus t i c hydra t es in t he pr es ence of wa t er , th e
 R AW MAT ER IALS

p r o ces s i s c al led sap o n ificatio n and th e n ew c ompound s

fo rmed are s oap an d glycerin e , thu s :
OR OH
C H,O R 3 N aO H C,H O H. 3 N aO R
OR OH
Fat o r O i l plu s 3 So diu m Hy d rate equal s Glyce rine plu s
3 S oap .

I t i s by thi s reacti on almo st all o f th e s oap u s e d to day

i s mad e .

Th e r e a re al so o t he r mean s o f sap o n ification , a s , th e

hyd rolys i s o f an O il o r fat by th e actio n o f hyd r ochl o r i c
o r su lfuric a ci d , by au toclave and by fe rm ents o r en
zym e s. By t h es e lat t e r proces s es t h e fatty acid s and
glyce r ine are ob t ain e d di r ec t ly, n o so ap b eing f o r m ed .

FATS A N D O ILS US ED I N S O AP M A N U FA CTURE .

Th e va r i ou s an d mo st impo rtan t oil s an d fat s u sed in

the manu factu re o f so ap a re , tallow , c ocoanu t o il , p alm
o il , ol ive o il , poppy o il , s e s ame o il , s oya bean o il , c o tt on

see d o il , co rn oil an d th e vario u s grea se s B es ide s t he se

.

the fa tty aci d s , stearic , re d o il ( ol eic aci d ) a r e mo re o r

les s exten sively u s ed . Th ese oil s , fat s an d f a tty aci ds ,
w h il e th ey va ry from ti me to t im e an d to som e extent a s
to th e i r c olo r , o do r an d con s i stency , can r ea di ly be di s t i n
g u ish e d by va riou s phys ical an d c h emi cal constant s
.
.

Much can be lea rn ed by o n e, w ho th r ough c on t inu ed

acqu aintance w ith th e se oil s ha s tho rou ghly f amili a r i zed
h imself wi th t h e in dica t i on s o f a goo d o r bad o il , by
taste , smell , feel an d app earance I t i s , how eve r,
. n o t w ell

fo r th e manu factu r e r i n pu rch as ing to d epen d en t i r ely upon

t he s e s impl e r tes t s S inc e h e is intere st ed in t h e yi el d o f
.

glycerin e , th e large st po s sibl e yi el d o f soap pe r poun d o f

soap s t o c k an d t h e gen e ral bo dy an d app ea ran c e o f t h e
fin i sh ed p r oduct , th e c h emic al t es t s upon whi ch t h e s e d e
 SO AP M A K I N G
-
M A N UA L

pend s hould be ma de T hos e esp ecially im p ortant are the

.

acid value , pe rcentag e u n s ap o nifiabl e ma t ter and t i t er test .

A s ho rt description o f th e va ri ou s oils and fa t s men

tio ne d i s su fficie n t fo r t h ei r u s e i n t he s oap in du stry
.

Tal l ow i s th e n ame given to th e fa t ex t rac t e d f ro m the

“ ”
sol i d f at o r su et o f cat t l e , sh e ep o r h ors es Th e qu ality
.

va ri e s grea t ly , dep en ding upon th e s ea son s o f t h e yea r ,

th e foo d an d age o f the an imal an d t h e metho d o f r en

dering It comes to th e m a r k et un de r th e di s t inc t ion of
.

edible an d in edible , a fu r t h e r di s tinc t ion be ing made in

comme r ce a s beef tallow , mut t on t allow o r h o r s e t allow .

The be tt e r quali t y i s whi t e an d bleach e s whi t e r upon ex

p osu r e t o ai r an d l igh t , t hough i t u su ally ha s a yellow ish
tint , a w ell define d grai n an d a clean o do r I t c on si sts .

chi efly o f steari n , palmitin an d ol ein T allow i s by fa r t h e

.

mo st ex t en sively u s ed and i mpo rt an t fa t in t h e ma k ing

o f s o ap .

.
In t h e m anu f ac t u r e o f s oaps f o r t oil e t pu rpo s es , i t is
u su ally n eces s a r y to p ro duce a s white a p ro du ct a s po s
sibl e In o r de r t o do th i s i t often i s n ece s s a ry t o bl each
.

th e t allow befo re saponific atio n Th e m eth o d u su ally em

.

’
ployed i s t h e Fulle r s E a rt h pro ces s .

FULLER S E A R TH P RO CE S S FOR BLE A C H IN G TALLow

’
.

From on e to two t on s o f t allo w a re melted out in t o the

.

bleach ing t ank Th i s tank i s j acketed , mad e of i ron an d

.
-

provi de d wi th a goo d agita t o r d e sign ed t o s t i r up s edi ment

o r a c oi l p rovi ded with t angenti al downw ard opening pe r
fo r atio n s an d a d raw o ff coc k at t h e bo tt o m
-
.Th e c oil i s
the f a r s impl er a rr angemen t , mo re cl eanly an d l es s l i k ely
t o cau s e tr oubl e B y th i s ar rangemen t compres sed ai r
.

wh ich i s r e ally e s s en t i al i n th e u tili zati on o f th e p r es s

( see late r ) i s utilized fo r agitation A d r y steam coil i n
,

an o r dinary t ank may be employed in place o f a j acketed

tank , wh ich le s sen s th e co s t o f i ns t all a t io n
 RAW MAT ER IALS

Th e tallow in the bleach ing tank i s heated to 1 80 F

°
.

( 82 C ) an d ten poun ds o f dry salt pe r ton o f fat u sed

°
.

ad ded an d tho r oughly mixed by agitatio n Th i s a ddition

coagulates any alb u men an d d ehy drates the fat . The
whole mas s i s allow ed to s ettle ov er nig h t wh ere po s sible ,
o r f o r at l ea st fiv e ho u r s Any br ine which h as s epa rate d is
.

d rawn o ff fro m th e botto m an d th e tempe rat u re o f the

°
fat i s th en rais e d to 1 60 F ( 71 °
.

Fiv e p e r cent o f th e wei ght of th e tallow op erated

.

upon , o f d ry F u lle r s earth i s n ow adde d an d t h e whole

’

ma s s agitate d from tw en ty to thi rty m inute s .

Th e n ew bleached fat , contain ing th e F u l l er s ea r th i s

’

pump e d d i rectly to a p revi ou sly heate d filte r p res s and

th e i ssuing cle ar o il r un di rectly to the soap kettle .

O n e of th e di fficultie s expe ri enced in th e p roce s s i s th e

hea ti ng o f the p re s s to a temperatur e suffici ent to prevent
solidification o f th e fat w ith out rais ing th e p res s t o to o
great a temp e r atu re T o ove rcom e th i s th e firs t plate is
.

heated by wet s team Ai r d el ivere d from a blow e r and

.

h eated by pa s sage th rough a s e r i e s of c oil s r ai se d to a

hi gh temp e r atu r e by , exte r nal appli cati on o f h eat ( s u pe r
hea t ed st eam ) i s then sub stituted for th e steam Th e
.

moi stu re p ro duced by th e c on den sati on o f th e steam i s

vapo ri ze d by the hot ai r an d car ri ed on g r adu all y i to each
su cce eding plate wh ere it again con den ses and v apo ri ze s .

I n t hi s way th e small qu antity o f w ate r i s car ri ed th ro u gh

th e en t i re p r e ss , rai sing i ts t empera t u r e to C .

Th i s temp eratu re i s subs equ ently m aintain ed by th e

pas sage o f h o t ai r By th i s met ho d of h eating th e p oo r
.

con ductivi t y of h ot ai r i s ove rcom e th rough the inte r

m edi a r y action o f a liqui d vapo r an d the latent hea t of
“

steam i s u ti li zed to ob t ain th e in i t ial ri s e i n temp e r a t u r e .

To h eat a sm all p re s s economically wh e r e con dition s a r e

su ch th at a large ou t put i s not requ i red th e enti re p r e s s
 SOAP MAKI N G
-
M A N UA L

may be en c a s e d in a s mall w oo den hou s e wh ich c an be

hea t e d by st eam co il s Th e cake i n t h e p re s s i s h ea t ed fo r
.

s ome t im e af t e r t h e fil ter ation i s c o mple t e to a s s i s t d r ain

age . A ft e r s u c h tr ea t men t th e cake s houl d con t ai n ap
p rox ima t ely 1 5 p e r c en t fa t and 2 5 p e r cen t wate r Th e
. . .

cak e i s now removed f r o m t h e p re s s an d tran sfe rr e d to a

s mall t ank whe r e i t i s tr e at e d wi t h su ffici en t c au st i c s od a
t o c onv e rt t h e fa t con t en t in t o s oap .

S a t u ra t ed br in e i s th en a dde d t o s al t ou t t h e s o ap , the
’
Fulle r s ea rt h i s allow ed t o s e t tl e t o t h e bo tt o m o f t h e
t an k an d t he soap which soli difies af t e r a sho rt t i me i s
skimme d o ff t o b e u s ed i n a ch eap s oap wh e r e c olo r i s
no t i mpo r t an t Th e li quo r un dern ea t h m ay al so b e r un
.

o ff w ith ou t di st u r bing t h e s edi men t t o be u s ed in g r a in

’
in g a s imila r c h eap so ap Th e w as t e Fulle r s ea rt h con
.

tain s ab ou t to pe r cen t o f f a t
. .

M E TH OD FOR FU R TH ER I M PROVE M E NT O F CO L OR .

A fu r the r imp r o v emen t o f th e c ol o r o f t h e t allow may

be ob t ain ed by fr eeing i t f r o m a po rt i on o f i t s fr e e f a tty
’
aci d s , ei t h e r w ith o r w i t hou t p r ev i ou s Ful le r s e art h
bl ea c h ing.

To c a rr y ou t th i s p r oce s s t h e mel t e d f a t i s allowe d t o

s e t tl e an d a s mu c h wa t e r a s p o ss ibl e t a k en o ff Th e t em .

°
p er atu r e i s t h en r ai s e d t o 1 60 F w i t h d r y st e am and
.

enough s atu r a t ed solu t ion o f so da ash a d de d t o r emo v e

pe r cen t o f t h e fr e e fa tt y a c i d s , wh il e agi t at ing t h e
.

ma ss t h o roughly mechanically o r by ai r T h e agi t a t ion

.

i s c on t inu ed t en minu t e s , t h e whole allow e d t o se tt le fo r

t w o h ou rs an d t h e f oo ts d rawn o ff Th e soap t hu s f o r m ed
.

en t angl e s a l a r ge p ropo rt i on o f the i mpu r i t i e s o f t h e f at .

VE GE TABL E O ILS .

C o cocmu t O il, a s t h e n am e i mpli e s , i s ob t aine d fr o m t h e

f rui t o f the c o c o anu t palm Th i s oil i s a s ol id , wh i t e fat at
.

o r dina r y t empe r a t u re , h aving a blan d t as t e an d a c h a r ac

6
 R AW MAT ER IALS

ter istic o do r I t i s r a r ely a dul t e r a t e d and i s v e ry r eadi ly

.

sap o nifi ed . In recent ye ar s th e p ric e o f t h i s o il has in

c r eas ed ma t eri ally becau se coco an u t O il i s now be in g u sed
ex t en s ively fo r e dibl e pu rpo s es , especi ally i n th e m aking o f
oleo ma r ga r in e P res ent in dication s a re that s ho rtly ve ry
.

littl e high grade o il will be employed fo r so ap m anu factu re

since th e deman d fo r oleomargar in e i s constantly inc r e as
ing an d sin ce new met ho d s o f refin ing th e o il fo r t hi s pu r
pos e ar e con stan tly be ing devi s ed .

Th e o il i s foun d in the ma rket un de r thre e diff erent

g r ades : ( 1 ) Coch in cocoanut O il , t h e choi ce s t o il co me s
f r om Coc hin ( Malabar ) Thi s p r o du ct , be ing mo r e ca r e
.

fully c u ltiva t ed an d re fin ed th an the othe r grade s , i s

white r , cl ean er an d contain s a s mall er pe rcen t age o f f ree
aci d .
( 2 ) Ceylon cocoanut o il , coming ch i e fl y fro m Cey
l on , i s usu ally o f a yellowi sh tin t an d mo re acri d in o do r
than Cochin o il ( 3 ) Con t in en t al cocoanu t o il ( Cop ra ,
.

Fr eu denbe r g ) i s ob t ain ed f r om t he d ri ed ke r n el s , th e copra .

which a r e shipp e d to E u rope in la rge quantities , wh er e th e

o il i s ex t r acted Thes e d r i e d ke rnel s yi el d 60 t o 70 per
.

cen t oil Thi s p roduct i s gen e rally s u pe rio r to the Ceylon

.

o il an d m ay b e u s e d a s a ve ry s ati s fa c to ry s u bstit u t e fo r

Cochin o il , in soap man u fact u re , pro vi d ed it i s l o w i n free

aci d an d o f goo d colo r T he w riter h as e mployed it sati s
.

fac to r ily in th e w h itest an d fine st o f t oilet soaps with o u t

being able to d i sti n g u i sh any d i sa dvantage to th e Coch in
o il
. S ince c ontinent al O il i s u s u al ly ch e ape r than Coch in
oil , i t i s advi sabl e to u se it , as occa si on p erm its .

Cocoanut Oil i s u sed e x ten s ively in toi let soap m aking ,

u su ally in conn ecti on with t allo w . Wh en u s e d alon e
th e soa p made fro m th i s oil fo rm s a l athe r , wh ich come s
up rapi dly bu t which is flu fl y an d d rie s q u ickly A pu re .

tallow soap lath e r s ve ry much slow e r bu t p ro duces a m o re

l as t ing la t h e r Thu s th e adv an t age o f u s ing c oc oan u t o il
.
 S OAP MA KI N G
-
M A N UA L

in soap i s seen I t i s fu r ther u s c d in making a coc oanut

. _
-

” “
o il soap by th e col d p roces s al so fo r fake o r filled so ap s .

Th e fatty aci d content re adily start s th e s ap onificatio n

° °
which take s pl ace easily w ith a strong lye ( 2 5 3 S -

Whe re l arge quanti t i e s o f th e o il ar e s ap on ified ca r e mu st

be exe rci s e d a s the soap fo r me d su d denly ri se s o r p u fl s
up an d may boil o ve r Cocoan ut O il soap take s up la r ge
.

quanti t ies o f wa t e r , ca se s having been cite d wh e r e a 500

pe r cent yi el d ha s been obta in e d Thi s w a t e r o f cou r s e
. .

dri es out again up on expo su re to th e ai r Th e s o ap i s .

harsh to the skin , develop s r ancidi ty an d da rken s readily .

P al m K er n el O il, whi ch i s ob t ained from th e k e r n el s o f

th e palm t ree o f We s t A fri ca , i s u se d in so ap m akin g t o r e
place coco anut o il whe re th e low e r p rice w a r r ant s it s u s e .

I t resembl e s coco anu t oil i n re sp ect to s ap on ific ation and

in fo rm in g a ve ry s im ilar s oap K e r nel o il i s whi t e in
.

c ol o r , has a pleasan t nu tt y o do r when f re s h , bu t r api dly

devel o ps free a c i d , wh i ch r un s to a high pe rc en t age .

P alm O il i s p r o duce d f r om th e fru it o f th e s eve ral specie s

o f th e pal m t ree on th e we stern co ast of Africa gen e r ally ,
but al so in th e Ph ilippin es The fre sh o il h as a deep o range
.

yellow t int n ot destroye d by s ap o n ificatio n, a sw ee t i sh t aste

an d an o do r o f o rr i s roo t o r vi ole t wh ich i s al so impa r t ed
to so ap m ad e f ro m it Th e m eth od s by wh ich th e n at ives
.

obtain th e o il a r e cru de an d d ep en d upon a fermen t a t ion , o r

putre faction La rge qu an titi e s a r e s ai d t o b e wa ste d be
.

cau s e o i th i s f act T h e o il con t ai n s i mpu r i t i e s i n t h e fo rm

.

o f fe rmen t abl e fib r e an d albuminou s m a t te r , an d co n se

qu en t ly d evelop s fr e e fat t y aci d rapi dly S ampl es t es t ed
.

fo r fre e acid h av e been f o un d to h av e hy dr olized co mpl e t ely

and on e sel dom obtain s an o il with l o w aci d con t en t .

B e c au s e o f th is high pe rcen t age o f f r ee fatty aci d , the

glyce r in e yi el d i s small , though the n eu tr al oil s hould
p ro duc e app r oxi ma t ely 1 2 p e r c en t glyce r in e . S ome.
 S OA P MA KI N G
-
M A N UA L

Fo r t h e be st r e s ul t s an o il s h oul d b e ch o s en c on t ainin g
un de r 2 pe r cen t i mpu r i t i es an d a low p e r cen t age o f fr ee
.

fa tt y aci d s Lago s o il i s be s t adap t e d to t h e s e r equi r emen t s

. .

Th e o il i s melted by Open steam f ro m a j e t in tr o duced

t h r ough th e bung, t h e m elte d oil an d con den s e d w ate r r un
ning t o th e s t o re t ank th rough t wo si eve s ( abou t inc h
me sh ) to remove t h e fib rou s ma t eri al an d gro s s imp u ritie s
The o il thu s ob t ain ed contain s fin e ea r t hy an d fibrou s m a
ter ial an d v ege t abl e albu mi nou s mat t e r wh ich sh oul d be
removed , a s fa r a s po ss ibl e , sinc e ch emical s a r e w a s te d in
th ei r o xi dation an d t h ey r etar d th e bleach ing Th i s i s best
.

don e by boiling th e oi l fo r on e hou r w ith wet s t eam an d

1 0 p e r cen t solution o f co mmon salt ( 2 p e r cen t d ry salt
. .

o n w eigh t o f O il u se d ) in a lea d l in e d o r wo o den tank

-
.

Aft e r s e tt ling ove r n igh t th e b rin e an d impu r it ie s a re r e

move d by r unn i n g f r o m a cock a t t h e bo t tom o f t h e vat
and t h e o il i s r un ou t into t h e bl ea c h ing tank th r ough an
o il co ck , s i t u ate d about s even in c he s fro m the bo tt om .

Th e bleach in g t ank i s a l ea d l in ed i r on tank o f t he ap

- -

p r o x imate dimen sio ns o f 4 fee t d eep , 4 f ee t long and

'

3 % fee t wi de , h oldin g abou t 1 % t ons Th e ch arge

.

i s on e ton A lea den outlet pi pe i s fixe d a t th e botto m , to

.

wh ich i s at t ach ed a rubbe r tub e clo se d by a screw clip A .

plug al so i s fitte d in t o t h e l ead o u t le t pip e fro m above .

S even inch es abov e th e l owe r ou t l e t i s a ffixe d ano t h e r tap

th rough wh ich th e o il i s drawn o ff .

Th e t an k i s fu rth e r equi pp e d w ith a w e t steam co il an d a

coil a r r an ge d t o allo w thorough a i r agi t a t ion , bo t h coils
being o f lea d A goo d arrangeme nt i s t o u s e on e c oil t o
.

delive r e i t he r ai r o r steam Th ese co il s shoul d ex t en d as

.

n ea r ly a s po s s ibl e Ove r t h e en t i r e bot t o m o f t h e tank an d

h a v e a nu mb e r o f s mall downw a r d pe rf o ration s , so a s to
sp rea d t h e agi t a t ion t h roughou t t h e m a ss .

Th e tempe ra t u re Of t h e o il i s re duce d by pas sing in aiI

10
 R AW MAT E R IALS

to 1 1 0 F and 40 pounds of fine common salt pe r to n added

°
.

th r ough a s i eve Abo u t o n e h al f o f th e aci d ( 40 poun d s

.
-

of concentrate d comme rcial hyd rochlo r ic aci d ) i s n ow

pou re d in an d t h i s i s foll owe d by the so dium b ich r o mat e
‘
in concen t rate d solution , p reviou sly prepare d in a s mall
le ad vat o r earth en ve s sel by di ssolving 1 7 poun d s o f bi
ch romate i n 4 5 poun ds commerci al hyd rochlo ri c aci d Th i .
s

s olution should be a dde d slowly an d shoul d o ccupy th ree

hou r s , th e whole m as s b eing th o roughly agita t e d w ith air
d u rin g th e addition an d fo r one hou r after th e l ast o f the
bleac hing m ixtu r e h as been in t ro duced Th e whol e m ix .

tu re i s no w allow ed to settle fo r o n e hou r an d t h e ex

hau s te d ch rom e liquo r s are th en run o ff from th e l o wer
pip e to a w a ste tank About 4 0 gallon s o f wate r a re no w
.

run into the bleac h ed o il an d th e tempera t u re r ai sed by

° °
op en steam to 1 50 to 1 60 F Th e mas s i s th en all o w ed
.

to s ettle ove r n ight .

O n e such wash i s suffici ent to remove th e spen t ch rom e

li quo r co mpletely , prov ide d ample tim e i s allo wed fo r
set t lin g A nu mbe r o f w ashings given succes si vely w it h
.

sh o rt perio d s o f settling d o n o t r em ove the ch ro me l iquo r s

eff ec t u ally Th e s ucces s o f the operation dep en d s en
.

tir ely upon th e compl e t enes s o f settling .

Th e w a sh wate r i s drawn o ff a s b efo re an d t h e clea r

oil ru n t o sto rage tank s o r to th e soap kettl e th rough t he
uppe r o il cock .

Th e waste l iq u or s are boile d with w et s t ea m an d th e o il

skim med fro m th e su rface , a ft e r wh i c h th e liqu o rs a r e ru n
ou t t h r ough an o il tr ap .

By followin g th e above in struction s ca re f u lly it i s po s

s ible to bl each one ton o f palm oil with 1 7 p ound s O f b i
ch romate o f so da an d 85 p oun d s h y d rochlo ric aci d .

Th e spent liquo r s sh oul d b e a b right green colo r Should .

th ey be o f a yellow o r b r own i sh sh a de insuflic ient aci d has

‘

11
 S OAP MA KI N G
-
M AN UA L .

been allow e d an d mor e mu s t b e ad de d to r en de r t he wh ole

o f t h e o xygen av ail abl e .

I f low grade O il s a r e b ei n g t rea t e d mo re ch rom e w ill be

n ec es sa r y, the amoun t b eing best j u dged by con ducting the
ope r ation as u sual an d afte r th e a ddition o f th e bich ro
mate , r emo vin g a s ample o f th e o il , washing the sample
an d n o t ing t h e colo r o f a rap i dly coole d s ample .

A lit t le p rac t i ce w ill en abl e th e op erato r to j u dge the

co rre sp ond ence betw een th e colo r t o b e removed an d the
amoun t of bleaching m ix t u r e to be ad ded .

T o ob t ain succe s s wi t h thi s p r oce s s t h e m etho d o f wo rk

i ng given mu s t b e adh ere d to even i n t h e s mall es t d e tail .

Thi s applies to t h e tempe ra t u re a t wh ich each op era t ion

i s car rie d o u t par t icularly .

AIR BL E A C H IN G O F PAL M O IL .

Th e metho d o f con ducting th is p r o ces s i s i dentical with

’

th e ch r om e p roce s s to t h e poin t wh e r e t h e hydroc hlo ri c aci d

i s t o b e adde d t o the o il I n t h i s metho d n o acid o r
.

ch r om e i s nece s sa r y , a s th e ac t ive bl each ing agen t i s t he

o xygen o f t he ai r .

Th e e q u ipmen t i s si mil a r t o that o f th e fo rme r p roce ss ,

except t h at a woo den tank i n w hich no i ron i s expo se d w ill
s uffi c e t o bleach t h e O il in Th e p roces s depen d s in rap i d
.

i t y up on th e amoun t o f ai r bl o wn thr o ug h th e o il an d i t s
even di stribu t ion I r on shoul d not b e p r e sent o r expo sed
.

t o th e o il du r ing ble achi ng , a s it re t a r d s the p r oce ss co n

sid er ably .

A ft e r t h e impu riti es h ave been r emoved , as outline d

un de r t h e ch r om e p r oce s s , t h e t empe ratu r e o f th e o il i s
r ai s e d by op e n st eam t o bo iling Th e s t eam i s then sh u t
.

o ff an d air allow ed t o blow t h rough t he o il u ntil it i s co m

pl etel y bl each ed , t h e t emperatu re b ei n g main t aine d ab ove

°
1 50 F by o c ca sion ally p as sing i n s t eam
. U sually a t on
.

o f o il i s r eadily an d com pletely ble a c h e d a ft e r th e ai r has

12
 R AW MAT ER IAL S

been pass ed th r ough it fo r 1 8 to 20 hou rs , p r ovi de d th e

O il i s tho roughly agitated by a s u fli c ie nt fl o w o f ai r .

I f th e th e o il h as been allow e d to settle ove r night , i t i s

a dvi s abl e to run o ff th e con den se d w ate r an d i mpu ri t ies
by th e lo w
‘
e r cock be fo r e agitating again th e secon d day .

Wh en th e o il h as been bl each e d to th e desi red col o r ,

which can be dete rmin ed by removing a s ample an d cool
ing , th e ma s s i s allowe d to s ettl e , the wate r r u n o ff to a
waste t ank fro m whic h any oil car rie d along m ay be
skim m ed off and th e s u pern atant cle ar o il r u n to the sto r
age o r soap kettle .

I n bleach ing by th i s p r oc e ss , w hile the p ro ce s s c o n sum e s

mo re ti me an d i s not as efficient in ble achin g the l owe r
grade o il s , the co st o f bleach ing i s le s s an d with a goo d
oil s u cces s i s mo re p robabl e , as t he re i s no po s sibili ty o f
any o f th e ch rome l iq u o rs being pre sent in th e o il The se .

give th e ble ached o il a green ti nt w h en the chrom e method

is i mproperly con ducted an d th ey ar e not remove d .

I n stea d o f blow ing the ai r t h ro u gh i t , the h eate r oi l m ay

-

be bro u g ht in to contact wit h th e ai r , ei th er by a p ad dle

w h e el ar rangement wh ic h , i n con stantly tu rn ing , br ings
,

th e oi l into con firm with th e a ir , o r by p u mping

th e heate d oil into an elevate d ve s sel , pie rced w ith n ume r
ou s fine h ole s from w h ich th e O il co n tino u sly flows back
into th e ve ss el fro m wh ich th e oil i s pumpe d Wh ile in .

th e s e method s ai r , l igh t an d h eat act sim u ltaneou sly i n the

bl each ing o f th e o il , th e eq u ip ment req u ired i s too c um
b er s o m e to b e p ractical .

‘
R ecen t investigati on s in bleach in g palm oil by o xygen
h av e shown that not only th e colo ring matte r bu t t h e oi l
its el f w a s a ff e ct ed In bl each ing pal m o il fo r 30 ho u rs
.

w ith ai r th e free fatty aci d content ro se an d tite r decreas ed

con si derably .

l
S e i f e n s ie d e r Z e i t , 1 9 1 3 , 4 0 , p . 6 8 7 , 72 4 , 74 0 .

13
 S OAP MAKI N G
-
M A N UA L

O l ive O il, wh ich come s fro m th e fr ui t o f t h e ol ive tr ee s ,

v a r ie s g r ea t ly i n q uali t y , accor ding to t he metho d by wh ich
it i s ob t aine d an d acco rding to th e t re e bea r ing th e frui t .

Th ree hun d r e d v a r ieti e s a re known i n Italy alone S inc e .

the la rge r po rt ion o f oli v e o il i s u sed fo r e dible pu rpo se s ,

a lowe r g r ade , dena t u r e d o il, dena t u re d becau se o f th e
tariff , i s u s ed f o r s o ap manu fac t u re in t hi s coun tr y The .

o il v a r ie s in colo r fro m pal e green t o g o l den yellow Th e .

p e r cen t age o f f r e e aci d in th i s o il v a r i e s greatly , th ough the

o il do e s no t t u r n r anci d easily . I t i s u s ed mainly in th e
m anu f ac t u r e o f whi t e c astil e s oap .

O li v e oil f oots , wh ich i s t he o il ex tr ac t e d by solvent s afte r

the be tt e r o il i s exp r e ss ed, fin ds i ts u s e i n soap m aking
mo st ly in t ex t il e s o ap s fo r w ash ing an d dye ing s ilks an d
in the p r o duc t ion o f g r e en cas t il e soap s .

O the r Oil s , a s poppy see d o il , s e s ame o il , cot t on s ee d o il ,

rap e o il , p eanu t ( arach i s ) oil, ar e u s e d a s adul t e r an t s for
olive o il , al s o a s s ubstitu t e s i n th e m anu f ac t u r e o f ca stile
so ap , s in c e t h ey a r e cheape r t h an o live o il .

C o ttons eed O il i s l argely u sed in t h e manu fac t u r e o f

floa t ing an d l aun dry soap s . I t may b e u sed fo r to ilet
soap s wh er e a whi t e c olo r i s no t de s i r e d , a s yellow spots
appea r on a fin i she d soap in wh ich i t ha s been u se d after
h aving b een i n s t oc k a sho rt t i me .

C o r n O il and S oya B ean O il ar e al so u s ed t o a s ligh t ex

t en t in t he manu fa ct u r e o f t o il e t s o ap s , although t h e Oil s
fo r m a s oap o f v e ry li tt l e b o dy Th ei r soap s al so spot
.

yellow on aging .

Co rn o il find s i t s g r eates t us e in the manu fa ct u r e o f

soap fo r w a s hing au t o mobile s I t i s fu r t h e r empl oye d fo r
.

th e m anu fac t u r e o f ch eap l i q ui d s o ap s .

Fatt y Acids ar e al so u s ed e x t en s i v ely in s o ap manu fac

tu r e Wh il e the s oap manu fac t u re r p r e f e r s t o u se a n eu tr al
.

oil o r fat, s in c e fr o m t he se t h e by p r o duc t glyce r in e i s

-

14
 R AW MAT ER IALS

Obtain ed , circumstances ar i se w here it i s an advantage to

u s e t he f r e e fat ty aci d s R e d o il ( olei c aci d , elain e ) and
.

stea r i c aci d a re the two fat t y aci d s most gene rally bought
fo r soap making In plant s u s ing the Twitc hell p r o ce s s ,
.

'
wh ich con si sts in spl itting the ne u t ral fat s an d oi l s into
fatty ac ids an d glyce r in e by dil u te s u lp hu r ic aci d an d p ro
du c ing th ei r final s eparati on by th e u s e O f so called aromatic
-

sulphonic aci d s , the se fatty aci ds con s i sting o f a mixt u re of

oleic , ste ari c , palmi tic aci ds , etc , are u se d d irectly after
.

h aving been p u r ifie d by di stillation , th e glycerine being o h

t ain e d fro m evapo rating th e wash w ate r .

O l eic aci d ( r ed o il ) an d steari c aci d a r e obtain ed u s ual

ly by the s ap o n ifi c atio n o f o il s , fat s an d grea s es by acid ,
lime o r w ater unde r p res su re o r T witchel l ing . Th e
fatty acid s t hu s a re freed from the ir combination w i t h

g lyce r ine an d s oli di fy upon co oling , afte r which they are

separate d from th e w ate r an d p re s se d at a high er o r low e r
temperatu re . T h e Ole ic ac i d , b eing liqu i d at o rdinary
tempe ratu re , togeth e r with so me stearic an d palmitic aci d ,
i s thu s p res se d o u t The s e l atte r aci d s are u s u ally sep a
.

rated by di still ation , combine d w it h th e p re s s cake f u rth er

pu ri fie d an d sol d a s stearic aci d .

The red oil , sometim e s call ed s ap o n ified re d o il , i s o ften

semi so li d , re s embling a so ft tallow , d u e to th e p re sence
-

of stearic aci d T he di stille d oil s a re u s u ally clea r , v ary

.

ing in colo r fro m light to a deep b r own .S tear ic aci d ,

which reac he s th e t rade in slab fo rm , var ies in quality
fro m a so ft b rown , grea sy , c rumbly soli d o f unplea sant
o do r to a snow white , w ax l ike , h ard , o do rles s m as s Th e
-
.

qu ality o f ste aric aci d i s b e st j u dge d by th e m elting po int ,

s ince the p re sence o f any Oleic aci d lowe r s thi s The m elt
.

ing point Of th e var ietie s u s ed i n so ap manu factur e u s u ally

°
range s from 1 28 t o 1 3 2 F R e d o il i s u se d in the manu
°
.

factu re o f textile s oap s , replacing olive o il fo ot s s oap for

15
 S OAP MAKI N G -
M A N UA L

thi s p u r p o s e, chl o rO phyl l be ing u se d to colo r the s oap

.

green S t earic aci d , b eing th e hard fi rm fatty aci d , may be

.

u se d in small qu antities to giv e a better grad e o f soap bo d y

'

an d fin ish . I n a d ding th i s s u b stanc e it shoul d alw ays

be don e in th e c rutc he r , as i t w ill not mix in the kettle .

I t fin ds its large st u se for so ap , howeve r , in th e manu

facture o f sha v ing soap s an d sh aving creams , since it
produce s th e non d rying c reamy lat h e r so greatly d e si red
-

fo r t hi s pu rp o s e Both re d o il an d ste aric aci d being fatty

.

aci ds , r eadily unite with th e alkali carbonat e s , carb o n dio x

i de being fo rmed in the reactio n an d th i s m etho d i s ex
ten s iv el y u se d in t h e fo r mation o f so ap fro m th em .

R AN C I D ITY OF O I LS AN D FATS .

R anci dity i n n eutral o ils an d fats i s o n e o f the p r o blems

th e soap manu factu re r h a s to conten d w i t h Th e m ere .

s aying that an o il i s ranci d i s n o in dication o f it s b eing

high in f r ee aci d Th e t wo term s r anci dity an d aci d ity a re
.

u sually alli e d Form erly , th e aci dity o f a fat w a s lo oked

.

u p on a s th e di rect mea s u re o f its r anci dity Th i s i dea i s .

still p revalen t in p ractice an d can n ot b e too o ften stated

as incor rect Fat s an d O il s may b e acid, o r r ancid, o r acid
.

an d r an cid .I n an aci d fat there has been a hy d rolysi s of

th e fat an d i t has devel ope d a rat h er h igh p ercentage of
f r e e aci d A ranci d fat i s on e in wh ich h ave be en de
.

v el o p ed compo u n d s o f an o dori ferou s n atu r e An aci d and .

r anci d fa t i s o n e in wh ich bo t h free aci d an d o rgani c co m

poun ds O f the well known di sagreeable odo r s have b een
'

p r o duced.

I t cannot b e d efinitely sta t ed j u st how th i s r ancidi ty

ta k e s place , any mo r e th an j us t wh a t a re t h e ch emi cal
p r o duct s cau sing ran c i dity Th e only conclu sion t h a t on e
.

may d raw i s t h a t t h e fa t s a re fi rst hyd rolyzed o r s pli t up

in t o glyce r in e an d f ree fa tt y acid s Thi s i s follo we d by
.

an o xi da t ion o f th e p r o duc t s t hu s fo rmed .

16
 SOAP MAKI N G
-
M AN UA L

O f a ir an d ligh t which include Oxy fatty acids , lac t ones , al

co b ols , e s t e r s , aldehy des and o t h er p ro ducts .

Th e s o a p manu fac t u r e r i s in t e r es t e d in ranci di ty to t he

ex t en t o f the e ffec t up o n t h e fin i sh ed s oap R anci d fats .

form da rke r so ap s t han fa t s i n t he n eu t r al state , an d v e ry

O f t en carry w ith them the di s agreeable o do r o f a ranci d oil .

Fu rt h e r , a r anci d fa t o r O il i s u s u ally high i n f r ee aci d I t .

i s by no mean s t ru e , ho weve r , th a t ranci di t y i s a meas

ur e f o r aci dity , fo r a s has al r eady been p oin t e d o u t , an

O il m ay b e ranci d and no t h igh i n fre e acid .

The p e r centage o f f r ee fa t ty aci d i s O f e v en grea t e r

i mpo r t anc e in th e s o ap in dust r y T h e amoun t o f glyce r ine
.

yiel d i s depen den t upon t he p e r cen t age o f fre e f a t ty acid

an d i s o ne o f t he cri t e r ion s o f a goo d fat o r o il fo r so ap
st o ck
.

PR EVE NTI O N O F R A N CI D ITY .

S ince mo is t u re , ai r, l igh t an d enzymes , p r o du c e d by th e

p res en c e o f o rgani c impu r ities, are n ece s sa ry fo r t he ran
‘

c id it y o f a fat o r O il , t h e m eth o ds O f p reventing r anci dity

a re given Compl e t e d ryn es s , co mplete puri fication o f f ats
.

an d oil s an d sto rage w i t h ou t acce s s O f ai r o r ligh t a r e de

si rable S i mpl e a s th es e m ean s may seem, th ey can only
.

be appr o ximate d in p r acticef Th e mo s t di fficult p robl em i s

th e removal o f th e l ast trace o f moi s t u r e I mpu r i t ie s may
.

be le s sen e d very o ften by th e u s e o f grea t e r ca r e In sto r .

ing it i s w ell to s t o r e i n cl os e d ba r rels o r c lo se d i r on ~

tank s aw ay from l igh t , a s i t h a s b ee n Ob s e r ve d t h a t Oil s

an d f a ts in clos e d r eceptacle s becom e r anci d l e s s r ap i dly
th an t h o s e in op en Ones , even though t h i s m etho d o f s t o r
i ng i s only p ar t ially at t ain ed Pres e rva t ive s ar e al so us ed ,
bu t only in e dibl e p ro ducts , w
.

h er e th ei r eff ectiven es s i s an
op en q ue s tion .

C H E M I C AL C O N STA NTS O F O ILS AN D FAT S .

B esi d e s t h e v ariou s phys ical p r ope rt ie s o f oil s an d fat s ,

18
 R AW MAT ER IA LS

such a s colo r, sp ecifi c g r avity, melting poin t , solubil ity, e tc , .

th ey may be di stin gu i sh e d ch emi cally by a nu mbe r o f

c hemical con stants Th e s e a r e th e io din e nu mbe r, t h e acetyl
.

v alu e , sap onific atio n nu mber , R eiche rt M ei s sl numbe r fo r -

'
vol atile aci d s , H ebne r n u mbe r f o r in solubl e aci d s The se .

con s tants , while th ey v a ry so mewh a t w ith any particul ar

o il o r fat , a re mo re appl icable t o t h e edibl e p ro duc t s and

a re c riterion s wh ere any a dulte ration o f fat o r o il i s su s

p ec te d .Th e method s o f c ar ryi n g o u t the an a lyse s o f o il s
an d fat s to obt ain th es e con stant s a re given in the va rio u s
*
texts on oil s an d fa t s , an d ina smuch a s th ey ar e not o f
grea t i mpo r tan ce to t he s oap in du stry th ey a r e me rely m en
tio n e d h er e .

O IL H A RDE NIN G O R H Y DROGE NATI N G .

I t is v ery w el l kn own tha t oil s an d fats vary in con

si sten cy an d ha r dn e s s , depen d ing upon the gly ce r i des
formi ng same O le in , a combination o f olei c aci d and
.

glycerin e , as w ell as Olei c aci d its elf lar g ely form s the
{

liq u i d po rtion o f oil s an d fats O l eic aci d ( C g Hu O J i s an

.

u n s atu rate d aci d an d d iff er s from ste ari c aci d

the aci d fo rming t he har d fi rm po rti on of oil s and fat s ,

by containi ng t w o atom s o f hy d r o g en les s in the mole
~

cule Theo re t i cally i t shoul d be a s imp l e matte r to i ntro

.

duce two atom s o f hyd rogen in to olei c aci d o r o lein , an d

by th i s me r e a ddition conve rt liqui d ol ei c a c i d an d olein
into soli d stear i c aci d an d s t ea rine .

Fo r year s thi s wa s attempted an d all attempts to apply

the well kn own metho d s o f re duction ( a ddi t i o n o f hydro
gen ) in o rgani c ch em i st ry, su c h as tr eatm ent with tin
an d aci d , so dium amalgam , etc , w er e un su cce s s f u l In
. .

re cent yea rs , how eve r , it ha s been di scovered th at in the

p res ence of a c atalyze r , n ickel in finely divi ded fo r m
‘
O flic ial M et ho d s, s e e B u ll . 1 07, A O A . . . C .
, U 5
. . D e pt
. Ag ricu l t .

19
 S O A P —M A K I N G MA N UA L

or t he oxi des o f ni ckel are u sually employe d , t he p r o c e s s

o f hy d r ogen ating an oil i s r ea dily at t ai ned upon a pra e

t ical bas i s .

The i nt r o du c ti on o f har den e d Oil s ha s Op en e d a n ew

sou r ce o f r aw ma t e r i al fo r th e s oap m anu f ac t u re r in
th a t i t i s n ow po s s ible to u se oil s in soap m a k ing wh ich
w er e f o rme rly di s ca r ded becau s e o f t hei r un de s i r able
O do rs Thu s fish o r train oils whi ch h ad up t o t h e t im e
.

o f o il hyd r ogena t ing re si ste d all a t temp ts o f be ing per

manently deo do r i ze d , c an n ow be employed v ery s ati s
facto r il y fo r s oap m anu factu re A Japan es e ch em ist , .

Tsuj imo to h a s shown t h a t fi sh oil s contain an u n s atu

1

ra t e d aci d Of th e c ompo si tion C s O , f or wh ich h e pro i s g

po s ed t h e n ame clupanodon ic aci d B y th e ca t alytic h ar d .

c u ing o f tr ai n O ils t h i s a ci d pas s es t o steari c aci d an d th e

2
p roble m o f d eodo riz ing t h ese oil s i s s ol v e d .

At fi rs t t h e introdu ction o f h ar dene d Oil s f o r soap

manu factu re met wi th n um erou s Obj ec t ion s , du e t o th e
continual failu r e s of obta in ing a s ati s fac t o ry p ro du ct by
th e u s e o f same V ar io u s attempts have n ow s hown t hat
.

thes e o il s , parti cularly har den e d tra in oil s , p r o duce

extrao rdin arily u s e ful ma t er ial s fo r s o ap ma k ing Th e se .

replace expen sive t allo w an d oth e r high m elting oil s I t .

i s o f co u rse impos sible to empl oy h arden e d o il s alone , as

a soap so ha r d woul d t hu s b e Ob t ain e d th at i t woul d
be difli cu ltl y s ol u ble in wate r an d pos s es s v e ry li tt le la t he r
ing qu al ity By t h e a d diti on o f 20 25% O f tallow o il o r
.
-

som e o t h e r O il fo rmin g a soft s oap a ve ry s uitabl e soap

s
fo r h ou s ehol d u s e may b e obtain e d R ibot di scu s se s t h i s .

mat t e r fully H a rdene d oil s read ily saponi fy , may be

.

J ou r n C o l l o f E n gi n
1
. . . T ok y o I m p e r Un i v p 1. . . . Ab s .

C he m R evu e f d F e tt u -
H ar z , I n d 1 6 , 8 4 ; 2 0,
C h em P hy s i k uhd P hy s i k C hem
. . . . .

’
M e y e r h e im F o r t d er -
. . . . .

8 6 p 2 9 3 3 07
. . . .

‘
S e i fs Z tg . 40
.
. p . 142 .

20
 R AW MAT ER IALS

p e r fume d w i t hou t any obj e c tion s an d do n ot impa rt any

fi s hy odo r t o an a r ti cle w ashed w ith s ame M eyerheim
‘
.

st a t es t ha t t h rough the u s e o f hyd rogena t e d o il s the ha r d

nes s o f s oap i s extrao r dinarily rai sed , s o that s oap ma de
f r om ha r den e d cotton s ee d o il i s tw el v e t i me s a s ha r d a s
th e s oap made from o r din a ry cotton seed oil Thi s s oap .

is also said to n o longe r spo t yello w upon aging, an d a s

'

a consequence o f its ha rdn es s , i s able to contain a co n

s id e r abl y hig h e r content o f ro sin th rough whi ch lathe r

ing powe r an d o dor m ay be imp roved Ha r den e d o ils

.

can ea s ily be u sed for toilet soap ba ses , p rovi ded t hey
are n ot add ed in to o great a pe rcentage
'
.

Th e u se o f har dene d o il s i s not yet general , but th ere

i s little doubt th at th e i ntroducti on o f thi s p roce s s goe s a
long way to war d solv ing th e p roblem o f ch eape r s oap
mate rial for t h e co ap m aki ng in du stry .

RE AS E G .

Greas e vari e s s o greatly in composition an d con s i s ten cy

'

tha t it can har dly be clas s ed a s a di stin ctive oil o r fat .

It i s Obtain e d from refu se , bon es , h i d es , etc , an d wh ile .

it contains the s am e con stit u ents a s tallow , the olein co n

ten t i s con si de r ably greate r , whi ch cau s es i t to be m ore
li qui d in composition . Grease diff e r s in co l o r from an
O ff whi t e to a dark b rown
-
Th e bette r qualiti e s a re em
.

ployed in th e manu factu re o f laund ry an d c h ip soap ,

while the p oo r e r q u alitie s a re only fit for the cheapest o f
s oap s u se d in s cr u bbing floo rs and su ch purpo se s T h e re .

is u s u ally foun d in grea se a con si de rabl e amount of glu ey

matte r , lim e and water Th e percentage o f fre e f atty
.

aci d i s gene rally high .

Th e darke r grade s o f grease a r e bl eache d befor e b e

ing us e d Thi s i s done by ad ding a small quantity o f
.

sodiu m n it r ate to th e melted greas e and a g i tating , then

Lo c . c it .

21
 S OAP MA KI N G
-
M A N UA L

re mov mg the exces s sal t pe t e r by dec o mpo s mg W i th su l

phu r ic acid A be t ter method o f refining , howeve r , i s by
.

d is t illa t ion Th e ch rome bl each i s als o applicable

. .

RO SI N ( CO LO P H O NY , Y E LL O W RO SI N , RE SI NA ) .

R o s in i s th e r esi du e which r ema in s a f t e r t h e di st il

la t i on o f tu r pen t i ne f r om th e va ri ou s speci e s o f p ine s .

Th e chie f sou rce o f s upply i s i n th e S t a t e s o f Geo r gi a

N o r th an d S ou t h Ca rolina . I t i s a tran sparen t , ambe r
colored ha r d pulve ri zabl e r esin .Th e bette r grad es are
light in c olo r an d known as w ate r white ( w w ) an d . .

window gla s s ( w . Th e s e a re obtai ned from a tr e e

which has b een t app e d fo r t h e fi r st yea r A s t h e s ame .

tree s a re tapped fro m year to yea r , th e p r o duct b ecom e s

d eepe r an d da r ke r i n colo r unti l i t becom e s almo s t bla ck .

Th e con s t i t u en t s o f r o s in a r e c h ie fl y ( 80 abi e t ic
aci d o r i ts anhyd r i de toge t h e r wi th pinic an d sylv ic
aci d s
. I t s speci fic gravity i s m eltin g p oi nt
abou t C , an d it i s s oluble in al c ohol , eth e r , b en zin e ,
.

carbon dis u l fide, o ils , alkal i s an d ace t ic acid T he m ain u s e

.

o f r o s in , ou ts i de o f the p ro du ction o f va r ni sh es , i s i n t he
p rodu c t ion of laun dry s oap s , although a slight percen t age
act s as a bin de r and fixativ e fo r pe r fum e s in toi le t s oap s an d
a dd s t o t h ei r de t e rgen t p roper t ie s S ince i t i s mainly com
.

p o sed o f aci d s , i t re a dily u n ite s with alkali ne ca rbona t e s ,

though t he s ap o n ificatio n i s n ot qui t e compl e t e an d t he
la s t portion mu s t be comple t ed t h rough t h e u se o f cau s t i c
hydrate s , u nle s s an exces s o f 1 0 % ca rbon ate ove r t h e
°
theo re t i cal am oun t i s u se d . A lye o f 20 B i s best .

adap t ed to t h e s apo nific ation o f r osin when cau s ti c hydra t e s

a r e employe d fo r t hi s pu rpo se , s in c e w eak lye s cau se
‘

frothin g . Wh il e i t i s som e t i m e s c on si dere d t ha t ro s in

i s an adul t e ran t f o r so ap , th i s i s h ar dly j u s t i fiabl e , a s i t
add s to t he c lean s in g p r ope r ti e s o f s oa p S oap s c on t ai n
.

22
 R AW MAT ER IALS

in g r o si n a r e o f t h e W ell kn own yell owi sh c olo r c ommon

to o r din a ry laun d r y s o ap s Th e p r i c e o f r o s in ha s so
.

ri s en in t h e las t f ew ye ars t ha t it pre s ents a p r oblem o f

co st t o th e s oap m anu f a ctu re r con s ide ri ng the p r i c e at
wh ich laundry soap s a re s o l d .

RO S IN S APO N I FIC AI IO N
' ‘

As has been state d , ro s in may be saponifi e d by the u s e

o f alkali ne ca rbon ates O n accou n t o f th e po s sibility o f
.

the soap frothing ove r , the kettle in whi ch the ope r ation
take s place shoul d be se t flu sh w ith th e fl oo r , whi ch
ought to be con structe d o f cement The kettle i t s el f i s .

an open on e w ith rou nd bottom , eq u ipped w ith an open

steam coil an d skimme r pipe , an d th e open po rti on i s
p rot ecte d by a s emi ci rc u la r rail A po we r ful gri d , hav
-
.

ing a 3 i nch m esh , cove rs o n e h al f o f t h e k et t le , t he

- -

s harp edges p rotru ding up w a rd s .

The stave s fro m th e ro si n casks are r emove d at th e

e dge o f the kettl e , the ro s in place d o n the g r i d an d
be aten through with a h amme r to break i t up into small
piece s.

To saponi fy a ton o f rosin the re a re requi re d 200 lbs .

so da a sh , lbs wate r an d 1 00 lbs salt

. Hal f the . .

wate r i s run into th e ke tt le bo iled , and th en th e so d a ash

,

and hal f the salt a dded Th e ro si n i s now a dde d through

.

the gri d an d th e m ixtu re th o ro u ghly boiled As carbon .

dioxi de i s evolve d by t h e reaction th e boiling i s con

tin u e d f o r on e hou r to remove any e xce s s o f thi s gas A .

po rt ion o f the sal t i s gradually adde d to grain the soap

w ell and to k ee p t h e m as s in such con dition a s to favo r
the evoluti on o f gas T he rem ai n de r of th e wate r i s
.

adde d to cl os e the soap and boi lin g continued fo r on e

o r two h ou r s longe r A t t hi s po int th e kettl e mu s t be
.

c a re fully watche d o r i t w ill boil ov er th rough th e fu rthe r

23
 S OAP MA KI N G
-
M A N UA L

escap e o f carbon d ioxide being h in de red Th e m ass , .

be ing in a frothy con d ition , wi ll rap i dly s ettle by con

t rolling th e fl o w o f s t eam Th e r em a in ing s alt i s then
.

s c a t te re d in an d the soap allowe d t o s et t l e fo r two h ou rs

o r l onger Th e lye s a re then d r ai ne d o ff the top
. .

I f t h e ros in so ap i s r equ i re d fo r t o ile t so ap s , i t i s

graine d a s econ d t im e Th e soap i s n ow b o iled w ith
.

the wate r cau se d by the con den sa t ion Of t h e s team , which

c hange s it to a half graine d soap su i t abl e fo r pumping .

A s oap t hu s m ade contai ns fre e so da a sh

. o r l es s ,
fre e ro s in abou t T h e m a ss i s t h en pumpe d to t he
kettle c ontainin g th e s oap to which i t i s to be adde d at
the p rope r stage The t ime con sum e d in th u s sapon i fying
.

ro sin i s about fiv e h ou r s .

NAP HTH E NI C A C I D S .

Th e n aphtha o r c r ud e pe t roleu m o f th e variou s p rov

in ces i n E u ro pe , a s R u s si a , Gal ac ia, Alsace an d R ou
m am a y i eld a s e ri es o f bo dies O f aci d characte r upon r e
fining which a r e d es ignate d u n de r th e gen eral n am e o f
naphth en ic acid s T hes e aci d s a re re t ain e d in solu tion
.

in t h e alkalin e lye s du rin g the di s t illation o f the naphth a

in the fo r m o f alkal ine n aphthenate s Upon a ddin g di .

lute s ulphu r i c an d t o the s e lye s th e nap hthen ates are

decompo se d an d the nap h then i c acid s fl oat to th e s u r
fa ce in an O ily laye r o f ch aracte r i sti c disagreeable o do r
’
an d va ryi ng from yellow t o brown in colo r I n R u s si a .

pa r ticularly la rge qu anti t ies o f th es e aci ds a re empl oye d

i n th e manu fac t u re o f soap .

Th e s oap s form ed from n aph t heni c aci ds h av e recen t ly

2
been inve stiga t e d an d foun d t o r e sembl e th e s oap s m ade
fro m coco anut o il an d pal m ke rn el o il , in t ha t t h ey a r e
1
Le s M atie r e s G rai s s es 7 , 6 9 , p 3 3 67
. .

2
Z e i t f An g e w C h e m 2 7, l , p 2 4
’

-
. . . . . .

24
 S OA P MA KI N G
-
M A N UA L

s tr umen t s in k s in t o t he soluti on , and we speak of the

s tr eng t h o f a s o lu t ion a s s o m any deg r ee s B au mé o r T wad

dle which a r e r ea d t o t h e p oin t w he r e t h e m eni s cu s o f t he

lye come s on t he gra dua t e d s cal e .H yd r om e t e r s a r e
g r a du a t e d di ff e r ently f o r li q ui d s o f di ff e r ent w eights In
.

°
th e t e st i ng o f lye s on e wh ich i s gr adu a t e d f r o m 0 to
50 B i s u s ually employe d
°
. .

Cau s t ic s oda i s receive d by t he con s ume r i n i r on

d r um s w eighing app r oxi mately 700 lb s each The v a r i . .

ou s g r a de s a r e des ign a t e d a s 60, 70, 74 , 76 and

Th e s e pe r centage s r efer t o the pe r cen t age o f s o dium

oxide ( N a O ) in 1 00 pa r t s o f pu r e cau s t i c so d a fo rmed
Q

by t h e combin a t i on o f 77% parts o f s od ium oxi de an d

22 % par t s o f wate r , being c hemically pu r e cau s tic
so da . The r e a re gen er ally impu r i t ies p r es en t i n com
mer cial c au st i c so da The s e consi s t of so dium c a r bonate ,
.

so dium chlo ri de o r common s alt an d s ometim e s lim e I t .

i s m anu fac t u r e d by tr ea t i ng so di um ca r bona t e i n an i r on

ve s sel wi t h calciu m hyd r ox i de o r slake d l ime , o r by elec
tr o lys is o f common sal t . Th e latte r p r oces s ha s ye t been
unable t o compete with the form e r in p r i ce Fo r m e r ly
.

all th e cau sti c s od a u s ed i n soap m ak ing was i mp o r ted ,

an d i t wa s only th rough th e Ame ri can man u f ac t u r er
u sing a s imila r containe r t o th a t u s e d by f o r eign manu
factu r e r s t ha t th ey we re able t o i nt r o du ce th ei r p r o du ct .

Thi s p r ej u di ce ha s n ow been enti rely ove rcom e an d mo st

o f t he cau sti c so da u se d in t his country i s m anu factur ed

he r e.

C AUSTI C PO TA SH .

Th e output o f th e salts contai ni ng po t as siu m i s con

trolle d almo st ent irely by Ge r many Fo r m e r ly t h e chie f
.

s ou rce o f s upply o f pota s si um compoun d s wa s fr om the

bu r n e d a sh e s O f plants , bu t abou t fif t y yea r s ag o t he in
e xhau st ibl e s al t mine s o f S t a ss f u rt , Ge r many, w e r e di s

26
 R AW MAT ER IALS

c ove red . Th e salt th ere mine d con t ai ns , be s i d e s the

chlo ri des and sulphate s o f so dium , magn e sium , cal ci um
an d o th e r salts , con si derab l e qu antiti e s o f po ta s s ium
chlo r i d e , an d the S tass fu rt m ine s at p re s en t ar e prac
’
ti cally t he enti r e s ou rce o f all pota s s i u m compound s , in
spite o f th e fact tha t other locali ti e s h av e b een s ought
to p r o duce t hes e c o mpoun d s on a comm e r ci al ba s i s , e s pe
c ial l y by th e U nite d S ta t es governmen t .

Afte r sepa rating the pota s si u m chlo ri de from the mag

nes iu m chlo r i de an d othe r substance s foun d in S ta s s fu r t

salts th e metho ds o f m anu factu re o f cau s ti c potash a r e

i denti cal t o those o f ca u stic s oda I n th i s case , howeve r ,
.

dome s t i c el ec tr olyti c cau s ti c po t ash may be pu rch a s e d

cheape r than th e impo rt ed product an d i t give s r e sul t s
equal to tho s e obtaine d by the u se o f the i mpo r te d a r ti cle ,
Opin ion s to the contrary among soap mak er s being m any .

Mo st o f the cau sti c pota sh in the Un i t ed State s i s m anu

f ac tu r e d a t N iaga ra Fall s by th e N i agara Alk ali C o ,
‘

an d th e H ooke r E lect rochem ical C o , ch lorin e being o b

.

tai n e d as a by p ro duc t
-
. Th e la tt e r conce rn employs th e
Town sen d Cell , fo r the manufactu r e o f elect r olyti c pot
ash , an d a r e sai d t o hav e a capacity fo r ma k ing 64 ton s
o f alkal i daily .

Since t h e molecula r weight o f cau stic potash ( 56 ) is

grea t e r t han that o f cau sti c sod a ( 40 ) m o re potash i s
requ i r e d t o s apon i fy a poun d o f fa t Th e r esul t ing pota s h
.

soap i s c or r espon dingly heavi e r than a s o da s oap When .

'

s al t i s ad de d to a potas sium s oap d ouble de compo sition

o c cu rs , th e po t a s s ium s oap being tran s f o rme d t o a s o

dium s oap an d t h e po t as sium un itin g with t h e ch lo rin e to

fo rm po t as s ium chlo r i de .Thi s wa s on e o f the ea r l i e st
m ethod s o f m a k ing a h a r d s oap , e s peci ally in Ge r many ,
wh er e pota sh w as de rive d from l eech ing a sh e s o f bu rn ed
woo d an d plants .

27
 S OAP MA KI N G
-
M A N UA L

S OD IU M C A RB O NAT E ( S OD A AS H )
.

Wh i le c a r bona t e o f s o da i s w i dely di str ibu t ed in na

t u r e th e s ource o f s upply i s enti r ely depen den t up on the
manu factu r e d p r o du ct I ts u ses a r e m any , bu t i t i s espe
.

cial l y impo r t an t to t he so ap i ndust r y i n th e s o calle d c a r

bonate s ap on ification o f f r e e fa tt y a ci ds , a s a con s ti t u en t

o f s o ap pow de rs , i n t he neut r aliza t i on o f glyce rin e lye s

an d a s a fille r fo r laun d ry soap s .

Th e Ol d F r en ch Le Bl an e s o d a p roce s s , whi c h c on si s t s
i n t reating common s al t w i t h sulphu ric a c i d an d re du ci ng
the s o dium sulpha t e ( s al t cak e ) t hu s f o rm ed wi th c a r
bo n i n th e form o f c h arcoal o r c o ke t o s odium sulphi de ,
wh ich wh en t rea t e d w i t h c al c iu m ca r bona t e yield s a m ix
tu re o f calcium sulphi d e an d s o diu m c a r bon a t e ( bla c k a sh )
fro m w h ich th e carbon a t e i s di s sol v e d by w a t e r , h a s been
repl ace d by th e mo r e r ecen t S olvay am moni a s oda p r oces s .

E ven t hough t he re i s a con si derable lo ss o f s al t an d the by

p r o duct calc iu m chlo r i de p r o duced by t h i s p r oce s s i s o nly
pa rt i ally u se d u p a s a d rying agen t , an d fo r r e fr iger a t ing
pu r po ses , th e Le Blan c p r oce s s canno t comp e t e wi t h t he
S olv ay p roce s s , s o tha t t h e tim e i s no t fa r di s t an t when
th e f o r me r will b e con si dere d a chemical cu r i osi t y . In
th e S olvay m eth od o f manu fac t u r e s o di u m chlo r ide ( c om
mon salt ) an d ammoni um bi ca r bo na t e a r e m ixe d i n s o
l u tio n
. D ouble decompo si tion o ccu r s w ith th e f o r ma t i on
o f ammonium chlo ri de an d sodium bi ca rbona t e T he lat .

te r s al t i s compa ratively d ifficu l tl y s oluble in wa t e r and

c r ys t all i ze s o u t, the amm onium chlo r i de r emaining in s o
'

l u tio n
. Wh en th e s odiu m bi ca r bon a t e i s h e ate d i t yields
s o diu m ca r bonate , c a rbon diox ide an d w a t e r ; t h e ca r
bon dioxi de i s pas s e d i nt o ammon ia wh i ch is s et free from
the amm on iu m chl o r i de obtaine d a s abo v e by treatm ent
w i t h l im e ( cal c ium oxi d e ) calciu m c hlo r i d e bein g the by
p r o du ct.

28
 R AW MA T ER IA L S

S al so da o r wa shing soda i s obtain e d by recrystall i zi ng

a s olution o f s o da ash i n w at e r La r ge c ry stal s o f s al
.

s o da containin g bu t 3 7% s o diu m carbonat e a re fo rmed .

P O TA S SIU M C A RB O NAT E
.

P ot as sium c a rbon ate i s not exten s ively u se d in the

manu fac t u r e o f s oap I t may be u s ed in th e fo rming o f
.

so ft soap s by uniting it with fre e f att y aci d s Th e m e th

.

od s o f manu fact u re are th e same a s ic r so dium ca r bonate ,

alt hough a mu ch la rge r quantity of pota s sium ca rbona t e
t h an carbonate o f s o da is obtained from bu rn e d plant
a sh e s Pu r ifie d p otas si u m ca rbonate i s known as pear l as h
. .

A DD ITI O NAL M AT ER IAL U S ED I N S O AP M A KI N G .

Water i s in di spen sable to the soap manu fa ctu re r I n the.

soap f acto ry har d wate r i s Often th e cau s e o f mu ch t roubl e .

Wate r , wh ich i s the be st s olvent known , in pa s sing th r ough

th e c r evi c e s o f rocks dis solves som e o f the c on s tituen ts
o f th ese , an d the wate r i s known as ha r d Th i s har d
.

Ii es s i s o f tw o kin d s , t e mpo r ar y and per man e nt Tem

'

p o r ar ily ha rd wate r i s fo rme d by wat e r , w h ich co n ta in s

carboni c aci d , di s s o lvi ng a po rti on o f cal cium ca r bo nate
o r carbonate o f l im e . Upon boiling , th e carboni c a c i d i s
driven fro m th e w ate r an d the carbon ate , b eing in soluble
in carbon dioxi de f r e e w a ter , i s depo s i t ed T h i s i s t h e
.

cau s e o f boile r s cale , an d t o check thi s a small am o u n t o f

sal amm on iac may be a dde d to th e wate r , w hi ch co n
ve rts th e carbonate into soluble cal ciu m chlo ri de an d
volatile amm onium carbon ate . Perm an ent h ardne s s i s
cau s ed by calcium s u lph ate which i s solubl e in 400 pa r t s
o f wa t e r and cann ot be remove d by boi ling .

The p res ence of these s alts in w ate r fo rm in sol u ble l ime

soaps whi ch act a s in e rt bo di e s a s fa r a s thei r value fo r
the c ommon u s e o f s oap i s concerned Wh ere the pe r
.

c en tage o f lim e i n wate r i s large thi s sh oul d be removed .

29
 S OAP MAKI N G
-
M A N UA L
°
A m e t ho d gene r al l y us e d i s to ad d abou t 5% o f 20 B .

so di um s ili c a t e t o the h a r d wa t er Thi s p re c ipi t ates t he

.

li me an d th e w ate r i s th en su fficiently pu re to u s e .

S al t, kn o wn a s s odi um chlori de , i s u se d t o a large ex

“ ”
t en t in so ap m aking fo r s al t ing ou t t he so ap du ri ng
s ap o n ifi c at io n , a s well a s graining soap s
. So ap o rdin arily
s oluble i n w ate r i s in soluble i n a salt soluti on u se of
whi c h i s ma de by ad din g s alt to the s oap wh i ch goe s
i n t o s olu t ion an d th row s any soap di s sol v ed in the lyes
o u t o f s olu t ion. S alt may con t ai n m agn e s ium and cal
c iu m chlo ri de s , wh ich o f cou r s e a r e un de si rable i n la r ge

am ount s . Th e p r odu c t s o n t he ma r k e t , h oweve r , a re

s at i s f ac t o r y , t hu s n o detail i s n ece s s a r y
.

F il l ing mater ials u s ed a re so dium s ili cate , o r w ater

gl a s s , t al c , s il ex , pum ice , st arch , bo rax , t ripol i , e t c
.

B e s i des the s e othe r mate ri al s a r e u s e d i n t h e r efin ing

o f th e o ils an d fats , an d glycerin e r e cove ry, s u ch as
’
Fulle r s ea r th , bi ch romate s o f s o da o r po t ash , sulphate o f
alumin a , s ulphu ri c an d hyd rochl or i c aci d s an d alcoh ol .

A lengthy de s cription o f the s e substan ce s i s no t given ,

a s t h ei r m o de s o f u s e ar e d etail ed els ewh e r e .
 C H AP T E R 1 1
C o n s tr u c t i o n an d E q u i p me n t of a S o ap P l ant
.

N o fixe d p lan fo r the con struction an d e quipment

of a s oap plant can be given The specifi cation s fo r a
.

soap factory to be e recte d o r remo dele d mu st suit the

pa r ti cula r cas es V ery o ften a bu ildi ng whic h wa s co n
.

st ru c t e d fo r a pu rpo se othe r than s o ap m anu fa ct u r e mu s t

be adap t e d fo r the p rodu ction o f soap I n ei th e r ca s e
.

i t i s a ques tion o f engine er ing an d archi t ectu r e , t ogethe r

with th e kn owl edge obtain ed i n p racti ce an d the final de
cis ion a s to th e a rrangem en t i s best s olve d by a c onfe r

ence w ith th o se ski lled in eac h o f th e s e b r an c he s .

An i deal s oap plan t i s one in wh ich t h e p r oce s s o f s oap

making, from th e m el t ing o u t o f th e stock to th e packing
an d sh ipp ing O f t h e finis h e d p roduct , m ove s downward
from fl oo r t o flo Or , sin ce by t hi s method it i s po ssible to
u ti liz e gr av itati on rather than pumping liqu i d f ats and
flu i d soap s Conven ience an d ec o no my a r e obt ain ed by
.

su ch an a rrangem ent .

Th e vario u s m achi ne ry an d oth e r equipment fo r s oap

manu factu r e ar e w ell k nown to tho s e conn ecte d w ith t h i s
ind u st ry I t va ri e s , o f cou r se , depen din g upon the k in d
.

of so ap to b e m anu factu re d , an d f u ll des c r ip t ion s o f t h e

neces sa ry m achin e ry ar e be s t given i n the ca talog s i ss u e d
by the manu factu re rs o f su c h equ ipment , wh o in thi s
country a r e mo s t r eliabl e .

T o know j ust what equipment is nece ss a ry c an v e ry

easily be de scribed by a brie f outlin e o f th e p r o c e ss v ari
o u s soap s un d erg o t o p ro duce th e fini s he d art i cl e . A ft er
the s aponificati on ha s t aken place in th e s oap kettl e the
mol t en $6 5; i s r u n di rec t ly in t o t he s oap fr ames ,
31
 S OAP MA KI N G
-
M A N UA L

w hi ch con s i st o f a n oblong compa r tm en t , holding any

whe r e fr om 400 to pounds , wi t h r emovable s te el
s i de s an d m ounte d upon truck s , in whi ch i t s o l id ifie s I n .

mos t c ases i t i s a d v isabl e to fir s t run the soap in t o a

cr u t cher o r m ixe r which p r o duce s a mo r e hom o geneou s

mas s th an i f t h i s o p e r ation i s o mi tt ed . Colo r an d pe r

fume may als o b e a dde d at th i s poi n t , al t hough w he n a
be tt e r g r a de o f pe r f um e i s a dde d it mu s t b e r emem be re d
tha t t he r e i s con s ide r abl e lo s s du e to volatiliza t ion o f
s am e Wh en a d rying machine i s employe d t he m ol t en
.

soap i s run d i re ct ly upon t h e r olle r s o f th i s m ach in e ,

la t e r adding abou t z inc Oxi de to the soap f rom
whi ch i t pa s se s c on t inu ou sly t h rough the d r ying chambe r
an d i s em i tt e d in c hip form r eady fo r m illin g . A ft e r
t he s oap ha s been fr amed , i t i s allowe d to c o ol a nd
s oli di fy, which t ake s s eve ral days , an d t hen t h e s i de s o f
t h e f rame a r e st ri pp e d o ff T h e large s oli d cak e i s cu t w i th
.

w i r e s by han d o r by a s l abber in t o slab s o f any desi r e d

s iz e
. The s e s lab s a r e fu rt he r divi de d in t o smalle r di
vi sion s by the cu tting tabl e I n n on m illed soap s ( laun
_
.
-

d r y s oap s , fl oa t in g s oap s , t h es e a re p re s se d at t hi s
s tage, u s ually by au t omatic p r e s s es , a ft e r a th in ha r d
film has been fo rm e d o v e r t h e c ak e by allowing i t to d r y ,

s ligh t ly I n maki ng t h es e so ap s t h ey ar e n o t t ouche d by

.

han d a t any t im e du r ing t h e op e r ati o n , th e p re ss ing ,

w r app ing an d p ac k ing all being do ne by machi nery Fo r .

a m ille d s oap t h e la r ge slab s are cu t in t o na rr ow oblong

s h ape s by m ean s o f th e cutting t able t o r ea dily pas s in t o
t h e f eede r o f th e c hipper, t h e chip s being s p rea d upon
t r ays an d d r i ed in a d r y hou s e un t il t h e m oi st u re conten t

i s app r oxima t ely

The p r o c e s s o f m illi ng i s ac c ompl ishe d by pa ss ing t he
d r i e d s oap chip s t h r ough a s oap mill , whi ch i s a m a c hin e
consis t ing o f usually three or fo u r contiguous , s mo oth ,
32
 S O AP MA KI N G
-
M A N UA L

s o ap r ibbon s f e d into the h oppe r by m eans o f a w o r m s c r ew

an d c onti nuou sly f o r ce i t un de r grea t p re s s u re t h rough a
j acketed cylinde r th r ough which c ol d wate r ci r cula t e s i n
the r ea r t o compen s a t e t h e h ea t p r o duced by f r i c t ion an d
h o t wate r at t h e f ront , to s of t en and p o l i sh t h e soap w hich
pas s es o ut in s oli d fo r m in ba rs o f any shape an d s ize
dep endin g upon the fo r m o f the s haping pl ate th rough
which i t i s emitte d Th e ba r s r un u pon a r o ll er boar d,
.

a r e cu t i n t o the requ i re d length by a speci al cake c u tting

t abl e, allowe d to d ry sl igh t ly an d p re s s ed ei th e r au t o
matic ally o r by a foot powe r pr es s in any su i t abl e soap di e .

T he fin i sh ed cak e i s t hen r eady fo r w rapp ing an d af t e r due

tim e in stock reache s t h e c on sume r .

B es ides th e variou s app ara t u s m en t ion e d above t here are

many o t he r pa rt s fo r t h e full equipmen t o f a mo de r n s oap
plant , su ch a s r emel ter s, pump s , mixe rs , s pe c i al tan k s ,
powe r e quipm ent , etc As ha s been sta t ed , howeve r , p r ac
.

tical expe r ien ce will ai d i n j u dgin g the p r acti cabili t y a s to

i n stalla t i on o f t he se The va r i ou s m etho d s o f pow de ring
.

soap are , ho weve r , n o t gene r ally known W he r e a coa rs e

.

pow de r i s to be p ro duced , s uch a s i s u s e d fo r c ommon

wash ing p ow de rs , no great di fficulty i s expe r ien c e d wi t h
t he well known B lancha rd mill I n grinding s oap to an
.

impalpable pow de r th e diffi cul t i e s i n cr ea s e T he m e t ho d s

.

adapted i n pulve r iz ing so ap s a re by m eans o f d isin te

g r ato r s, pebble m ill s an d cha ser mills . T h e di s integra t o r
gri nd s by t h e p rin ci ple of attrition , t h at i s , th e m ate ri al i s
re duce d by t h e particle s being cau se d to bea t again s t e ach
oth e r a t g r ea t velocity ; a pebble mill cru s he s t he sub
s t an ce by r ubbin g it betw een hard p ebble s in a s lowly r e
volving cylinde r ; th e chas e r mill fi r s t grin d s t h e ma t e r ial
an d then fl o a ts it a s a very fin e pow d e r abov e a cu r b of
fixe d he igh t The l a s t m etho d i s pa rt i c ula r ly a dap t ed fo r
.

t h e fin e s t o f pow de r ( 1 4 0 me sh an d ove r ) .

34
 C H AP T E R III

C l a s s i fic atio n o f Soap M akin g M eth o d s

- .

In th e sapo nific atio n o f fat s an d oil s to fo r m s oap

t h rough the agency o f cau stic alkali s , as ha s bee n state d ,
the sodium o r pota ssi u m salts o f th e m ixe d fatty aci ds are
fo rmed So dium soaps ar e u sually te rmed har d s o ap s , and
.

pota s s ium s oap s so ft T he re ar e , h oweve r , a great many

.

va r i etie s o f s oaps the app earance an d prope rti e s of which

depen d u po n thei r metho d o f manu fact u re an d th e Oil s o r
fat s u s ed the rein .

The v ariou s method s adopte d i n soap making may be

t hu s cla s s ifie d :
.1 B o il in g th e fats an d oil s in Open kettle s by open
stea m w ith i ndefinite q u antitie s of cau sti c alkal i solu tion s
un t i l the fini s h ed soap i s obtaine d ; o r dina rily n ame d ful l
b o il e d s o aps . Th e s e may be sub divid ed in t o ( a ) h a r d
-

soap s w ith so d ium hyd rate as a ba se , in wh ich th e glyce rine

i s recove r e d fro m the spen t lye s ; ( b ) ha r d soaps w i t h
so da a s a b as e , i n wh ich the glyce r in e rem ain s in the
soap , e g , m a ri ne c ocoanu t o il soap s ; ( c ) sof t po t as h
. .

so aps , in wh ich th e glyce rin e i s r etaine d by th e soap .

2
. Co mbining th e requ i re d amount of l y e fo r co mpl ete
sap o n ifi c at io n o f a fat the rew ith , h eating sl ightly with d ry
heat an d then allow ing th e s apo n ificatio n to complete it s elf .

Thi s i s kn own a s the c ol d pr o cess .

3
. Utilizing th e fatty aci d , in stea d o f th e neutral fat ,
an d co mbining it di rectly w ith ca u sti c alkali o r ca rbona t e ,
wh ich i s i nco r rectly te rmed car b o nate s aponificatio n, s ince
it i s me rely n eutralizi n g th e free fatty aci d an d thu s i s
not a sapon ific atio n i n the t r u e sen se o f th e wo r d No .

glyce rine i s di rectly obtained by th is m etho d , as i t is

35
 S O A P M A KI N G
-
M AN U A L

us u al ly previ o u sly re moved in t he clearage of the f a t by

eit her the Twitche ll o r autoclave sapo nificatiO n me thod -
.

In t h e me t ho ds t hu s ou t l ine d t h e o ne mo s t gene r all y

e mploye d i s t h e full boile d p roce s s t o fo rm a s o diu m soap .

Thi s me t ho d o f making s oap r equi r e s clo s e a tt en t i on an d

a know ledge w hich can only b e Ob t ained by con stan t p r ac
t ice Th e stock , s t rength o f lye s , hea t , amoun t o f sal t o r
.

brin e a d de d, t i m e o f s e tt l ing, e t c , a r e all in fluencing

.

f ac t o rs .

T h e p r in c ipl e s in v ol v ed in t hi s p r o c e ss are b ri e fl y t hes e

Th e f a t i s p a rt ly saponifie d w i t h w ea k lye s ( u s ually
'

tho s e ob t aine d fr o m a p r e v i ou s b o il ing in t h e s tr ength en ing

change a r e u s e d ) , an d s alt i s ad ded t o grain t h e s o ap Th e .

m as s i s t hen al lowed to s e tt le in t o t w o layer s T he uppe r

.

laye r i s pa rtly sapo nified f a t ; t h e low e r laye r, o r s pen t lye ,

i s a solution o f s al t , glyce r ine , an d contain s any albu mino u s
ma tt e r o r a ny o t he r i mpu ri t y con t aine d in t h e fat . Th i s
i s k n own a s t h e killing o r gly c erin e c h ange S trong lye s
.

a r e now ad de d an d t he fat en t i rely sapo n ified, w hi ch I s

te r me d t h e s tr eng thening c hang e T h e ma ss i s t h en al
.

“
lowe d to s e t tl e an d t he flu i d s oap r u n O ff ab ove t h e nigre .

Thi s Op e ra t ion i s calle d t h e fini sh o r finis hing C h ange .

Th e m eth o d may be mo re fully i ll u s t rate d by a concre t e

exampl e o f t h e me t ho d o f manu factu r e o f a t allow bas e
Cha r ge
T allow 88 pe r c en t .

Coco anu t O il 1 0 p e r cent .

R o s in w w
. . 2 pe r cent .

Amoun t l O to n s

Abou t fiv e ton s O f tallow and on e ton o f cocoan u t o il

are pu mped o r r u n into t h e soap k e tt le an d b rough t t o a
bo il wi th w et s t eam until it b riskly come s th rough t h e hot
fa t Th e cau s t ic sod a ( stren gth en i n g lyes from fo rm e r
.

36
 S O A P MA K I N G
-
M ET H O D S

boilings may be used here ) i s gra dual ly added by th e di s

tributing pipe , any tendency to th icken being check ed by
“
th e in tr o duc t ion o f s mall quantitie s o f brin e ( salt
I f the lye i s a dded to o r api dly t he soap a s s u me s a granul a r
app ea rance , in d ica t ing tha t t h e a ddition o f same m u s t be
di s cont in u ed Wate r s houl d then be ad ded and the m as s
.

bo iled t h r ough unti l i t again cl ose s Wh en the ad diti on.

o f th e prop e r amoun t o f cau stic s o da i s nea ri ng its c o m

pl etio n th e s oap gradually thin s T he s team i s now c u t
.

dow n to abou t o n e t u rn o f th e valve , an d b rin e i s r ap i dly

ad ded o r s alt shov ele d in I n ten to fifteen minutes the
.

ste am aga in break s t h rough and , fro m th e appea rance o f

the soap , i t can b e s een wheth e r suffi ci ent b rine h as been
added A s ample taken o ut by mean s o f a long w oo den
.

paddle shoul d S how th e soap in fin e grai n s w ith the lye s

runn ing from it cle a r Th e s tea m i s then shu t o ff an d t he
.

soap allow e d to s et t l e fro m o ne an d o n e hal f to two hou r s -

.

In all settling s th e longe r tim e thi s ope rati on i s pe rmi tt ed

to con t inue , th e bette r w ill th e sub se q u en t ope ration s
.

p r oceed .

The mixtu r e now co ns i st s o f a pa rtly sapo nifie d laye r

o f f a t abo v e th e spen t lye s T he lyes a r e d r awn o ff until
.

s oap makes its app ea r an ce at th e exit pip e Th e valve i s .

t h en clo s e d an d the soap blown back i nto the ket t le by

s t eam Th e lye s thu s ob t ain ed a re known a s s pen t lyes ,
.

fro m wh ich the glyce r in e i s r ecov ere d T hey shoul d s how .

an al kali nity o f approxima t ely pe r cen t i f th e o p e r a t ion

.

i s ca r e fully ca r rie d ou t .

T he r emain ing tallow i s now a dde d an d th e ab o v e ope r

at io ns r epeate d .

A ft e r the s pen t lye s have been d raw n o ff , the soap i s

clo s e d w i th w a t e r an d th e p rope r p er c e ntage o f ro s in s oap
previou sly fo r me d , o r r o s in its elf i s a dde d to th e mas s in
t he kett l e Mo r e l ye i s t he n allow e d to flow in u nt il the
.

37
 S OAP MA KI N G
-
M A N UA L

mixtu r e i s up to str ength . T hi s i s u sually t e ste d by th e

”
“
b ite o n th e tongue o f a s mall coole d samp le Afte r boil .

ing until t he s tea m com e s t hro u gh , the ma s s i s grained w i t h

s al t a s b e f o re an d allow e d to settle one an d one half to -

th r e e hou r s . The s e lye s , known a s s tr eng thening lyes

a re r un to sto r age t o b e u s e d sub sequ ently w it h fre sh fat
to take up t he cau stic so da containe d th e rein .

The s oap i s now r eady fo r fini s h ing an d is fi rs t bo ile d

th r ough an d t ried fo r st r ength A d rop o f phenolph t halein
.

( l p e r cent phenolphthalei n in 98 pe r cen t al c ohol ) i s al

. .

lowe d to d rop o n th e mol t en s oap t aken up on a t rowel .

The red colo r sho u l d be i n stan t ly p ro duce d an d develop to

a full deep c ri m son i n a few s econ ds , o r mo re lye mu s t be
a dde d unti l thi s con ditio n i s realized S houl d i t flash a
.

deep c ri mson i mme diately i t i s on th e st rong s i de This .

canno t be co nven iently reme di e d ; i t can only se rve as a

gui d e fo r th e next boil , but in any ca se i t i s no t o f any
s e riou s con s equence , u nle s s i t i s too s t rong .

With th e steam o n , the so ap i s now ex amine d w ith a

t row el wh ich mu s t b e th o roughly heate d by w o r king it
about un de r the su r face o f the h ot so ap The appea rance
.

o f th e soap a s i t r un s fro m the face o f t h e t row el indi ca t e s

i t s cond ition I t i s not po ssibl e to absolutely de s crib e t h e
.

e ff e ct , which can only be prope r ly j u dge d by p rac t i ce , yet

th e follow ing points may s e rve a s a gu id e Th e in dicati on s
.

to b e no t ice d are t h e shape and s i ze o f t h e fl ake s o f s oap

a s t h e sample o n the t row el b reak s up an d r un s fro m t he
h o t i ro n s u r face , when th e l atte r i s t u r ne d in a v e rtical
po s i t ion , a s w ell a s th e con dition o f th e i ron su r f ace f r o m
wh ich t h e s o ap flake s have fallen A clo s ed soap w il l run
.

slowly in t o a h omogen eou s sh ee t , leaving t h e t row el s su r

’

f ac e c ove r ed w i t h a th in l aye r o f t r an s pa r ent soap ; a

gra in e d mas s w ill run rapi dly down in tiny g r ain s , about
o ne h al f an inch in diame t er o r l e ss , l ea v ing t h e ho t tr ow el
-

38
 S OAP MAKI N G
-
M ET H O D S

abso l utely dry The Obj ect o f the fini s h i s to s ep ar at e the

.

soap s o f the low e r fatty aci d s from t ho s e o f t h e h igh e r , and

bo t h fro m exces s o f liqu i d . A po in t mi dway betwe en
“ “
open an d clo s ed i s req u i re d to a rr iv e a t th i s point .

Having a rrive d at the abov e con dition , the s oap i s al

lowe d to settle anywhe re fro m on e to th re e days an d then
r u n o ff th ro u gh th e ski mme r p ipe s t o th e n ig r e an d f ramed

o r p u mped to th e tank f ee d ing t h e drying machin e .

The stock thu s obtaine d sho u l d be fai rly wh i t e , depen d

ing upon th e grade of tallow u se d an d slightly alkaline to
an alcoholi c phenolphthalein sol u tion I f remov ed at ex
.

ac tl y th e neutral po int o r w ith a content o f free fat the

soap w ill soone r o r late r devel op ranci dity T he soap thu s
.

Obtaine d i s an o rdinary tallow bas e , an d th e on e by far

greatest u se d in th e man u factu re of toilet s oap s Th e pe r.

centage o f cocoan u t o il in dicate d i s n ot fixe d an d may

read ily be va rie d , w hile in fine toilet so ap the ro sin is
u sually elimina t ed .

In th e manu f actu re o f full bo ile d so da soap s in w hich no

glyce r ine i s obtain ed a s a by p r odu ct , i t being re t aine d in
-

“ ”
the soap i t sel f , th e so ap fo rm ed i s k nown a s a run soap .

The proces s i s u sed mo s t exten si vely i n th e m anu f actu re

o f ma rin e so aps by wh ich th e metho d m ay be be st illu s
tr ated. Th i s soap i s kn own as m a r in e s oap becau s e o f its
prope rty o f rea dily fo rming a lathe r w ith sal t w a t e r and
i s mo stly con sumed aboard ve ssels .

Marine soap s a re man u fac t u re d by fi rst placing in the

kettl e a calcula t ed amount o f lye o f 2 5 deg t o 3 5 d eg B ,
. . .

depen ding upon t h e amount o f mo i s t u r e des i re d in t h e fin

ished soaps , plu s a s light exce s s r equire d to sapon i fy a
known w eight o f coco anu t oil Wi t h Open s t eam on , th e
.

coco anu t o il i s t hen g r adually added , ca re be in g taken that

th e s oap do es no t f r o t h ove r Sapo nificatio n ta k e s pl ace
.

re adily and wh en th e oil i s entirely sapo nified the fin i s h ed

39
 S O A P —M A K I N G M A N UA L

s o ap i s pu t t h r ough th e p r o c e s s kn o wn as r unni ng Thi s .

cons i sts in c on s t an t ly pumping t h e mas s fr o m t h e ski mme r

pip e b ack in t o t h e top o f t h e k e tt le , t h e ob j ec t b eing to
p r even t any s e tt l ing o f t h e n ig r e o r lye f r o m the s oap , as
well a s p r o ducing a h o moge n eou s m as s I t i s c u s t o ma r y
.

to begin t he s apo n ifi c atio n in th e mo r n in g , wh ich s hould b e

comple t e d by n oon Th e s oap i s t hen r un fo r abou t t h r ee
.

hou rs an d f rame d th e n ex t mo r n ing Afte r h av ing r e

.

main e d in t h e fr am e t h e ti me requ i r e d to s ol i di fy an d cool ,

the s oap i s slabbe d an d c u t in t o ca k e s T h i s p ro c e s s i s
.

diffi cul t t o ca r r y o u t p r ope r ly, an d one no t g r e a t ly em

ployed , al t hough la r ge qu an t i t ie s o f m arin e so ap are pu r
cha s e d by th e go v ernmen t f o r u se in t h e n avy an d mu st
fulfill ce rt ain s pecification s r equ i r e d by th e pu r ch a sing
dep a rt men t .

In maki ng po t a s h soap s it i s p r actically i mpo s sibl e t o O h

t ain any glyce r in e d i r ec t ly becau s e o f t h e pa s t y cons i st enc y
o f t h e s oap , an d no grain ing i s po s s ible becau se t h e a ddi
t ion o f s al t t o a so ft soap , a s al rea dy explaine d , woul d f o rm
a s o da s oap La r ge qu an t itie s o f s oft s oaps ar e requ i r e d fo r
.

the t ex t il e in du s t ri e s wh o de si re mo stly a s t rong po t a s h

s o ap , an d t h e l a r ge nu mb e r o f au t o mobil e s in u s e a t t h e
p r e s en t t ime h as op e n ed a fiel d fo r t h e u s e o f a s o f t s oap
fo r w ash ing th es e . A s oap fo r t h i s pu r po se mus t be n eu
tr al so a s no t to affec t t h e varn i sh o r paint o f autom ob ile s .

A s u i t abl e s oap fo r t e xtil e pu rpose s may be mad e as

follow s
R e d O il 80 part s
H ou s e g r eas e 20 pa r t s
Cau st i c so da lye , 36 degs B . . 3 pa r ts
C ar bona t e o f po t ash p a rt s
C au st i c p ot a s h 23 % p a rts

o il, c o rn o il, s oya bean o il , Oli v e Oi l foo t s

‘

40
 S OA P MA KI N G
-
M A N UA L

Procee d a s in th e di rec t ion s j u s t gi v en fo r t e x t ile s oap

in placi ng ch arge in t h e ke tt le When t h e k e tt l e i s bo iling
.

up w ell , shu t o ff the st ea m an d t h e sapo nificatio n w ill c o m

pl ete i ts el f Th e s oap m ay b e r un in t o the b arr el s t he
.

n ex t day .

A h eavy s o ap w i t h a s malle r p e r cen t age o f f a t may be

m ad e as follow s
Co r n O il p a r ts
Pota sh lye , 24 V
2 degs B . 900 par t s

B o il un t i l th e soap bunch es , an d shovel t h e fin i sh e d s o ap

into ba r rel s Upon s t an ding it w ill clear up B y t he addi
. .

t io n o f m o re wate r t he yiel d o f so ap p e r p oun d o f o il may

be run up t o 300 pe r cent .

A fte r so ft so ap s h ave been allowe d to stan d fo r some

tim e t h e p h en om en on known a s fig g ing “ ”
o f t en occu rs .

Th is t e r m i s appl ie d to a c rystallin e l ike fo rmat ion , cau s

-

ing s po t s o f a sta r l ike sh ap e th r ough ou t t he s oap

-
.

Th i s i s u ndoubte dly du e t o t he stearin e conten t O f t he s o ap

c rys t alliz ing o u t a s i t co ol s , an d fo rming th es e p eculia rly
sh ape d sp o t s I t m ore gen er ally occ u rs i n th e w inte r an d
.

may b e produce d a r tificially by addin g a sm all quan t i ty o f

so d a t o the pota sh lye be fo r e s apo n ific ation .

Th e o il s u su ally employe d in th e m anu f ac t ur e o f po t ash

soap s a re co t tons ee d o il , co r n O il , soya be an o il , ol i v e oi l
foot s , re d o il , coco anu t O il , g r eas e an d th e va ri ou s t ra in
o ils Th e u su al pe rcentage yield i s f ro m 22 5 pe r cen t to
. .

300 pe r cen t, b ased u pon t h e w eigh t o f O il u se d In c al.

c u l ating th e w e igh t o f a s o f t s o ap i t is to be reme mbe r ed

th a t s ince pota ss iu m h a s a h igh e r mol ecul ar w eigh t ( 56 )
t han s o diu m t h e co r respon ding so ap fo rm ed i s t hat
much g re a t e r in we igh t wh en c o mpared with a s o dium
s oap R o si n m ay be adde d to soft so ap s a s a ch eap en ing
.
'

ag en t .

42
 S OAP MAKI N G
-
M ET H O D S

O L D P ROC E SS
C .

Th e col d p r oce s s fo r manu f actu r in g soap i s t h e si mple st

me th o d o f soap makin g, an d th e equ ipment requi r e d i s small
when comp ared to th e oth e r metho ds All t h e mo r e expen s ive
.

equipmen t tha t i s n ece ssa ry is a c r utch e r , a t ank to hol d th e

lye , fr ames , a slabbe r o r cutting t abl e , an d a p re s s Yet , .

in spite of t h e si mplicity o f thu s m aking s oap , th e dis ad

vantages a re nume rou s fo r th e pro d u ction o f a good pi ece
o f soap The grea t e s t d i ffi cul ty i s to obtain a t h o rough
.

combination o f o il o r fat an d lye s o th a t th e r e w ill n o t b e

an e xce s s o f o n e o r th e ot h e r in th e fin ish e d so ap At its
.

bes t t h e re i s eith e r a con si d erabl e exce ss o f fre e fat wh ich

-

late r exh ibit s itsel f in pro ducin g ran cidity o r uncombine d

cau sti c , wh ich produce s an u n pl ea san t e ff ect o n th e skin
wh en t he soap i s con su me d fo r w ash ing Th e l att e r oh
.

j ec tion, o f cou rs e , c an only b e appl i e d to toile t soap s .

Cocoanu t o il i s u sed ve ry la rgely in t h e manu f a ct u r e o f

col d made so ap s as it i s w ell adap t e d fo r t h i s pu r po se , al
-

t h ough it i s b y n O mean s tru e th at oth e r oil s may n o t b e

employed S ince b y th i s p roce ss o f m anu factu re no im
.

purity contain ed in t h e fa t o r oil is r e move d in the m aking

o f th e s oap , it i s n ece ssa r y t h a t in o rd e r to O b t ain a fine
fin ish e d pro duc t , any impu rity con t ain ed i n t h e s e may be
r emoved i f p resen t , o r th at t h e fats b e as pu r e a s can be
ob t ain ed I f ine dibl e tallo w i s u s ed fo r c ol d made so ap ,
.
-

’
i t i s a d v isabl e to bl each it by th e Fulle r s E a rt h P r oce s s .

T he ca rr yin g o u t o f thi s m etho d i s be s t i llu str a t ed by

an exampl e o f a col d mad e cocoa nu t o il soap
-
.

Cha r ge
Cochi n cocoanut o il
Lye ( s oda ) , 3 5 degs .
 S OAP MAKI N G
-
MAN UA L

Th e oil i s r un in t o t h e cr u t ch e r an d t h e t empe ra t u re o f
t he oi l r a ise d t o 1 00 degs F b y d ry steam Th e lye an d
. . .

w a t e r a r e a t roo m t emp e r a t u r e A fte r all th e o il is in th e

.

c ru t ch e r , th e lye an d wa t e r a r e sl owly ad de d t o p r event

.

any graini n g o f th e soap Tow ar d t he en d th e lye may be

.

adde d mo re r api dly Wh en all t h e lye i s in , the mas s i s

.

c r utch e d fo r abo ut th re e hou r s , o r until up on stopping

t h e c rutch e r a finge r d raw n ove r t h e su r face o f th e so ap
leave s an i mpre s s ion
'
I f t hi s con d i t ion i s n ot re ali zed
. .

t he so ap mu st b e m ixe d until such i s th e cas e Having a r .

r ive d at th i s p o in t , th e mi xtu re i s d r opped into a f r a me

wh ich sh oul d remain uncove red Th e h eat p roduce d by th e .

fu rt h e r spontan eo u s s ap o n ific ation w ill caus e t h e s o ap to

r i s e in t h e mi ddl e o f th e f rame A fte r having se t fo r s ome
.

d ays i t i s re ady t o b e sl abb ed an d cut in t o cake s .

A po t a s h soap may b e made by th e c ol d p r oce s s j ust as

rea dily as a so d a so ap S oap s o f t hi s t yp e m ay be mad e
.

by e ith e r o f the se fo rmul ae in a c rutch e r :

O l ive oil foo t s 600
Po t ash lye , 1 8 d eg s B h ot , 20 degs B col d
. . . . . . 660
'
01

Co rn o il
R o s in
Po t a s h lye , 2 7 degs B
~

Wa t e r
H e a t th e o il s to 1 90 deg s F , ad d th e lye an d crutch
. .

until t h e s oap begin s to b u n ch , wh en i t i s rea dy to b e r un

in t o bar rel s w h ere th e sap o nificatio n w ill be comple t ed .

Sem i bo iled s oap s d i ff e r fro m t ho s e m ad e by th e cold

-

proces s in t emp eratu re I n m aking s em i bo ile d soap s t he

.
-

fa t s a r e u s u ally h e ate d to 1 4 0 F Th e add i t ion o f t h e

°
.

44
 SO AP MAKI N G -
M E T H O DS

lye r a is e s the t emp eratu re to 1 80

°
—2 00 F when
°
. fi
s apo n i

cation t akes place .

C A RBO NAT E SAPO N I FI C AT I O N .

Th e m etho d o f the fo rmation o f s oap by t h e utili z ation

.

o f th e fatty acid di r ectly , fro m which th e glycer ine has al

ready been remove d by so me metho d of s ap o n ific atio n
othe r th an w ith c au stic so da , an d n eutraliz ing th is wi th
alkali , i s beco ming incr eas ingly pop u la r The glyce rine is
.

mo re easily recovered fro m a p revio u s cleavage o f th e

fats o r o il s , but a soap made fro m th e m ixe d fatty aci ds
t h u s obtaine d i s seldom wh ite in colo r an d r etain s an un
pleas an t o do r . S inc e so da ash o r s o di u m ca rbonate i s
ch eap e r th an causti c so da an d re adily un ite s wi th a fatty
acid , i t i s u sed a s th e alkal i in th e carbon at e sapo n ific atio n .

T he p roces s i s s imilar to that al re ady given u n der R o sin

Sapo nifi c at io n
. About 1 9 p e r cent by w eight o f th e fatty
.

aci ds employe d o f 58 pe r cent so da ash i s di ssolve d in

.

wate r until it has a den s ity o f 30 degs B , an d th e s o lu

. .

ti on i s r u n i nto t h e kettle , wh ich i s u sually equi ppe d wi th a

re movable agi tato r T h e fatty aci d s , p rev io u sly melted , ar e
.

then s lowly adde d wh il e th e m ixtu re i s bo il ed w ith open

steam an d agi tate d w ith th e stir r ing d evic e Th e fa tty .

aci ds in stantly un ite w ith th e carbonate an d r i s e in th e

kettle , du e to th e gen eration o f ca rbon dio xid e , an d ca r e
m u st b e exerc i sed to p revent boiling ove r A fte r all t h e .

fatty aci d ha s been ad de d , an d the m a s s i s boil ed through

th e s apo n ific atio n must b e co mpleted w ith ca u stic soda , as
the re i s as yet no practical met h o d known wh ich will
split a fat entirely into fatty aci d an d glyceri n e Thu s .

abou t 1 0 p e r cen t o f th e fatty aci d s a re t ru e n e u tral fat s

.

an d req u i re cau st ic so da fo r th ei r sap o n ifi c atio n Thi s is .

th en adde d an d th e s oap compl ete d , a s i n full bo ile d so ap s -

.

In ca rrying o u t thi s m et h o d u pon a large scal e , large

45
 S OAP MAKI N G
-
M A N UA L

quantitie s o f c a r bo n dioxide a r e fo rmed du ring the b oil in g .

of t he s o ap , wh ich r eplace s a quan t ity o f t he a ir con t ai ned

t h e r e in Th e k e tt l e r oom shoul d t herefo re b e well v en ti
.

l a t ed , allow ing fo r a l arge i n fl ow o f f r e sh a i r fro m

o f doo r s

46
 C H AP T E R IV

C l as sific atio n of S o ap s .

I n con s ide ring th e m any diff e rent va r i etie s o f so ap s ,

thei r clas sification i s pu rely an arbit r ary o ne N o defin ite
.

pl an can be o u tlin ed fo r any p a rt icula r br an d to b e manu

fac tu r e d no r can any ve ry sharp d istinc t ion b e d raw n b e
tween th e many s o ap s o f di ff e ren t p rope rti e s whi ch are
de signate d by v ari ou s names . I t i s really a qu e stion to
what u se a s oap i s to be pu t , an d at wh at pr ice i t m ay
be sol d Ther e i s , o f co u rs e , a d iff e rence in th e appea r
.

ance , form and colo r , and then th e re a re soap s o f sp ecial

kinds , such a s floating so ap s , tran sp arent soaps , liqui d
s oap s , etc , ye t i n t h e ulti ma te s ense th ey are clo s ely alli ed ,
.

becau s e they a re all th e s ame chemical compound ,

va rying only i n t he i r being a potash o r s o da so ap , an d in
th e fatty aci d s which ente r in t o combinati on with the se
alkal is. Thu s w e can take a co mb ina ti on o f tallow
an d cocoanut o il an d mak e a great m any p resumably d if
fer ent s oap s by c o mbin ing th es e substance s wit h cau stic
soda , by di ff e rent m etho d s o f manu factu re an d by inco r
po r ating va riou s oth e r ingredi en t s , as ai r , to fo rm a fl o at
ing s oap , alcohol to m ake a t ran sparen t soap , dye stuff s to
give a diff e rent colo r, etc , bu t e ss en ti ally it i s t h e sam e
.

definite c ompoun d .

Th e manu factu re r can be st j u dge t h e b r an d of s oap s he

desi res to manu fact u re , an d much o f hi s succe s s d epends
upon the name , p ackage, shap e , c olo r o r pe r f um e o f a
cake o f s o ap I t i s the con su me r who m h e mu s t please
.

and many o f th e la rge s elling b rand s upon th e m a r ket

today o we t h ei r s u cce s s to th e ab ov e m en t ione d d e t ail s .

Th e gr eat m aj o ri ty o f consume rs o f soap kn ow v e ry l i tt le

47
 S OA P MA KI N G
-
M A N UA L

concerning soap , except th e fact t ha t i t w ash e s o r has a

p leasan t o do r o r look s p retty , an d t h e m anu fac t u r er o f
s oap mu st s tu dy t he s e phas e s o f t h e subj ec t even m ore
care fully t han t h e making o f th e soap i t sel f .

Fo r a ma tt e r o f c onv eni ence w e w ill cl ass ify s oap un de r

th re e gene ral d ivi s ion s :
I Laun dry so ap s , inclu ding chi p soap s , soap pow de rs
.

an d scou ring s o ap s .

I I T oile t s oap s , inclu ding floatin g s oap , c asti le s o ap ,

.

liqui d s oap , sh av ing soap , etc .

I I I T ex t il e soap s
. .

LAU N DR Y S O AP .

Th e mo st pop u la r hou seh ol d soap i s l aun dry s oap A .

t remendou s amount o f th i s s o ap i s con sumed e ach d ay in

th i s country , an d i t i s by far m anu fac t u re d i n large r quan
titi es th an any othe r s oap I t i s al so a soap which mu st
.

be sold ch eaper t han any o th er soap t ha t en t e r s t he

ho me .

The con sume r s o f l aun dry s oap h av e been e ducate d to

u s e a f u ll boile d s et t le d ro sin soap an d t o make a good
article at a p rice t h i s m etho d should be car ri e d o u t, a s i t i s
th e o ne mo s t a dvi s able t o u s e T h e co mpo si t i on of the fats
.

en t e ring in t o t h e s oap depen d s upon the m arke t p r i ce o f

th e s e, an d i t i s no t a dvi sable to kee p to one fo r mula i n th e
manu fac t u re o f laun dry soap , bu t rath e r to adj u st t he
va r iou s fa tt y ingre dient s to obtain th e des i re d re sults wi th
th e ch eapes t mate rial th a t can be p u rch as ed I t i s impo s
.

s ibl e t o u s e a good grade o f fat s an d m ake a profit u pon

laun dry soap a t t he p rice at wh ich i t mu s t b e retailed T he .

manu fac t u re r o f th i s gra de of s oap mu st lo o k t o th e by

p r o duc t , glyce rine , fo r h i s p rofit an d h e i s fo rtun ate in deed
i f h e r eali zes th e ent i re b en efit of t hi s an d st ill p ro duce s
a super io r piece o f laund ry s oap .

48
 S OAP MAKI N G
-
M A N UA L

In any o f th e se fo rmula s th e sodiu m silicate ( 40 B ) °

.

may b e incre ase d t o the same p r opo r t ion as t h e fa t s u s ed .

By s o doing , howeve r , tw enty p ound s of 3 6 B lye mu s t :

°
.

be ad de d fo r eve ry hun dre d p oun d s o f s ilica t e ad ditio nal

to that indicate d o r i n oth e r wo rds , fo r every pou n d o f
si licate adde d 2 0 p er c ent by weigh t o f 36 B lye mu s t
.
°
.

be pu t i nto the m i x tu re Th e ro sin may al s o be repl ace d

.

by a p r evi ou sly m ade ro si n soap .

To make a s emi bo ile d soap , u sing any of the above

-

fo r mul ae , fi rs t melt th e ros in wi th all o r part o f t he fat ,

a s ro s in wh en melte d alone r ea d ily decompo se s When .

the mix t u re i s at 1 50 F run it into th e c rutch er an d a dd

°
.

the lye Tu rn on s u ffi ci en t d ry stea m to keep th e t e mpe ra

.

tu re o f t h e soap at ab ou t 1 50 F in t he w inte r o r 1 3 0 F
°
.
°
.

in summe r A fte r th e m as s h a s been mi xe d fo r hal f an

.

hou r , by con t inu o u sly c ru t ch ing t he s oap it w ill a t fi rs t

thi cken , t h en grain and it may again become t hick befo re
i t becomes s mooth Wh en the ma ss i s p erfectly smo ot h
.

an d h omogeneou s d rop i nto a frame an d c r u tch i n the

frame by h an d to p revent streaking A fte r stan ding the .

requi re d l ength o f tim e th e s oap i s fini shed into cake s a s

L
u su a

S ETTL ED RO S I N S O AP .

S ettled r osin s oap s are made fro m tallow , gre ase , cotton
s ee d oi l , ble ac he d palm o il s of t h e low e r grade s , co rn o i l ,
s oya bean oil , a rachi s oil , di stille d garbage grease , cotton
see d foot s o r fatty aci d s t ogethe r w ith an ad di ti on of ro sin ,
varying from 2 4 per cen t to 60 per cen t o f t he fatty a cid s
. .

wh ich shoul d t ite r fro m 2 8 to 3 5 A tite r low e r th an 28 .

will p r event the fini sh e d kettle o f so ap from being capable

o f la t e r t aking up th e fil ling mate rial s A s h as al ready .

been stated u nder h ar dene d o ils , t he se being ve ry much

highe r i n tite r allow a greate r pe rcentage o f ros in t o be
ad de d . Thu s h ardene d fi sh oil s an d co tt on se e d o il a re
50
 C LA S S I F I CA T I O N OF S OA PS

gr adually being mo re exten sively employe d in soap s o f t hi s

c h aracte r .

The p roce d u re o f han dl ing th e kettle i s si milar to that

given u nde r f u ll bo iled soap The stock i s ste ame d o u t
.

i nto a s ettling tank and all ow ed to s ettle ove r nigh t , a fte r

w hic h i t i s pumped i nto th e s oap kettle H avi ng stocked th e
.

kettle , Open steam i s tu rned on an d 1 0 1 2 B lye i s ru n in ,

°
-
°
.

wh ile u sing a stea m pre s s u re o f n inety to o n e hun dred

po u n ds i n o rde r to p revent too gre at a q u antity o f c o n den
sation o f th e steam , th e w ate r t hu s bein g fo rmed weak en
ing the lye I f a steam p res s u r e o f fi fty to si xty po u n ds i s
.

available , a stronge r lye ( 20 B ) s houl d be added Ca re

°
. .

mu st b e taken not to allo w th e lye to fl o w in too rap idly

o r th e soap w ill n ot grai n T h e sapo nific atio n i s only at
.

taine d by p rol onge d bo ili ng wi th su fli c ien t lye o f p r ope r

st r ength W h en sap o n ific atio n h as taken place , the ma s s
.

begi n s to clear an d a sample taken o u t w i th a p ad dl e and

coole d shou ld show a slig ht pink w ith a l pe r cent alc oh olic .

phenolpht halein solution .

It m ay b e sta t e d he re th at in u sing thi s i ndicato r o r any

oth e r to test th e alkalin ity o f soap , the soap s h o u l d alw ay s
be coole d and fi rm , as wh eneve r w ate r i s p re sent ,the d is so
c iat ion o f t h e so ap t he reby w i l l alw ays react alkalin e When .

t hi s state i s reach e d t h e m a ss i s ready fo r grai ning , wh ich

i s accompli sh ed by di stributing salt b rin e o r pickl e or
spreadin g d r y sal t ove r the su r face o f the soap Th e .

kettl e i s then th o roughly boile d until th e ma ss s how s a

so ft c u r d an d th e lve d rop s clearly from a s ampl e taken
out with a trowel o r p ad dl e T he s t eam i s th en shut o ff
.

and th e s oap allow e d to s ettle ove r n igh t Th e lye s are .

th en run off to th e spent l ye tank fo r glycer ine recove ry .

I n sapon i fying a freshly s tocke d kettle i t i s apt t o bunch .

To p r even t th i s s a l t i s added at variou s ti me s to ap

proxi m ately one pe r c ent o f th e fat u s e d
. .

51
 S O A P M A KI N G
-
M A N UA L

I f, by any po s sib il ity th e so ap ha s bunche d , t h i s con d it ion

may b e r e medi e d by th e a ddition o f mo re s tr ong lye an d
boi ling until it i s taken up To w o r k a ke tt le t o it s full
.

“
capacity it i s a dvi s abl e to mak e t wo killing ch anges .

Fi r st a dd about 75 p e r cent of th e fat an d grain a s di rec t ed

. .

R un o ff th e spen t lye s an d th en a dd th e r ema inde r o f t h e

stock and repeat th e p roces s When t h e spen t lye has been
.

run t o sto rage , th e ope n stea m i s again t u rne d o n an d

1 8 B lye gra du ally allowe d to run in Th e r o si n i s now
°
.

b roken u p and pu t i nto th e kettle , o r a p rev iou sly m ade

ro si n s oap i s p u mpe d i n .

Lye i s t hen a dde d u nti l th e soap h a s a sh arp taste af t e r

abou t th ree h ou rs o f c o n tino u s boiling, o r wh en th e s oap
i s in th e clo se d state Mo r e lye sh o u l d th en be ru n in to
.

th e kettle to grain th e s oap w ell , the grain n o t be ing t oo

small Th en allow th e s oap to settle ove r nigh t an d d raw
.

o ff t h e s trengt h en ing lye Th e n ext day again boil up

.

th e kettle and ad d wa t e r un t il t he s oap th i ns ou t an d r i se s

o r sw ell s high i n t h e ke t tl e A s ample taken out at th i s
.

stage upon a h ot tr ow el s houl d r un o ff i n large fl ake s .

Th e su rface o f the s oap s houl d b e b righ t an d sh iny .

I f th e s ample cling s t o t h e t row el , a sl igh t ad dition o f

lye w ill re medy th i s defect Th e kettl e i s then allow e d to
.

re s t , t o d rop th e n igre an d to cool fo r some tim e , d epen ding

upon t h e si ze o f th e ke t tle The p rop e r tempe ratu re i s
.

s u ch t hat afte r h avin g be en pump e d to th e c rutche r an d the

fill ing m aterial s h aving been a dde d , a t he rmomete r placed
in t o t he mas s shoul d in di cate 1 28 1 3 5 F afte r th e cru t ch e r°
-
°
.

h as r un f r om ten t o fi fteen minu t e s Th e fill ing mate ri al .

may consi st o f from 7 9 per cen t o f sal so da sol u t ion ,

-
.

3 6 3 7 B wa rm o r j u st eno u gh to clo s e up t h e s oap an d

° °
-
.

mak e i t ri s e h igh i n th e cente r of a sc rew c r u tch e r and

mak e i t cling clo se to a w arm trowel O th e r fille r s suc h
.
.

as ou t li ned below a r e added at t hi s poin t .

52
 C LA S S I F I CA T I O N OF SOA PS

An a d di tion of f r om 2 3 p e r cent o f a sp ecial mi neral oil

-
.

fo r th i s pu rp o s e will impart a fin i sh to th e soap an d 3 5 -

pe r cent starch added p revent s th e soap fro m c racking in

.

the frame s O th e r filling mate rial a s silicate o f so da , bo rax ,

.

talc o r silex a re u sed A ft er th e filling m ate ri al ha s been

.

th o roughly crutch ed th rough th e soap i t i s fram ed , an d ,

afte r bein g s eve ral d ays i n the fram e to sol i di fy an d c ool
th e s oap i s re ady fo r sl abbing, p res sing an d w rapp ing .

In o rde r to mo re definitely illu strate th e co mpo sition of

th e m ixtu re o f fats an d oi ls ente ring into th e fo rmation o f
a laund ry soap a typ ical fo rm u la may be g i ve n fo r such
'

a s o ap containing 4 0 per cent ros in a dd ed to th e amount

.

o f fats u s e d :

Gre as e
Tallow
Co rn O il
Co t tons ee d O il
R o sin

Th e follow ing hav e be en fo u n d to be s at is facto ry fill ing

m ate ri al s and a re calc u lated u pon the ba si s o f a po u nd -

frame o f so ap .

1 .

So di u m S ilicate , 38 40 °
~
°
B
Mi ne ral O i l
S al S od a S olution , 36 B °

B orax

II .

S al S o da S olution , 36 B °

Mi neral O il
 S OAP MA KI N G
-
M A N UA L

S o da A sh
S al S o da
S odiu m S ilicate
Min eral O i l
B r i ne ( S atu rate d S olution )
IV
S o diu m S ilicate
S ilex o r T al c

S al S o da S oluti on , 3 6 B °

S odi u m S il icate
Mine ral O il
B o rax S ol u ti on , 2 5 B ( hot )
°
.

H I P S O AP
C .

Chip soap i s u se d e x ten siv ely in l aund ri es bu t i s also

u s e d largely in oth e r b ranch e s I t m ay b e made eithe r
.

a s a s ettle d soap o r by th e col d made p ro ces s .

T o m ake a full boile d se t tled ch ip s oap , p rocee d as

di recte d u nde r s ettl e d l aun dry soap Th e kettl e i s s t ocked
.

wi t h l igh t grea se o r a mi x tu re of grease w i th co rn oi l o r

oth e r ch eap O ils F o r th i s kind o f soap th e ro sin i s eli m
.

inate d .

Chip soap may b e fille d a s w ell a s laun d ry soap Thi s .

i s don e in th e c rutcher an d the follow ing adulte rati on s a re

sui t able .

S ettle d S o ap
S o d a A sh
S o diu m S ili cate

S e tt l e d S oap
 C LA S S I F I CA T I O N OF SOAPS

Silica t e o f So da 560
S od a A sh 18
Carbonate o f Po tash , 26 B 50
°

Th e cheape st metho d o f d ry ing i s by running thi s s oap

t hrough a d rying m achin e an d this i s th e p roce du re u su ally
o

carri e d out fo r making d rie d chip s oap .

C OLD M A DE C H IP S O APS .

To ma k e chip s o ap s by th e cold p r o ce ss a sweet tallo w of

low pe rcentage o f free fat ty aci d shoul d be empl oyed Th e .

tallow i s heate d to 1 20 to 1 3 5 F an d th e lye run in

° °
.

slowly at fir st an d th en th e s ilicate o f so da i s added Th e .

mas s i s th en mixe d until a finge r d rawn t h rou gh th e

soap leave s a sligh t i mp r es sion , th en dropp ed into frame s
o r bar r els
. S oaps containing a small pe rcen t age o f fat
s houl d be w ell c ov ered in th e frame fo r twenty fou r ho u r s
-

to retain t hei r h ea t an d insu re p rop e r s apo n ific ation Th e

.

following fo rmulae a re su itabl e :

T allow
S oda Lye , 3 5 B °

S o diu m S ilicate

Tallow
Ceylon Cocoanut O i l
S od a Lye , 3 7 B °

Potas h Lye , 3 7 B °

Tallo w
So d a Lye , B
So diu m S ilicate
Potash Lye, B
 S OAP MAKI N G
-
M ANU AL

T allow
S oda Lye , B
S o diu m S ilicate
Po t ash Lye , B

Tallow
S od a Lye , 3 5 B°

S o diu m S ilicate

T allow
S o diu m S il icate
S o da Lye , 3 7V2 B °

U NF I LL ED C H IP S O AP .

A ve r y goo d grade o f chip s oap i s mad e by e mpl oyi

n o filling materi al wha t soeve r , b u t u nfo r t unately t h e

o f t h i s so ap ha s been cu t to such an e xt en t t ha t

no t compete w ith a fille d ch ip A nu mbe r o f th e

.

o f t h i s kind are m a de fro m a settl e d soap u si

g r e as e w ith co rn o il A s oap o f th i s n atu r e i s

.

follow s .

S e t tle d S oap
S al S o da Solu ti on , 3 6 3 7 °
-
°
B
S o da A s h 1 82
I f t h i s s o ap i s ru n in t o frame s i t may be stripped an d
chippe d in two days .

S O AP P O W DER S .

S o ap p o w d e r s h av e b e c o m e s o gre a t a c o n v e n i e n c e
a s a ge n e r a l cl e a n s in g a ge n t th a t to e li m in a t e t h e m
_

fr o m t h e h o u s e h o l d n e c e s s it ie s w o ul d m e an m u c h u n
56
 S OAP MAKI N G
-
M A N UA L

An o t h e r m e t h o d o f p r o c e du r e is to r u n o u t t h e m i x
tu r e fr o m t h e c r u t c h e r to t h e fr a m e s , w h i c h a r e s t r i p p e d
be fo r e the s o ap c ool s , an d i s cu t up a t o nce , f o r if i t
hard en s i t c oul d no t b e cu t w ith w i re s I t is be tt e r , h ow
.

e v e r , t o r un t h e mi x t u re in t o shee t s upon a sp eci ally co n

s tr u ct e d fl oo r an d b reak u p the ma ss wh en co ol .

F o r m ul a e f o r s o a p p o w d e r s w h i c h h av e b e e n f o u n d
t o b e s u i t a b l e fo r r u n n i n g d r y i n the m ixe r f ol l o w

I
S o d a a s h , 58 p e r c e n t 42 lbs .

S il i c a 220
S e t t l e d s o a p ( u s u all y c o t t o n s e e d ) . 25
S al t 10

II
S o a p ( s e tt l e d c o tt o n s e e d )
S o d a a s h , 58 p e r c e n t

S e t tl e d s o a p 1 00 l b s .

S o d a as h, 58 p e r c e n t 4 00
F i ll e r s i n v a r y i n g p r o p o r t i o n s m a y r e p l a c e t h e s o d a
a s h i n t h e a b ove fo r m ulae I t i s o f c o u rs e u n de rs t o o d
.

t h a t t h e s o ap h a s b e e n p r e v i o u s l y m a d e a n d r u n a s
m ol t e n s o a p i n t o the c r u t c h e r .

T h e f o l l o w in g s o a p p o w d e r s w i ll n o t d ry u p i n t h e
c r u t c h e r u p o n ru n n i n g , b u t a r e o f the c l as s w h i ch m a y
‘

b e fra m e d o r r u n o n t h e fl o o r t o s o l i d i fy

Soap
F ill e r
S al s o d a s o l u t io n , 2 0 d e g s B
.

58
 C LA S S I F I CA T I O N OF SOAPS

Soap
Fil l e r
S al s o d a s o l u t i o n , 2 0 d e g s B .

'

111
S o ap
F il l e r
S al s o d a s o l u t i o n
IV
S o ap ( s e tt l e d t al l o w )
F ill e r
S al s o d a s o l u ti o n
W ater
V
F i r s t s a p o n ify 1 00 p ar t s h o u s e gr e a s e an d 1 00 p ar t s
o rdina ry g r eas e an d ma k e a ru n s oap . Then u s e in
c r u t ch e r e i th e r
Soap
F ill e r
Ho t w a t e r

Soap 200 lb s .

H ot w ater 2 00
Fil l e r 62 5
I t w o ul d b e a s i m p l e m at t e r t o w r i t e n u m e r o u s ad d i
tio nal f o r m ul a e , b u t t h e a b o v e a r e ty p ic al The m anu .

fa c t ur e r m u s t j u d g e f o r h i m s e l f j u s t w h a t fi ll i n g
m a t e r ia l t o u s e T h e fill e r in d i c a t e d i n t h e ab o v e
.

f o r m ul a e i s th e r e f o r e l ef t o p e n A fe w f o r m ul a e fo r
.

m o r e e xp e n s iv e p o w d e r s t h a n t h o s e g iv e n r e c e n t l y ap
“ ”
e a r e d among o t h e r s i n t h e S e ifen s i ed e r Z e itung *
p
‘
S ei f en s i e de r Z tg .
, 40 , 4 7 , 1 2 6 6

59
 SOAP MAKI N G
-
M A N UA L

P o w d e r e d s o ap 90 l b s .

S o d iu m p e r b o r at e 10
T h e p e r b o r a t e s h o ul d b e a d d e d w h e n t h e p o w d e r
p e r fe c tl y d r y o r i t l o s e s i t s b l e a ch in g p r o p e rt i e s
.

II
S o a p p o w d e r , 20 p e r c e n t f a t
.

C o c o a n u t o il fa t t y a c i d s
O lein
B o n e fa t
S o d a l y e , 30 d e g s B .

A m m o n iu m c a r b o n a t e
III
S o ap p o w d e r , 1 0 p e r c e n t fat .

C o c o a n u t o i l fa t t y a c i d s
O lein
B o n e fa t ~

'

S o d a ly e , 30 d e g s B .

Wa t e r
A m m o n iu m c a r b o n a t e
LI GHT O R FLU FFY P O W DER S .

Ligh t o r flu ff y pow de rs containing 3 5 4 5% mo i stu re can

-

be mad e i n t wo w ays The firs t meth o d requi ring a m i n

.

i mum equ ipmen t i s to m i x th e powd er an d sal s o da in a

mi x e r , allow it to stand in fram e s fo r a we ek to crys t alli ze
or sp read i t on t h e floo r fo r a f ew h ou r s t o d ry an d th en
gri nding i t .

Th e con t i nuou s meth o d fini sh es t he pow der in a fe w mi n

u t e s an d w ith a mi ni mu m amou nt of labo r .B y th i s
p ro c e s s t h e v ari ou s ingredi ents , s oap , s od a ash s olu ti on , e t c ,
.

a re measu r ed , ru n by grav i ty in t o t h e m ix e r , m i xe d an d t h e
m ol ten m as s run o v e r the crys t alli ze r o r ch illing r olls th r u
60
 C LA S S I F I CAT I O N OF SOAPS

wh ich e ithe r col d water o r brin e i s pumped F rom the roll .

the p ow de r i s scraped o ff clean ab y kn i fe , pa sse s to a

screen which sen d s the tailings to a grin de r , fal l s in to a
sto rage bi n from whence i t i s w eighe d an d packe d by an
au to ma t ic w ei gh ing mac hin e into carton s ma de up i n mo st
'

cases by anoth e r m achine D u e to the la rge p e rcentage o f

.

mois tu re contai ne d in thes e soap pow de r s th e carton i s

gene rally w rappe d i n wa x pape r to aid in th e p rev ention o f
th e escap e o f mo istu re .

S C O UR I N G Pownm s .

Sco u ting pow de r s a r e v e r y s im ilar to s oap pow ders an d

diff e r only in th e fille r u se d We h ave al rea dy con s i de red
.

th es e fillers un d er s co u ring so ap , f ro m wh ich th ey do n ot

diff e r materially Th ey ar e u su ally i n soluble i n w ater t o
.

aid in scou ring The m ixe r u se d fo r substance s o f th i s

.

kin d in inco rp orating t h e soap an d alkal i mu st be o f

st r ong con stru ction .

S C O UR I N G S OA P .

S c o u r in g s o a p s r e s e m b l e s o a p p o w d e r s v e r y c l o s el y
in t he i r c o m p o s i ti o n , i n th a t t h e y a r e a c o m b in a ti o n of
s o a p a n d fi ll i n g m a t e r i al S i n c e m o r e l a th e r i s r e q u ir e d
.

f r o m a s c o u r in g s o a p th a n i n s o a p p o w d e r s , a c o c o a
n u t o il s o a p i s ge n e ra ll y u s e d T h e u s u al fi ll in g m a
.

te r ial u s e d i s s il e x . T h e gr e a te s t d iffi c ul ty i n t h e m a n u
fa c tu r e o f s c o u r in g s o a p i s th e c r a c k in g o f th e fi n i sh e d
c ake T h i s i s u s u all y d u e t o t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f t o o
.

gr e a t a n a m o u n t o f fi l l e r , o r t o o h i gh a p e r c e n ta ge o f
m o i s tur e.

I n m a n ufa c t u r in g t h e s e s o a p s th e c o c o a n u t o il i s
s ap o n ifi ed i n th e c r u t c h e r w i t h 38 d e g s B l y e , o r . .

p r e v io u s l y s ap o n ifie d a s a r u n s o a p , a s a l re a d y d e
T o t w e n ty fiv e p a r t s
“ ”
s c r ib e d u n d e r M a r i n e S o a p s .
-

of s o a p a r e a d d e d a p e r c e n t a ge o f 3 8 d e g s B s a l s o d a
. .

6]
 S OAP MAKI N G
-
M A N UA L

o r s o d a as h s o l u t i o n , t o ge th e r w i t h a s m all q u a n t i ty o f
s al t b r i n e T o t h i s m ix t u r e i n th e c r u t ch e r s e v e n ty fiv e
.
-

p arts o f s ilex a re then a dded , and a su ffici en t amou nt of

ho t wa t e r t o m ake t h e m as s flow r ead ily Car e m u s t
.

be exe rci se d t o no t ad d t o o grea t a quantity o f wate r

o r t h e m as s w ill crack w h en i t cool s Th e mas s i s
.

t h e n fr a m e d a n d c u t b e f o r e i t s e t s , o r p o u r e d in t o
m o l d s a n d al l o w e d t o s e t .W h i le s il e x i s t h e m o s t
e x t e n s iv e l y u s e d fil l e r f o r s c o u r in g s o a p s , i t i s fe a s i b l e
to i n c o r p o r a t e o t h e r s u b s t a n c e s o f l ik e c h a r a c t e r , al
t h ough it i s t o be re membe r ed th a t t h e con sum er i s accu s
to me d to a w h i t e c a k e , s u c h a s s il e x p r o d u c e s Any
.

o t h e r m at e r i al u s e d t o r e p l a c e s il e x s h o ul d a l s o b e a s

fi n e a s t h i s p r o d u c t .

FLO ATI N G SO AP .

Flo at ing s o ap occu pie s a po s ition mi dway be t ween laun

d ry an d t o ile t soap S ince it i s no t h ighly p er f u me d an d
.

a la r g e p iece o f s oap may be pu rch as e d fo r s mall co st , as

i s th e c as e w ith laun d ry s o ap , i t i s read ily a dapt able t o
gen e r al hou s ehol d u s e Floati ng soap d iff e rs f ro m o rdin ary
.

soap i n h av ing ai r cru t ch e d in t o i t whi ch cau se s t h e s o ap

to fl o a t in w ate r Thi s i s o f t en a dvan t ageou s , especially
.

as a ba t h so ap , an d u n doub t e dly t h e large s t sell ing b r an d

o f s o ap o n the Ame r i can marke t t o day is a floa t ing s oap .

I n t h e m anu factu r e o f fl oating s oap a h igh p r oportion o f

cocoanu t o il i s n ece s sary A mo s t s u itabl e co mpo s itio n i s
‘

o n e p a rt coco anu t oi l t o o n e par t o f t allo w Th is i s an .

exp en siv e s t o ck fo r t h e h igh es t grad e o f s o ap an d i s usu ally

che apened by th e u se o f co tt on s ee d o r v ariou s o t h er liqui d
o i ls Thu s it i s po s s ible to obt ain a flo at ing soap from a
.

ke tt le st oc k e d w ith 3 0 p e r cent co coanu t o il , 1 5 p e r cen t

. .

co tt ons ee d o il an d 55 p er cen t t allo w Wi th t h i s qu ali ty

. .

o f s o ap , howeve r , th e re i s a po s s ibility o f s w ea t ing an d

62
 C LA S S I F I CA T I O N OF SOAPS

rancidity , an d o f th e so ap being to o so f t an d be ing poo r

in colo r .

The p roces s o f man ufac t u re i s to bo il th e so ap i n an o r

d inar y s oap kettle , afte r whi ch ai r i s wo r k e d into t h e ho t
soap by a sp eci ally con structed c ru t ch e r , afte r wh ich th e
so ap i s framed , s labbe d , cu t in t o cake s an d pre ss e d .

Conce r n ing th e bo iling o f th e so ap , th e s apo nific ation

mu st be carefully car ried o u t, a s th e high p ropo rtion o f
-

co coanu t o il may cau se a v iolen t reactio n in t h e k e tt le cau s

ing it to boil over .

The metho d o f proce d u re i s th e s ame as fo r a set t led

s oap up t o th e fini s h ing W hen th e m as s i s fin ally settle d
.

“ ”
afte r th e fini sh , the soap shoul d be m o re o n th e op en s i de ,
an d th e obj ec t shou l d be to ge t a s long a pi ece o f goo ds
as po s s ible.

D u e to i t s high melting po int , a much h a r de r c r u st

fo rm s on th e su rfac e o f a fl oa t i ng so ap an d in a greate r
propo r t ion t han on a settled soap du ring the se t tling I n a .

large ke t tle , in fac t , i t ha s been foun d impo s s ibl e to b re ak

th r ough th i s c ru st by th e o r din a ry proce du re to admit th e
s kimm e r p ipe Mu ch o f t h e s u cce ss o f the subsequent ope ra
.

tion s depen d s upon t he comple t ene s s o f t h e se tt l ing, an d in

o r de r to overco me th e difficul t i e s occasi one d by t h e fo r m a
t ion o f t h e c ru st eve rythi ng po s s ible shoul d be don e i n th e
way o f cove r ing th e kettle co mpletely to en able thi s pe rio d
o f s e tt ling to continu e a s long a s p o s s ible .

When the s oap i s fin ishe d it i s run into a specially con

st ruc t ed U-s h ap e c r u tche r , a S trun z cru tcher i s be s t a dapt
e d to t h i s pu r po s e , although a rapi dly revolving up r i ght
scr ew cr utche r ha s been fo u n d to give sati s fac t i on upon a
sm alle r scal e , and a sufficient quantity o f ai r beaten i nto
the s oap to make i t light enough to float Ca r e mu s t be
.

t ak e n not t o run th e c rutche r to o rap idly o r th e so ap w ill

be en t i r ely too fobby D u ring th i s ope r ation th e m as s of
.

63
 S OAP MAKI N G
-
M A N UA L

soap inc r ea s es in bulk, and a fter i t h as been es t abl i shed

ho w much ai r mu s t be put into th e soap to s a t i s fy th e r e
q u ir emen ts, t h i s i ncreas e in bul k i s a cr iter io n to e s ti mate
when t h i s p r oces s i s complete d .

I t i s o f cou rs e u n der s t oo d t h a t t
he longe r t h e c r utch in g
con t i nu e s th e grea t e r qu antity o f ai r is inco rpo rate d an d the
in cr ea s e o f volu m e mu s t be establi sh e d fo r a p articul a r
co mpo s it ion by s ampling, coolin g th e sampl e r ap i dly an d
se eing i f i t fl o ats in wa t e r I f the bea t ing i s continue d t o o
.

long an i n t e rv al o f t i me , t he fini she d s o ap i s t o o spongy

an d u sel es s .

Th e t emp er a t u re o f t h e mas s du ring cr utching i s mo s t

i mpo rt an t Thi s mu st n ever excee d 1 58 degree s F A t
. .

1 59 deg r ee s F t h e ope r a t ion i s no t ve r y s ucces s ful , ye t

.

t h e t hermo me t e r m ay in d ica t e 1 4 0 degree s F w i thou t in t e r

.

f e ting w i t h th i s op e r at ion I f , how eve r , th e t empe ra t u re

.

d r op s too low , t rouble i s liable to be me t wi th , by t h e s oap

sol idi fying to o qu ickly i n t h e fram es .

When t h e cru t ch ing i s co mple t e d , t h e so ap i s allo wed

to d r op i n t o f r ames t h rough th e v alv e at th e bo tt o m o f t h e
cr ut ch e r an d r api dly c r utche d by t h e han d in t he fr am es
to p r e v en t l a r ge a i r space s an d t hen allo we d t o cool It.

i s an imp r ov emen t t o j ol t th e fra me s as t hey ar e drawn

away a s t h i s t en ds t o m ake t h e la r ge r ai r bubble s fl o a t t o
th e s u r face an d thu s r edu c e th e qu an t i t y o f w as t e Wh en
.

t h e s o ap has c oole d , th e frame i s stripp e d an d t h e s oap

s labbe d as u su al . At thi s poin t a laye r o f con si de r able
dep t h o f s pongy s oap w ill be foun d to h av e fo rmed Thi s .

o f cou r s e mu st be cu t away an d r e t u r n e d to th e k e tt l e .

The las t f ew slabs ar e al so o ften r e j ec t e d , inas mu ch as

t h e w eigh t o f t h e so ap abov e the mh as fo rce d ou t so much
o f t h e ai r th a t t h e soap no longe r flo a t s A s a f ai r ave r age
.

i t m ay be e stimate d th a t n ot mo re th an 50 to 60 pe r cen t .

o f th e soap in th e k e t tl e w ill co me out a s fini sh e d c ak e s .

64
 S OAP MA KI N G
-
M A N UA L

u se d in t h e m anu fac t u re of t o ile t s o ap s , especi ally palm

o il , p alm kernel o il , olive o il an d o liv e o il fo o t s , an d to a
mu ch le s s ex t en t a rachi s o r peanu t o il , s esam e O il an d
poppy s ee d oil , oil s o f t he clas s o f cot t ons eed , co r n an d
s oya bean o ils ar e no t ad ap t e d t o m anu fac t u r ing a m illed
s oap , as t hey fo rm yello w spo t s in a fin i she d c ak e o f soap
wh ich ha s been kep t a sho r t t im e .

Palm o il , esp ecially t h e Lago s o il , i s mu ch u sed in m ak

ing a palm bas e A s has al re ady been s t a t e d , t he o il i s
.

bleache d b efo re s apo n ific ation A p alm bas e has a yel

.

low i sh colo r , a sw eeti sh o do r , an d a sm al l qu antity a dde d

to a t allow base n a t u r ally a id s t he per fum e I t i s e sp ecially
.

goo d fo r a v iolet s oap Th e peculiar i t y o f a p alm O il ba se

’

'

i s t ha t t h i s o il make s a sho rt s oap By t he add i t ion o f

.

s ome t allow o r t wenty to t w enty five p e r cen t o f cocoanut

-
.

o il , o r both , th i s obj ection is ove rcom e I t i s a goo d plan

.

in u sing a straigh t p alm bas e t o ad d a p ropo r t ion o f yellow

colo r t o hol d th e yellow ish t in t o f t h i s soap , as a s oap m ade
from t h i s o il con t inue s bleach ing upon expo su re to a i r and
l igh t
.

O live o il an d olive o il f o o t s are u sed m o s t ex t en sively

in t he m anufac t u re o f cas t ile soaps Th e p ecul ia rity o f an
.

Ol ive o il soap i s t ha t i t make s a v ery sl imy la t he r , an d like

palm o il give s th e s oap a ch arac t e ri s t ic O do r An ol ive .

o il s oap i s u su ally con s i de red t o b e a ve ry n eu t ral s oap

an d m ay readil y be super fa t ted Much ol ive o il soap is
.

u se d in b ars o r s lab s a s an unm ille d so ap an d it i s o ften

m a de by t he cold p roc es s Peanu t oi l o r se sam e an d poppy
.

s ee d o il o ften replace s oliv e o il , as t hey form a s im ila r

soap t o ol ive o il .

I n t he m anu fac t u re o f a t o ile t s oap i t i s ha rdly prac t ical

t o l ay down a d efini t e plan fo r th e va r iou s bases t o b e
m ade Fr om th e combinati on o f t allow , palm o il , cocoanu t
.

o il , pal m ke rnel o il , oliv e o il an d ol iv e o il foo t s , a grea t

66
 C LA S S I F I CA T I O N OF SOA PS

m any ba s es o f d i ff e r en t p r opo rt i o ns migh t b e g i v en The .

s im ples t m etho d i s to m ake a t allow base , a palm bas e and

an o live o il ba s e Then f r o m th ese it i s an easy m atte r
.

to weigh out any p ropo r t ion o f t he s e s oap ba se s an d ob

t ain th e p r op er mi xtu r e in th e m ill I f , h ow e v e r , a s is .

of t en the ca se , a l arge qu an t i ty o f s oap base o f ce rtain p r o

p o r tion s o f the se , f ou r o r even mo r e o f the s e f a t s an d o il s
i s r equi r ed , it i s not only mo r e economical to st ock th e
kettl e wi th the co r rect p ropo rtion o f th e se o ils , but a mo re
tho rough mixtu r e i s thu s o btaine d b y s apon i fying th es e in
the ke tt le I n vi ew o f th e fact th a t it i s re ally a qu e s t ion
.

fo r th e m an u factu re r to d eci de fo r hi ms el f wh at co mb in a
ti on o f o il s h e de si re s fo r a pa rti cul a r so ap w e will s i mply
outline a few ty p ical t oilet so ap bas es in thei r s imple st
co mbina t ion I t i s under stoo d th at th es e so ap s are su itable
.

fo r mi lle d so ap s an d a re t o be m ade a s fully boi le d s ettled

soap s. Palm kernel o il may b e substitu t ed fo r cocoanut
oil in all ca se s .

TALLO W B A SE .

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

PAL M BA S E .

Bl each e d Lago s pal m o il

Co c o anu t o il

Tall o w
Pal m o il
Coco anu t o il

O LIVE O IL BA S E ( WH ITE )

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O
 S OAP MA KI N G
-
M A N UAL

O l ive o i l 40 p art s
Tallow 4 0 p a rts
Co c o anu t 2 0 p a rts
Wh e r e a g r een olive o il ba se i s de si re d , Ol ive Oi l f o ots
a r e s ub st i t u t e d f o r th e olive o il Peanu t o il m ay r eplace
.

t h e ol ive o il o r p ar t o f i t , th e s ame being t ru e of s es am e

o il an d poppy see d o il .

PAL M A N D O LI VE BA S E .

Pal m Oil
O li v e oi l
Coco anu t o il

P al m o i l
O liv e o il
Tallo w
Co c o anu t o il

C H EAPER TO IL E T S O APS .

I t i s o ften n ece s sa ry to manu f ac t u re a c h eape r g r a de o f

soap fo r t o ile t pu r pos e s t o m ee t t h e d eman d o f a c e rt a in
cla s s o f tr ade a s well as f o r expo r t T o a c co mpl i s h t h i s
.

i t i s o f c ou rs e n ece s sa ry t o p roduce a ve ry in f e r i o r p r o duct

an d r un down t h e p e rc en t age o f f a t ty aci d s c on t ai ned in
the s oap s by t he addi t ion o f fille rs o r t o u s e ch eape r o il s i n
manu fa ct u r in g Th e mo s t s impl e me t ho d o f filling a so ap
.

i s to load i t a t t h e mill with s ome substan ce much le s s ex

p en s iv e t h an t h e s oap itsel f M any o i th e cheap e r t o ilet
.

so ap s , how eve r , a r e no t mille d an d i t i s , th e r e fo r e , n ec es

s ary t o follow ou t some oth e r p r ocedu r e .

Mille d s o ap s , a s h a s j u s t b een s t a t e d , a re loade d at th e

mill . T he c on s um e rs o f cheap e r t o ile t s o ap s in thi s
coun try are a c cu st ome d to a m ille d s oap an d thi s g r ade
o f s oap fo r home con s u mp t ion i s ve ry o ft e n fille d with

68
 C L AS S I F I CA T I O N OF SOAPS

nu mer ou s s ub s t an c e s , bu t mo s t gene rally by adding st a rch

an d t al c Th e addition o f such m ate r ial s o f c ou r se l a t e r
.

ex h ibi t t h em s elve s by imparting t o th e c ak e o f s oap a

dead appea r an c e . Tal c i s mo re re adi ly de t ec t e d in t h e
s oap th an s t a r ch by w a s h in g w ith i t , a s talc i s in s oluble an d
impa rt s a r ough ne s s t o t h e s oap , li k e s an d o r pu mi c e , a s
th e s o ap wea rs down I t m ay r ea dily be ad de d to 20 p e r
.

c en t by w eigh t S t a r ch i s to be p r e f e rr e d t o t al c , i n lo ad
. . _

ing a soap , as i t i s no t so r eadily n otice able i n wash ing It .

lea v e s th e c ak e itsel f absolutely smooth al th ough t h e la th e r

f o r med i s m ore s hiny Thi s s ub stance may be employe d to
.

as high a percentage a s o n e thi rd the w e ight o f th e s o ap

-
.

I t i s , o f cou r s e , po s s ibl e t o ch eapen th e be s t so ap ba se by

th i s me th o d an d th e p r ice m ay be f u r th e r lowe r e d by u sing
th e l ess expen s iv e oil s an d f a ts to mak e th e so ap bas e .

RU N AND G LU ED UP SO APS .

A v e ry ch eap g r ade o f so ap may be made by making a

ru n s oap an d adding th e fille r e g s o diu m s ili cat e in the
. .

ket t le du r ing sapo nificatio n Th e pe rcentage O f f at ty acid s

.

may be b rought down to 1 0 p e r cen t , al th ough o f c ou r s e .

a soap O f th i s t ype sh r inks a wh ole l ot u pon expo su re .

“ ”
I n m aking a glue d up s oap th e p roce du r e i s the s ame
fo r ma k ing th e s oap it sel f a s w ith a s et t le d soap , e xcept
th a t th e soap i s fin i she d cu rd and late r fille d i n t h e
“ ”

crut c h e r Th e per c entage o f f at t y acid s in a soap o f thi s

.

type i s s el do m below 50 p e r cent .

“ ”
Th e me th od o f gluing up a s oap i s be s t illu st ra t e d by a
typical s oap of th i s ch ar acte r i n wh ich t h e k ettle i s c h arged
wi th th e following s t o ck .

B lea ch e d p al m o il 5 p arts
Di st ille d g r ea s e 2
Cotton o i l foo ts s t ock , 63 % fatty aci d . 1
R o si n 4
69
 S OAP MAKI N G
-
M A N UA L

The p alm o il i s fi rs t r un in t o t he k e tt le , s ap o nifie d and

w ashe d t o extrac t any glycerin e , t hen th e r e s t o f t h e fa t s
an d finally t he r o s in Th e soap i s t hen fini shed an d set t le d
.

a s w i t h a bo ile d s e tt led s oap . To as su re su c ce s s i t i s

ab s olutely n eces sa ry t h a t t h e s o ap s e tt l e a s l ong a p e rio d
a s p os si ble , o r u n t il t he t emp e r a t u r e i s abou t 1 50 deg s F
. .

“ ”
The ideal t emp era t u r e fo r ca rr ying ou t th e glu i ng up
p r oce s s i s 1 40 degs F , a s at a low e r t empe r atu r e t h an
. .

thi s t h e s oap i s l iabl e to c ool t oo qui ck ly an d no t be

tho r oughly glu e d up A h igh e r tempe r a t u r e t han 1 50 degs
. .

F c au se s delay in t h a t th e s oap doe s not p r ope r ly t ak e t he

.

fille r a t a h ighe r t empe r a t u r e an d t h e s oap mu s t be k ep t in

t h e cr ut c he r un t il t h e t empe ra t u r e d r op s t o t he r igh t p oint
.

Th e so ap i s r un in t o t h e c r u t ch e r an d th e p e r ce nt age o f
fat t y a c id s r u n down t o 50— 55 pe r c en t with on e o f t he
.

f ollowing mi x t u r e s
S o diu m sili c a t e, B
Po t a s s iu m c a r bon a t e , 51 °
B
or
S odiu m s ili c a t e , B
°
Po t a s s iu m ca r bon ate , 51 B
S o diu m sul f a t e , 28 B °

Fro m 230 t o 300 p oun ds o f eithe r O f th es e m ix t u r e s are

requi r ed f o r a cr u t ch e r h ol ding poun ds o f s oap .

“
The c r u t ching i s c on t inue d un t il th e mas s i s well sp ike d ,
t ha t i s t o s ay , a fr e s hly b roken su r f ace o f t h e so ap , a s
t he c r utche r blade i s j erke d away , stan d s up l ike sha t te red
shee ts in tr i angula r fo rm ( A A A) , which r e t ai n thei r
sh ap e p e r fectly When t h i s con dition i s re alize d t he s oap
.

i s r un i n t o fr ame s w hich a re ca re fully c rutch e d by h an d

to r emo v e any ai r space s T he su r face o f t he s oap i s then
.

smoo t h e d down an d heape d up in th e cente r A fter stan d

.

ing a d ay t o c on tr ac t , t h e su rface is again level e d an d a

70
 C LA S S I F I CA T I O N OF S OAPS

sn u gly fitting boar d placed on the top o f the soap u pon

-

which a weigh t i s place d o r upon which th e wo rkman

t read s an d stamp s unti l th e s u rfa c e i s flat , th u s as su ring
the fu r t h e r r emoval o f ai r s p ace s The so ap re mai ns in
.

th e fr ame f r om s ix t o eigh t days an d i s then slabbed ,

ba rr ed an d p r e s s ed by th e u su al metho d empl oye d fo r
soap s t hu s han dle d w ithou t mill ing .

In a s oap O f t h is natu re n o h ar d an d fast rul e can be

lai d down a s t o t h e q u an t ity o f solution t o b e u se d fo r
“ ”
glu ing up o r t h e s tr engt h o f t he s olut ion In a s oap o f .

th e typ e de sc r ibe d th e mo s t s ati s fac t o ry appea r ing cak e

will be Obtain ed fro m a s oap contain ing 58 pe r cent f a t ty .

aci ds Tha t i s t o s ay , ab ou t 8 pe r c en t to 1 0 p e r c en t fill ing

. . .

solu t ion i s a dde d pe r hund re d poun d s o f s oap T he fill ing .

solution s given a r e v ery s a t i sfa ct o ry Carbonate o f s od a

.

s houl d b e a v oi de d in connection wi th so diu m s ili cate as th e

p rope rt y o f effl o r e s cing o n t h e su r fac e o f th e fini s hed c ake
a ft e r a s ho r t t ime w ill p r ove de t ri ment al To as su r e s uc
.

ces s fu l glu in g up i t i s a dvi sable t o expe ri men t up on a

small scale to dete r m in e th e exac t ex t ent to w hich th e

filling solu t ion shoul d be di luted V ariou s p r op o rt ion s o f
.

wa t e r are added to a ce rt ain qu anti ty o f t h e fille d s oap .

A fte r t he s oap ha s been fill ed in a small r ecepta c l e a

sampl e i s t aken an d rubbe d betw een th e finge r s I f th e .

fre shly expo se d s u r face i s s moo th an d glo s sy, th e fill ing

solu t i on i s wea k enough , i f rough it i s too s trong I t is .

o f cou rs e un de rstoo d t h at th e tempera t u r e mu st be c or r ect ,

1 40 deg s to 1 50 degs F , o r the s oap w ill be r ough

. . . By thi s
.

mean s th e ope rato r can readily j udge th e co r rect st r ength

o f h is filling solution .\Vhen properly ca rr ied o u t a pe r
fec tl y s atis facto ry s oap i s ob t ained .

C U RD S O AP .

The obj ect o f a soap w h ic h is fin i she d cu rd o r gr ained ,

is to Obt ain a h arde r piece o f good s fro m low tite r f a t o r

71
 S OA P MA KI N G -
M A N UA L

t
o in c reas e t he p e r cen t age o f f a t ty a c i d s i n the fin i sh e d
so ap . Th is i s s t ill ano t h e r me t ho d of pro du c in g a che ap
grad e o f soap a s by i t s adop t ion th e ch eap e r o ils an d fa t s
may b e u sed t o obtain a fi r m pi ece O f s oap .

A typi cal cha r ge fo r cu r d s o ap i s

R ed oil 63 pa rts
Tallow 10
R o s in 27
Co tt on s ee d f o ots may b e e mployed in plac e o f r e d o il
an d a tallo w o f t o o h igh t i t e r i s no t s ui t able fo r t h i s k in d
o f s oap .

Th e r e d o il an d t allow a re fi rs t sapo nified w ith 1 5 deg s .

B lye , boile r p r e s su re 8 0 90 pound s , 1 8 d egs B lye f o r

.
-
. .

lowe r steam p re ss u re , an d two wa shings giv en to ex tr act

t h e glyce r in e T he ro sin i s adde d a t th e st rengthen ing
.

“ ”
change an d a t t h e fin ish th e s oap i s p i t ch ed , th a t i s t o
s ay, th e so ap i s s e t tle d ove r n igh t only Th e nex t day t he
.

lye s a r e d r awn o ff an d a p or t ion o f t h e n igre pu mp e d to

anothe r ke tt le w h ich p rev en t s la t e r streaki ng o f the soap .

Th e soap i s t hen boile d w i t h 1 8 d egs B lye as w i t h . .

anoth e r strength enin g ch ange un de r clo se d s t eam Salt .

“ ”
b rin e o r pickle , 1 5 degs B is t h en ad de d an d t he mas s
. .

bo il e d w i t h cl os e d ste am until t h e b r in e re ach e s a den s i t y

o f 1 8 degs B an d th e kettl e pumpe d th e n ex t d ay A
. . .

soap o f t hi s t ype requi re s eithe r h and o r pow e r c r utchin g

to as sure h omogene ity an d p r evention o f st reak s To ob .

viat e any ai r space s it i s advi s abl e t o place ove r th e t op

o f th e frame a tigh t ly fitte d b oa r d wh ich i s h eav ily

-

weighte d d ow n Th i s so ap i s al s o p re s s ed w i t hou t any

.

milling .

C OL D M A DE T O I LE T S O APS .

Co mpa ratively lit t le t oilet soap i s mad e by th e col d o r

se mi boile d
-
p r o c es se s Wh ile t h es e ar e the s i mple s t
.

72
 S OAP MAKI N G
-
M A N UA L

the p e r fu m e as r ela t e d to t o ile t so ap not only, bu t the ne

c e s sit y o f a dding a ce r tai n propo rtion o f th e c heape r
p r o du ct s o f o do r ife rou s natu re t o laun d r y s oap to c o v e r
an d d i s gu i s e the o do r o f even t h i s type o f s oap .

T he p r i c e o f a cake o f toi le t s oap t o a gre a t exten t de

p en d s upon t h e p erfu me , and th e manu factu r er shoul d ai m
to give the bes t po s sibl e perfu me fo r a ce rt ain p r ice . He
shoul d no t al low h i s pe rs on al likes o r d isl ike s t o en t e r in t o
the j u dgmen t o f wh ethe r an o do r i s goo d o r n o t , bu t s u b
m i t i t t o a numbe r o f pe rs on s t o Obta in th e c o nc en su s o f
op inion I n giv ing o r selling a p iec e o f so ap to the con
.

su me r , i t i s s econ d n atu re fo r h im t o s mell it , an d in the

gre a t m a j o r i t y o f cas e s hi s opin io n i s fo r me d no t fr o m any
qu ali t y t h e s o ap i t s elf may hav e d u r i ng u se , but fr o m the
O do r
. T hi s o nly empha s izes t h e fac t t ha t th e pe r fum e
mu st be plea sing , not t o o ne pe r son , bu t t o t he m a j o r i t y ,
an d m any b r an d s o we t h ei r popular ity to noth ing mo r e
t h an th e en t icing p e rfu me .

Pe rf u m ing o f soap i s c lo sely alli e d to t h e soap mak in g

i n du s t ry , bu t a s state d a bran ch i n i t self I t i s , t h e r e f o r e,
.

not o u r pu r po s e to give nu merou s f o r mul ae o f how t o

pe rfu m e a s o ap , bu t ra t he r t o a dv i s e t o go for in f o r ma t ion
t o s o me on e who t ho roughly u n ders t an ds t h e c h a r ac t e r
istic s o f th e nu merou s e s s ential o il s an d syn t h e t i cs an d give
po s itive i n fo r mation fo r th e p arti cula r o do r d e s i re d Un.

de r n o c i r cu m stances i s it a dvi s able to pu r ch a s e a pe rfu m e

al ready co mpounded , bu t si nce all p erfu me s are a blen d o f
s eve ral o r m any es s ent ial o il s an d syn t h e t ic s , it i s a mo re
po s i t ive as su ranc e o f ob t aini ng wh a t i s de s i r e d , by p u r
ch asing t h e straight o il s an d blen ding o r m ix ing t h em a s
o ne desi re s.

Th e p erfu me i s ad de d to a mille d soap j u s t be f o r e t h e

m illing p ro ces s in t h e p rope r p ropo r t ion p e r hun d r e d
poun ds o f soap . I n col d m ade o r un mille d s o ap s i t i s
74
 C LA S S I F I CA T I O N OF S OA P S

added in t h e c ru t ch e r while the s oap i s sti ll hot By t hi s .

me tho d , o f cou rs e , a p r opo rt ion o f the pe rf um e i s lo st du e

to i t s being mo r e o r le s s vola ti l e .

COLO RLN G SO AP .

Wh ile much to ile t s oap i s whi t e o r n atu r al in c o lo r ,

m any soaps ar e al so a rt ifici ally c olo r e d The s oap c ol o rs
.

u se d fo r thi s pu rpo s e a r e mostly anilin e dy e st uff s The .

p r i c e o f thes e dye s tuff s i s no c r iter ion a s to t h e i r q u ali ty ,

as t h e p ri c e i s u su ally r egu late d by t he a dd iti o n o f s om e
ine rt, wa t e r soluble substanc e l ik e co mmon s al t o r sugar .

The main p rope rti e s th at a dyestuff su i t able fo r p r o du c

ing a colo re d s o ap shoul d h ave ar e f as tne s s to ligh t an d
to alkali . They shoul d fu rthe r be o f such a typ e th a t t h e
'

colo r doe s no t c o me O ff an d s t ain a wash cloth o r the

h an d s whe n t h e so ap is u sed an d shoul d be solubl e in
wa t e r . Un de r no ci rcu m st ance s i s it a dvi s able to add
the se in such a q u an t i ty t h a t t h e lathe r p ro duce d i n the
s oap i s colo r e d . I t i s c u stoma ry to fi r s t di s solv e the
dye in ho t wate r a s a s t an da r diz ed s olution Th i s can .

then be m ea su re d o u t in a g r adua t e and adde d to the s o ap

the same ti me a s th e pe r f ume i s pu t i n Abou t o ne pa r t
.

o f colo r to fi f ty p arts o f wa t e r i s t h e p r opo r p r opo rt io n

to obtain a p e r fec t solution , t hough t h i s i s by no mean s
fixed I n m aking u p a solution thu s i t i s an imp rovemen t
.

to ad d t o the s ame about one hal f o f on e pe r cent o f an

-
.

alkal i e ither a s th e hyd r oxi d e o r carbonate Th en , i f the r e

.

i s any p os sibili ty o f ch ange o f c olo r du e to alk al in ity o f

the s oap , i t will exh ibi t i ts elf befo re the colo r i s add e d .

A p articularly d iffi cul t sh ade to ob t ai n is a pu r pl e, as

the r e i s up to the p r e sent t im e n o pu rpl i s h an il in e co l o r
kn own which i s fast to l ight V ery go o d r e s ult s in so ap
.

may be ob t ain ed by mixing a fa st blu e , as u lt rama r in e o r

cobal t blu e , w i th a re d as rho dami ne o r eosin e .

7S
 S OAP MAKI N G
-
M A N UA L

I na s mu ch a s t h e colo r s fo r so ap h a v e been c a r efully

te s t e d by mos t o f t h e dyes t uff manu fa c tu r e rs , an d t hei r
in f o r ma t ion , u su ally r eli abl e , i s op en to any o ne de s i r ing
t o k now abou t a colo r fo r s oap , it i s b e tt e r to depen d u pon
’
t h ei r expe r i ence w i t h colo rs afte r h avin g s a t i sfie d on e s
s el f t h a t a c olo r i s wh a t i t i s r ep r esen t e d fo r a p a rt icula r
’
shad e , t ha n t o expe r im ent with th e num e r ou s c ol o rs one s
s el f
.

M EDI C I NAL S O AP S .

S oap i s o f ten u s e d fo r t h e c onveyan c e o f va r iou s

med icants , an t i s ep t i c s o r o t he r m a t e r i al p resu mably
b e n e fi c i al fo r tr e a t m e n t o f s k i n d i s e a s e s . While s o ap
i s a n i d e a l m e d i u m f o r t h e c a r ry in g o f s u c h m a t e r i al s ,
i t i s a n u n fo r t u n a t e c o n d i t i o n t h a t wh e n in corp orate d
w it h t h e s o a p , all b u t a v e ry f e w o f t h e n u m e r o u s s u b
s ta n c e s t h u s e m p l o y e d l o s e t h e i r m e d i c in al p r o p e r t i e s
’

a n d e ff e c t iv e n e s s fo r c u r i n g s k in di s o r d e r s , a s w e l l a s
any an t i s ep t ic v alu e t he s ub st ance m ay h av e . S oap
i s o f such a n a t u re che mically t ha t m any o f t h e sub
s t a n c e s u s e d fo r s k i n tr o u b l e s a r e e i t h e r e n t ir e l y d e
c o m p o s e d o r al t e r e d to s u c h a n e x t e n t s o a s t o i m p a i r
t h e i r t h e r a p e u t i c v al u e T h u s m a n y o f t h e c l a i m s m a d e
.

f o r v a r i o u s m e d i c a t e d s o a p s fal l fl a t , a n d r e al l y h a v e
no mo r e an t i s ep t i c o r t he r ap eu t ic me r i t t h an o r dina r y
s o a p w h i c h i n i t s e l f h a s c e r ta i n g e r m i c i d al a n d c l e an i n g
va l u e .

I n m e d i c a t in g a s o a p t h e m a t e r ia l u s e d fo r t h i s p u r
po se i s u sually a d de d at t h e m il l A t allow an d coco anut
.

o i l b a s e i s b e s t a d a p t e d fo r a s o a p o f t h i s t yp e T h e .

public h ave bee n ed u cated m ore o r le s s to th e u se o f

c ol o r e d s o a p to a c c e n t u a t e i t s m e d i c i n a l v al u e , a n d g r e e n
i s u n d o u b t e d l y th e m o s t p o p ul a r s h a d e T h i s i n fe r e n c e ,
.

h oweve r , i s by n o mean s t ru e f o r all s o ap s o f t hi s

76
 C LA S S I F I CA T I O N OF SOAPS

char a ct e r . Po s sibly the bes t m e t ho d o f ar r anging the s e

soap s i s b ri efly to outl in e some medicin al s oap s .

SULPH UR S O APS .

T he b e s t kn o w n s ul p h u r s o a p s c o n t a i n an y w h e r e f r o m
o ne t o 2 0 p e r c e n t o f fl o w e r s o f s ul p h u r
. O th e r s o a p s
.

c o n t ai n e i t h e r o r ga n i c o r i n o r ga n i c s ul p hu r c o m p o u n d s .

TAR SO AP .

The t a r u s e d i n t h e m a n uf a c t u r in g o f t a r s o ap i s O b
tain e d b y t h e d e s ti u c tiv e d i s t il l a t i o n o f w o o d , th e p in e
t a r b e in g th e m o s t e x te n s iv e l y e m p l o y e d W h il e th e
.

d i ff e r e n t w o o d ta r s c o n t a in n u m e r o u s a r o m a ti c c o m
po un d s , such as phenol s , p henyl oxi de s , t e r pene s an d
o rgan i c acids , th es e a re p re sen t i n such a sl ight p r o
p o r tio n s o a s t o r e n d e r t h e ir eff e c t iv e n e s s p r a c t i c a l l y
u s el e s s
. I t h a s , th e r e fo r e , b e e n t r ie d to u s e t h e s e
v a r i o u s c o m p o u n d s c o n ta i n e d i n t h e t a r t h e m s e lve s t o
m ak e tar s o a p r e all y eff e c t iv e , y e t tar i s s o c h e ap a
s u b s t an ce t h a t i t i s u s ua l l y t h e s ub s t an c e u s e d f o r
me d ic at in g a t a r s o ap A b o u t 1 0 p e r c e n t o f t a r is
. .

u s u al l y a d de d to th e s o a p w it h 2 o u n c e s o f l a m p b l ac k
p e r h un d re d p o u n d s o f s o a p .

S O APS C O NTAIN I N G PH E N OL S .

Phenol ( Ca r boli c Ac i d ) i s mo st extens iv ely u se d in

s o a p s o f t h i s ki n d , w h i c h a r e c all e d c a r b o l i c s o a p s .

Ca r b o l i c s o a p s a r e ge n e r al ly c o l o r e d g re e n a n d c o n t a in
fr o m 1 t o 5 p e r c e n t p h e n o l c ry s t al s
. .

T he c r e s o l s ar e a l s o e xt e n s iv e l y u s e d fo r m ak in g
soap s na m e d carb olic . T h e s e s ub sta n ce s im p art m o re
o do r to t h e s oap an d r eally h av e m o r e d i sin fe c ting
p o w e r s t h an p h e n o l w h e n i n c o rp o r a te d w i t h s o a p .

O th e r s o a p s , c o n t a in in g t h e p h e n o l gr o u p , w h i c h ar e
w e ll k n o w n a r e r e s o r c i n o l s o a p , s al o l s o a p , th y m o l s o a p ,
77
 S OAP MA KI N G -
M A N UA L

n ap h t h o l s o ap , e t c F r o m o n e to fi v e p e r c e n t o f th e
.

c o m p o u n d af t e r w h i c h t h e s o a p i s n a m e d i s u s u al l y
i n c o r p o ra te d w i th t h e s o a p .

P ERO X I DE S O AP .

H y d r o g e n p e r o xi d e i n i t s e lf i s a n e xc e l l e n t d is in
fe c tan t I t l o s e s al l i t s m e d i c i n a l v al u e , h o w e v e r , w h e n
.

a d d e d t o th e s o a p T o o v e r c o me t h i s o b j e c t i o n v a r i o u s
.

m e t al l i c p e r o x i d e s a r e a d d e d t o the s o a p , a s s o d iu m
p e r ox i d e , z mc p e r o x i d e a n d b a r i u m p e r o xi d e .These
ge n e r a t e h y d r o g e n p e r o x i d e b y t h e a d d i t i o n o f w a t e r .

S o d iu m p e rb o r at e i s al s o u s e d i n p e r ox i d e s o a p s , a s t h i s
s u b s t a n c e i s d e c o m p o s e d b y w a t e r i n t o h y d r o ge n p e r
ox i d e an d s o d iu m m e t ab o r a t e .

M ER C U R Y S O APS .

M e r c u r i c c h l o r i d e ( c o r r o s iv e s u b l i m a t e ) i s m o s t e x
te n s iv e l y u s e d fo r th e p r o d u c t i o n o f m e r c u r y s o ap s .

B e c au s e o f i t s e x t re m e l y p o i s o n o u s p r o p e r t i e s c a r e
s h o ul d b e t ak e n i n u s in g i t S i n c e i t r e a ll y e v e n t u a ll y
.

l o s e s a n y a n t i s e p t i c v al u e i n t h e s o a p th r o u gh fo r m in g
a n i n s o l u b l e m e r c u ry s o a p i t m i gh t b e t t e r b e o m i t t e d
e n t i re l y.

L E S S I MP OR TA NT M ED I C INAL S O AP S .

Wh il e the above m ention ed s oap s are p robably the

b e s t k n o w n m e d i c a t e d s o a p s , t h e r e a r e n u m e r o u s o th e r
s oap s wh ich may be clas s e d un de r the s e kin d s o f s o ap s .

Thu s w e have c ol d cream s oap, which c an b e m ade b y

a d d in g R u s s ia n M in e ra l O il , 1 to 5 pe r c e n t , t o t h e .

s o a p ; w i t c h h a z e l s o a p , m a d e b y t h e a d d i t i o n o f e xt r a c t
o f w itch hazel ; iod ine s oap , m ade by add ing i o d in e o r
i o d o fo r m ; fo r m al d e h y d e s o a p , m a d e b y a d d in g fo r
mal d e hy d e ; ta n n i n s o a p s , m a d e b y a d d in g t a n n i n . In
fa c t , t h e r e h av e b e e n i n c o r p o r a t e d i n s o a p s o g re a t a
78
 C LA S S I F I CA T I O N OF S OA P S

n u mber of s u bstances t hat the l ist m ight be greatly

e nl a rge d .

M edicated soaps a re n o t only u sed i n soli d fo rm , b u t

i n p o w d e r , p a s t e a n d l i qu i d s o a p a s w e l l .The only
d iff e r e n c e i n a s o a p l ik e th o s e j u s t r e fe r r e d to i s th a t
th e m e d i c a n t i s i n c o r p o ra te d w i t h t h e s e f o r m s o f s o a p s
a s c o n v e n i e n c e d i re c t s
.

CA STIL E SO AP .

A p u r e c a s t il e s o a p s h o ul d b e m a d e fr o m o l iv e O il .

T h i s , h o w e v e r , i s n o t al w a y s th e c a s e , a s a n u m b e r o f
o il s a s well as tallow are u s e d t o adulte ra t e th i s o il to
c h e a p e n it , a n d t h e r e a r e e v e n s o m e s o a p s c al l e d c a s t il e
w h i c h c o n ta i n n o o l iv e o il a t al l . M o s t O f th e p u r e
ca s til e s o a p u s e d i n t h i s c o u n t r y i s i m p o r te d , a s i t i s a
d iffi c ul t m a t te r f o r th e A m e r i c a n m a n uf a c tur e r t o c o m
p e t e w i t h th e p u r e i m p o r t e d c a s t il e s o a p , s in c e b o t h
l a b o r a n d o il it s e l f a r e s o m u c h c h e a p e r i n t h e v i c i n i t ie s
o f E u rope whe re th i s o il is p ro d u ce d , tha t th i s a dvan tage
i s m o re th an compen sate d by the ca r ryin g an d c u stom
c h a rge s b y i m p o rti n g th e c a s ti l e s o ap .

Ca s tile soap may be m ade e ith e r by the f u l l boi le d o r

c o l d p r o c e s s T h e r e a r e n u m e r o u s g ra d e s of o l iv e o il ,
.

an d t h o s e u s e d fo r s o a p m a ki n g a re d e n a t u re d t o l o w e r
th e d u ty c h ar g e s O l iv e o il m ak e s a h a r d w h i t e s o a p ,
.

u s u al l y s ol d i n b a r s , a n d o l iv e o il fo o t s a gr e e n s o a p ,
d u e t o t h e c o l o r in g m a t t e r c o n t ai n e d i n t h i s o il .

T o m a ke a b o il e d c a s t il e s o a p , a c o m p o s i ti o n o f 1 0
p e r c e n t C o ch i n c o c o an u t o il a n d 90 p e r c e n t o l iv e o il
. .

m a y b e u s e d T o c h e a p e n t h i s , p e a n u t o il ( A ra ch i s o il )
.

m a y e n t i r e l y r e pl a c e th e o l iv e o i l , o r a b o u t 20 p e r c e n t .

o f co rn o r s oy a b ean O il m ay b e ad ded . Th e O il s a r e
s ap o n ifi e d a s u s u al i n m ak i n g a s e t t le d s o a p a n d t o
p r e v e n t ra n c i d i ty t h e s o a p i s b o il e d n e a r th e fi n i s h f o r
79
 S OAP MA KI N G
-
M A N UA L

s o m e t i m e i n t h e c l o s e d s ta t e w i t h s u fli c ie nt e xc e s s o f
al ka li t o g iv e i t a s h a r p t a s t e , t h e n g r a i n e d w i th l y e ,
t h e l y e d r a w n o ff , c l o s e d w i t h w a t e r a n d t h e n g ra i n e d
with salt . T h i s p r o c e s s i s r e p e a te d u n t il th e d e s i re d
s t re n gt h i s r e a c h e d . T h e l a s t gra i n i n g s h o ul d n o t b e
t o o gr e a t, a n d o n t h e l a st c h a n g e t h e s o a p s h o u l d n o t
be thinn ed o u t, as it w ill con t a in t o o grea t a qu an t i t y o f
w a te r w h e n s la b b e d .

I n m a k in g a c o l d c a s t i l e s o ap t h e u s u al m e th o d i s
p u r s u e d a s al r e a d y d ir e c t e d u n d e r c o l d m a d e s o a p .

W h e n t h e s o a p i s t ak e n f r o m t h e c r u t ch e r i t i s ad
vi s a b l e , h o w ev e r , to k e e p t h e s o a p i n th e f ra m e w e ll
c o v e r e d to a s s u r e c o m pl e t e s ap o n ific atio n S o m e m a n u
.

fac tu r e r s u s e v e r y s m al l f r a m e s w h i c h a r e p l a c e d i n t o
c o m p a rt m e n t s , w e ll i n s ul a t e d t o r e t a i n h e a t
. S everal
fo r m u la e f o r c o l d m a d e c a s t il e s o ap s , f o l l o w. I t m ay
b e no t ed t h a t s o m e O f t h e se con t a in p ractically no Ol ive oil .

O l iv e o il
P alm k e rnel
S o d a l y e , 35 p e r c e n t B .

II
O l iv e O il
C o ch i n c o c o a n u t o il
S o d a l y e , 36 p e r c e n t B .

S o d iu m S i l i c a t e

Pal m ke rnel o il
T al l o w
O l iv e o il
S o d iu m s il ic a t e , 2 0 p e r c e n t B
.

S o d a l y e , 36 p e r c e n t B .

80
 SOAP MAKI N G -
M A N UA L

e s c a p i n g i n n u m e r o u s p l a c e s i n r o s e l ik e fo r m a t i o n A
-
.

s a m p l e o n t h e t r o w e l s h o ul d h a v e a s l i gh t s h a rp n e s s
t o th e t o n gu e a n d b e p l as ti c . W he n th e s o ap slide s
fr o m th e t r o w e l i t s h o u l d b r e ak s h o r t W h e n t h e s o a p
.

has reach e d thi s s tage th e d e s i red colo ring m atte r , u sually

ul tramari n e , i s a dd e d to th e s oa p e ithe r in th e k ettle o r
c rutche r an d th e soap framed Th e yi eld i s 200 2 1 5 poun d s
.
-

pe r hun d re d p ound s o f stock .

S e v e r a l m o d i fi c a t i o n s o f th i s ge n e r a l m e t h o d fo r
E s c hw e g e r s o a p a r e u s e d b y a d o p t i n g th e h al f b o il e d
or cold p roces s .

TR AN SPA RE N T SO AP .

Tran sp a r en t so ap i s r eally no t a mo s t desi rable s oap for

toile t pu rpo se s , a s i t c on tain s an e x ces s of fre e alk ali I t .

has , n eve r t h el es s , me t w i th p u bl ic app roval becau s e o f th e

fact i t i s novel i n being t ran sp arent E xcep t fo r th i s fact
.

ve ry littl e me rit can be claime d fo r a s oap o f th i s kin d .

The tr anspa rency of soap i s gene rally du e t o th e p re s ence

O f alcoh ol , suga r o r glycerin e in th e soap wh en i t i s m ade

It i s ve ry e s s ential in a so ap o f thi s ch aracte r , wh e re l igh t

n es s an d clearn es s o f colo r are de si red , th a t th e mate r ial
fo r making th e soap b e ca refully selecte d a s to c olo r and
pu rity The pe r f u me s al s o play an i mp or t ant p art i n t h e
.

colo r o f th e soap an d many of th e tinctu re s , bal s ams an d

in fu s ion s u se d i n pe rfuming so ap may even t u ally cau se
t roubl e by spottin g I f th e s o ap i s artifici ally colo r e d , whi ch
.

i s al mo s t al way s t h e case , th e dye st u ff s u s e d fo r th i s

pu rp os e sh oul d h av e ca r eful attenti on an d only th os e should
be u se d which a re kn own to res i s t th e acti on o f alkali s .

Wh e re r os in i s u se d t h i s p ro duct mu st be o f th e bette r
grade D isti lle d w ate r i s always p r efe rable fo r us e i n t rans
.

pa ren t s oap Th e gove rnmen t p e rm its the u s e o f a specially

.

dena t u re d alcohol Th i s alcoh ol i s no t taxe d and con si s t s of

.

grain ( ethyl ) al cohol denatu red with 5 per cen t woo d .

82
 C LA S S I F I CA T I O N OF SOAPS
'

( methyl ) alcohol S o me s o ap maker s prefe r to u s e a mo r e

.

expen sive refin ed m ethyl alcoh ol , b u t outs id e o f a d ding

to the cost o f the soap , t he re i s n o particu la r a dvantage .

Th e glyce rine should be ch emically pu r e A s to the o il s .

and fats t h e se S hould be l o w in aci d and o f goo d col or .

Unde r n o ci rc u m stance s shoul d th e c rutche r o r kettle in

wh ich th e soap i s m ade be r u sty o r u nclean in any w ay .

Fo r a light soap en am ele d uten sil s are to be p refe r re d .

T o Ob t ain tran spa rency in soap the follow ing gene r al

metho d s may be given .

1 . Wh ere th e tran sparency i s du e to s u gar .

2 . Whe re alcohol an d gly c er in e p ro du ce t ran sparen c y .

3 .Wh e re ( I ) o r ( 2 ) i s su pplemented by th e u s e o f
casto r O il .

4 Whe re t ran spa ren cy depend s upon th e pe rcentage of

.

f atty aci d in a soap an d the n u mbe r o f time s th e so ap i s

milled .

Un de r th e fir st m eth o d at least 2 5 pe r cent o f th e charge

.

shoul d b e cocoanu t o il , the othe r con st itu ent bein g tallow

o r any fat o r oil capable O f givin g a s ufficiently h ar d so ap .

Th e soap i s bo ile d an d fini she d a s u sual , th en run t o th e

cr u tche r to b e m ixe d with a strong cane s u ga r sol u tion ,
contain ing 1 0— 20 pe r cent suga r o f th e w eight o f th e so ap
. .

Th e sugar i s di ssolved in it s o wn w eigh t o f wate r and the

solution h eate d to 1 75 d egs F be fo r e bein g ve ry sl owly
. .

adde d t o t h e so ap A s th e w ate r ev apo rate s , s oap s o f thi s

.

type show S pots du e to th e s u ga r t hu s bein g th rown ou t

_

of solu t i on .

T ran sparent s oap m ade und e r th e s econ d metho d may

be sapo nified a s u su al an d cons i st o f any go o d toil et bas e .

The soap i s r u n to t he c ru t che r an d m ixe d w ith 9 5 p e r cent .

alcohol in th e propo rtion o f one part alcoh ol t o two pa rt s

o f fa t ty aci d containe d in the so ap togeth e r with glyce rin e
in t h e s ame propo rtion '

83
 S OAP M A KI N G
-
M A N UA L

By t h e th i rd m eth od ca st o r oil alone may b e u s e d to

make th e s oap o r ad ded t o any o f th e above bas e s u p to
3 3 % p e r cen t o f th e ch a r ge
. I f ca sto r oil o nly i s u se d ,
.

but 2 pe r cent o r 3 p e r cent o f suga r i s requ i red

. . .

In t h e l a st metho d a comb in at ion of 80 pe r c en t t all ow , .

ve ry low i n free a c i d , 20 pe r Cent coco anut O il an d 5 pe r

.

cen t W W r o si n i s a s u itabl e cha rge Th e sapo n ification

. . . .

an d finish ing i s ca r ri e d ou t a s w ith a f ull boile d soap .

Th e s oap i s th en p lace d into a j ackete d v es s el , p rov i de d

w ith d ry steam c oil s , by whi ch t h e exces s w ater i s
-

evapo rated fro m th e so ap until it contain s 73 p e r cent fatty .

aci d s Wh en the thick m as s reache s th i s stage it i s frame d

.

an d wh en co ol i s suitabl e fo r obtain ing a semi t ran sp arency

which no w dep en d s upo n t h e numbe r O f ti me s th e soap i s
m ille d , it being , o f c ou r se , in fe rre d tha t no s ol i d ma t te r
of any s o r t b e adde d t o t h e so ap .

CO L D M A DE TR AN SPA RE NT SO AP .

Whil e t r an sp aren t so aps m ay be ma de by th e ab ov e

gen eral metho ds th ey are u su ally ma de by th e semi boile d -

o r cold p r oce s s B y thi s p r oce ss a m o r e s ati s fac t o ry soap

.

i s ob t aine d an d i t i s m o re si mpl e t o car ry out A detai led.

des c ription o f t h i s metho d i s be s t an d mo s t e asily given

by u sin g a typical fo rmul a .

Ch a r ge
Tallow
Coch in Cocoan u t O il
Ca s t o r O il
So d a A sh
S o da Lye , 36 degs B .

Suga r ( Can e )
Al c oh ol
W at e r (Di s t illed )
 C LA S S I F I CA T I O N OF S O A PS

To pr oc eed , first pl ace into a cru t che r or j acket ed kettle

th e oil s and fa t and hea t to 1 40 degs F . Then a d d the
.

sod a a sh dis solve d in about 30 p oun d s o f th e wate r, a fte r

which th e lye i s adde d an d th e mas s sti r red un t il a finge r
o r stick run ove r the su r faée leave s an imp rint Wh e re .

th e soap h as reach e d thi s stage , it i s w ell covered an d

allow e d to s tand about tw o hou rs o r u ntil it bulge s in th e
cente r , afte r which th e rest of the w ate r which should
contain no lime o r othe r mine ral sub stance an d wh ich i s
p referably d i stille d w ate r , i s added . Th e suga r i s then
slowly sh ovel e d in while th e ma s s i s sti rrin g an d finally
th e alcoho l i s pou re d in . Th e h e at i s then i nc rea sed t o
1 60 degs F by d ry s team an d th e soap c rutche d u ntil
. .

d i ssolve d
. Un de r no ci rcums tance s shou l d any soap be
allowed to remain above th e su rface o f th e m as s o n th e
si des o f th e mi xe r Th i s crutching ope ration con sum es
.

about on e h ou r, an d wh en fini s h e d t h e s oap shoul d stan d

in th e ve ssel abou t h al f an h ou r when a small sample is
taken out t o cool Thi s s ampl e s h oul d be clear an d show
.

an exce s s o f alkal i . I f it i s n o t clea r m o r e alcoh ol is

a d ded , i f n o t o f suffi cien t s t rength mo re lye pu t in until the
de si re d con d ition i s re ach ed Th e pe r fume an d colo r are
.

n ow added .

Th e soap i s t hen frame d an d allowe d t o s et afte r which

i t i s cut , allow e d to d ry slightly and th en p re s s ed To .

obta in a poli sh ed cake t r an sp arent soap s ar e o ften plane d

be fore p re ssing and a fte r p re s sing p olishe d w ith a so ft clo t h ,
dampene d w ith alcohol I n stea d o f f r aming t hi s soap , i t i s
.

“ ”
so metime s t u bed , th at i s to s ay , th e so ap fro m t he c ru tch er
i s r u n into speci ally con structe d tube s o f a sh ap e n e ar
th at o f th e de si re d cake and allow e d to c ool , afte r which
it i s cut an d p re ss e d All sc raps a re retu rne d to th e
.

cr u tche r , but in s o doing the soap i s slightly darkene d in

colo r It i s advi sable to exp os e a fini sh ed c ak e o f tran s
.

85
 —
S OA P MA KI N G M A N UA L

parent soap to the a i r for som e t ime a s by so do ing i t

becomes clearer .

O the r fo r mul ae fo r col d made tr an spa r en t soap s m ade

as j u st ou t lin e d foll ow
'

B lea c he d Tallo w
Co c hin Co co anu t O il
Ca s t o r O il
W W R o sin
. .

Can e Suga r
Wa t e r
Gly c e r in e
S o d a Ly e , 3 8 degs B .

Alcohol

T allo w
Coch in Cocoanu t O i l
Cas t o r O i l
S o da A sh
Wa t e r
S o da Lye , 3 8 degs B .

S uga r
Al c ohol

Ca s t o r O il .

Cochi n Co coanu t O i l
Tallow
Alcohol
Suga r
Wa t e r
Glyce rine
S o d a Lye , 3 8 degs B.
 C LA S S I F I CA T I O N OF SOAPS

Tallow
C ochin Cocoanu t O il
Casto r O il
Glyce rin e
R os in , W W
. .

S uga r
Wate r
Sod a Lye , 36 degs B .

Alcohol

Tallow 1 74 lbs
Coco anu t O i l 1 14
S od a Lye , 38 degs B. 1 70
Suga r 80
Wa t e r 72
Al c ohol 1 6 gal .

R o si n may be adde d in thi s f o r mula up to 20 pe r cent .

of fat s u se d an d th e tallow c u t down co r respon dingly .

S H A V I N G S O AP S .

The requi rements o f a sh aving s oap a re s o mewh a t

di ff e ren t than th o s e o f oth e r so aps T o be a goo d shav ing
.

soap th e lathe r p roduced the re fro m mu st be heavy , c reamy ,

b u t not gu mmy , an d remain mo i st w h en fo rmed o n t he
face The so ap itself sh oul d b e of a so ft con si sten c y s o
.

a s to read ily adhe re to th e face when u s ed in stick f o rm .

It shoul d f u rthe r mo re be n e u t ral o r nea rly s o to p r event

th e alkal i fro m sma rti ng du rin g sh aving .

S hav in g soap i s made i n the fo rm o f a stick , an d a tablet

fo r u se i n th e shaving mug Some s h ave r s p re f er to h av e
.

th e soap as a powde r o r c ream , wh ich a re cl ai me d to be

mo re co nveni ent meth o ds o f sh avi ng W hile a l i q u id

.

shaving s oap is not a s well known becau s e i t ha s no t yet

87
 S OAP MA KI N G
-
M A N UA L
be c o me popula r, so me s o ap fo r sh aving i s made in t h is
fo r m.

Fo rme r ly shaving so ap w a s e x ten s ively m ad e f ro m a

ch a r ge o f abou t 8 0 p ar t s tallow an d 20 par t s coco anu t O il
a s afib o il ed s ettle d so ap , b u t e ithe r making t h e strengthen
ing ch ange wi th p otash lye o r u sing po t ash lye in s aponi fy
ing the s t ock an d gra ining w ith salt S o ap s f o r sh aving
.

made in t hi s mann e r a re ve ry un sati s facto r y, as t hey do

not p ro duce a su fficien t ly thick o r lasting lath e r an d di s
colo r v e ry materi ally upo n ageing . Po t as s iu m s t ea r at e
fo rms an i deal l ath e r fo r sh aving , bu t r eadily h arden s an d
he nce n ee ds so me o f th e softe r o il s , o r glyce rin e inco r
p o r ate d with i t to fo r m a s ati sfacto ry s o ap fo r shaving .

Th e s elec t i on o f m ate rial s fo r making a s h av ing s o ap

i s impo rtant . Th e tallow u s e d shoul d b e w hite an d of
high ti t e r Cochin coco anut o il i s to be p refe rre d t o th e
.

othe r kin ds , an d the alkal is shoul d b e th e be s t fo r t ech

nic al u s e tha t can be pu rc h as e d— 76 pe r cen t cau s ti c so da
.

an d 88 92 p er cen t ca u stic po t a sh are sui t able B y t h e u se

-
. .

o f stea ric aci d i t i s a s i mple m a t te r to re ach t h e n eutral

po in t which can b e c are f u lly app ro xi ma t e d .

The follow ing a re sh avi ng so ap fo rmul ae which hav e

been foun d to giv e goo d s ati s facti on

Tallow
S t ea ric aci d
So da lye , 4 l B °

°
Pota sh lye, 3 4 B
Wate r
Gu m tr agacanth

Tallow
Co c o anu t o il
 S O A P MA KI N G
-
M A N UA L

alkal i d r op by d rop fr o m a bu r e tt e un t il a s ligh t pin k , not

yellow , t in t i s ob t aine d , an d no t i n g t h e colo r o f t he solu
t ion Th e s olu t ion sh oul d sh ow a ve ry ligh t pink when
.

t he s oap i s p rop e r ly neu t raliz ed When th i s s tage i s a r

.

r i v e d at th e gu m t r agacanth , p rev iously so f t en e d in w a t e r ,

i s c r u t ch e d in if i t is t o b e adde d Th e s oap i s t hen
.

f r am ed , str ipp e d in t h r e e o r f ou r days , d r i e d an d mill e d .

Th e fo r mulae a s give n ar e f o r sh aving s t ic k s , an d do

n o t r ea dily p r e s s u nle s s t h o r oughly d r i e d A mo r e s a t i s.

fa ct o ry r e s ul t i s obtaine d by ad ding at t h e m ill 2 5 per

c en t o f wh i t e t all ow ba s e t o Ob t ain a s a t i s facto ry mug
.

s oap .

S H A V IN G PO W DER .

Sh av ing pow de r diff e r s fr o m t h e soap s j u st de s c ribed

in b eing pulve r ize d , u sually a dding Up to 5 pe r cen t s t arch .

to p r e v en t ca k i ng
. Any o f t h e above s oap s , d ri e d bone
d r y , w i t h o r w i t hou t t h e ad d i t i on o f t allow ba s e make a
s ati s fac t o ry pow de r fo r s h a v i ng .

S H AV I N G C RE A M .

S h av ing c r eam i s now a v e ry popula r shaving m e diu m

du e to t h e r api di t y an d co nven ience w ith whi ch on e can
s h ave by t h e u s e o f t hi s p r o duc t Fo rm erly sh av ing
.

c r e am w a s m ade fro m t h e l iqui d o il s l ike Oli v e o il an d a

so ft f a t lik e la rd , togeth e r w i t h coc oanu t o il N ow , h ow .

eve r, m o s t o f t h e popula r shaving cream s ar e m ade from

stea ric ac i d an d c oco anu t o il , a s a fa r supe ri o r p ro duc t i s
Ob t aine d by t he u se o f t h es e sub stance s B y u s ing t he se a .

mo r e sa t i sfacto r y c r eam i s ob t a ined , an d i t i s fa r mo re

co nven ien t t o make Th e lath e r als o p r o duce d t h eref r om
.

i s mOr e s u i t able fo r sh av ing , be in g t h ick , cr eamy an d r e

ma i n i n g mo i st
‘

A few typical fo rmulae fo r sh av ing cream s o f t hi s typ e

a r e a s follow s :
90
 C LA S S I F I CA T I O N OF S OAPS

Co ch i n coco an ut
S t ea r ic aci d
Cau stic pot as h lye , 50 : B
Glyce rin e C P
.

Wa te r

Co c hin coco anut oil

S t eari c aci d
°
Cau stic potash lye , 3 9 B
Glyce rin e
W ater

Cochi n cocoan u t oil

S t ea ri c aci d
°
Cau stic po t ash lye , 39 B
Gly c e rine
W ate r

S t earic aci d
Glycerine C P .

Wat er
S odium c arbona t e
B o rax
'
To make a shaving cream by Formula I o r I I , the coco a
nu t oil an d glyce rine are fi rst pu t in t o a s u i t abl e mixing
appa r at u s o r c r utch e r , an d h eate d to 1 20 F A pa rt o r
°
.

all t h e po t a s h lye i s th en adde d an d the c ocoa nu t o il

91
 S OAP MAKI N G
-
M A N UA L

s aponi edfi . The rest o f the potash lye and the water are
t h en a dde d , an d w i t h th e mixe r r unning th e s t ea ri c aci d ,
p r evi ou sly m el t e d i n a l ead line d o r en amele d v es sel , i s
-

then pou re d i n in a stream an d t h e mas s sti r r e d un t il

smoo t h , ca re b eing exe rci se d no t to aerate it t oo much .

Th e c re am i s th en t es t e d fo r alkalin ity , t h e be s t metho d

bei ng by tha t de scr ibe d un d er sh av ing s oap , i n w hich
t h e sampl e i s di s s olve d in alcoh ol B ecau se o f t h e la r ge
.

quan t i t y of w ate r pre s en t , phenolph th al ei n i s u nsatisfac

to r y , a s d i ssoci ation o f th e so ap may show a pink i nd ica
t ion in sp ite o f th e fac t t h e mas s i s on t h e a c i d s i de Fo r .

a qu ick me t ho d o f t e sting the bite on th e tongu e i s a

s ati s facto ry c rite rion I f a co ole d s ampl e bi t e s th e t ongue
.

m or e s t ea ric a c i d i s ad de d u nti l t he r e i s a 3 % exces s o f th i s .

When th e p rope r n eutral izat io n h as t aken pl a c e t h e cre am

i s pe rfume d an d f rame d i n a speci al fram e , o r it m ay b e
all ow e d t o cool in th e mi xe r an d p erfu me d the nex t d ay .

Wh en cool the c rea m i s s train ed , o r pu t th rough an o in t

men t m ill , a fte r whi ch i t i s ready t o fill in t o t ube s .

Th e p roce du re fo r th e fi r s t pa rt o f Fo r mul a 1 1 1 i s t he
same as t ha t j u s t given Th e s econ d pa r t o f th e f o rmula
.

i s made th e s ame as a van ish ing c ream fo r t o ile t pu rp os e s .

To m ake t h i s , fi rst mel t t h e stear ic aci d a s al ready di r ec t ed .

D i s s olve t h e so d i u m ca rbona t e an d bo r ax in wa t e r an d
wh en di s solve d add th e glyce rin e an d s t ir Then h ea t.

° °
th i s solu tion t o abou t 1 00 1 20 F an d whil e s ti rr ing in
-
.

a sui t abl e m ixin g machin e into wh ich t h i s s olu t ion ha s

been p ou re d afte r being hea t e d , o r be tt e r still in whi ch
i t ha s been h e ate d by d ry ste am , ad d th e s t ea ri c aci d .

Continu e m ix ing u ntil s mooth an d th en allow t o cool , or

ru n in t o frame s to cool .

Wh en th e sh aving c ream an d v an ishi ng cream a re both

cool , t h ey a re m ixe d in th e p rop orti on o f on e o f th e
"

fo rme r t o t wo o f t he l a t ter I t i s claim ed t h at in t hu s

.

92
 S OAP MAKI N G
-
M A N UA L
°
To p r ocee d plac e the o il in a cr u tche r an d h ea t t o 1 40
F S i ft in t h e pumice and m ix thoroug hly
. The lye is
.

then added w hich c auses a cu r dling of the grain T he .

sti r r ing i s con t inu ed until th e grain c lo se s and t h e soap

i s s mo o t h , af t e r wh ich th e des i re d pe rfu me i s adde d an d
the so ap d roppe d into a f r ame an d c ru t che d by h an d .

When t h e s oap i s se t , it i s s labbe d , cu t in t o c ake s , dr ied

sl ightly and p re s se d .

L I Q UI D S O APS .

Liqu i d s oap s a re me rely s ol u tion s of a p o t a s h s o ap ,

u sually c o c o anu t o il s oap , although corn oil i s u se d t o
mak e a c he ap s o ap . O n e o f t h e diffi cul t i e s en counte re d
in l iqu i d s oap i s to k eep i t cle ar A t a low t empe r a t u re
.

a s edimen t i s o f t en fo rmed , bu t t hi s can be ove rcom e by

the u s e o f s uga r an d filte ring t h e s o ap t h rough a fil t e r
p r e ss a t a l ow t emp e r a t u re I n o rde r to preven t t h e s oap
.

f r om fr e ezing, i t i s n eces sa ry t o low e r th e freez ing poi nt

by th e a ddi t ion o f glyce rin e o r alcoh ol .

T o m ak e l iqu i d s oap by any o f t h e f o rmul ae given

below , th e o il i s fi r st run into a j acke t e d ke t tl e w ith a
°
sti rr ing devi ce , an d h eate d to ab o u t 1 20 F Th e p o t ash .

ly e i s t h en a d de d an d t h e o il s aponified When t h e sap onifi

.

ca t io n takes pl ace , e specially w hen co coanut O il i s u se d ,

t h e mas s sw ell s rapi dly an d m ay foam ove r the si d e s of
th e ket t l e unle s s w ate r i s u se d to ch eck t hi s , o r a ket t le
o f abou t fou r t o five t ime s th e capaci t y o f th e to t al cha rge
of s oap i s us ed W h en the s apOnificatio n h as o ccu rre d ,
.

th e suga r , bo rax an d glyce rin e a re ad ded , th e w ate r r un

i n an d t h e m ix t u r e s t i r re d un t il t h e soap i s t ho roughly
di s s olve d
. He a t a i d s mate ri ally i n dis solving t he soap .

Th e s oap i s th en allowe d t o co ol an d i f colo r o r pe r fu me

i s t o b e a dde d t h is i s sti r red i n , afte r wh ich t h e s oap i s
cool ed an d fil t e r e d o r el s e run di rec t ly in t o ba rr el s .

94
 C LA S S I F I C A T I O N OF S OAPS

Tallow i s no t s uitable for making a clea r li qui d soap

sinc e i t is t o o h igh in stearine wh ich when fo rme d in t o
the s t e arate makes an op aqu e s oluti on T he fo rmul ae
.

he r ew ith given h av e been foun d t o give goo d p ractical

r esult s .
O

Cocoan u t O il
°
Cau stic potash lye , 28 B
Suga r
B o r ax
Wa t e r

Co rn oil
°
Cau st i c po t ash lye , 26 B
Suga r
B o r ax
Wa t e r

Coco anu t O il
°
Cau stic po t ash lye , 28 B
Glyce rin e
Suga r

Formul ae I an d I I contain about 20 p e r cent fatty aci d s . .

It i s po s sible , o f cou rs e , to eith e r increase o r dec re ase

the p ercentage of fatty aci d by v arying t he amount o f
wate r T h e w ate r u s e d in m ak i ng li qui d s oap s , of c o u rs e ,
.

s houl d b e so ft , fo r h ar d wate r fo rm s in soluble so ap s

wh i c h p r ecip itate an d ca u s e a sediment .

95
 S OAP MA KI N G
-
M A N UA L

U SE O F H A RDE N ED O ILS IN TO IL E T S O APS .

Wh il e the introd u ction o f the hyd rogenati on o f Oil s i s a

deci de d a dvance in th e p ro ducti on o f s u itable ch eap er o ils
f o r soap making , comp aratively l ittle h ardene d o il i s e m .

ploye d fo r so ap m aking in Am eri ca u p to th e pres en t ti me .

I n E u rope , h oweve r , con si de rable a dvanc e has been made

by the u se o f s u ch O il s fo r man u fact u ring so ap t h erefro m
an d a n u mbe r o f plants t u rn o u t l arge q u antitie s o f hydro
g e n ate d Oil s fo r s oap making a s w ell a s fo r edibl e p u rpo se s .

R ecently a co mpany h as be en fo rm e d i n thi s c ountry fo r

ha rdening o il s an d it i s ve ry p rob able th at th e futu r e will
se e t h i s mate ri al e xten sively u s e d in ou r own co u n t ry , a s
thes e appear to b e th e one p re sent h op e of th e so ap manu
'

factu re r as a c heck on the eve r inc reas ing c o s t o f fats and

O il s now u se d i n making soap .

I t i s an u n fo rtun ate co n dition t h a t hyd rogenated o ils

p ro d u ce d ab roa d a re sol d un de r n ame s wh ich give ab
s ol u te l y n o in di cation as to th e oil which h as been harden e d .

The so fte r an d c h eape r o il s like fish oil , li n see d O il , cotton

see d oil , etc , a re gen e rally har d ene d fo r s oap man u factu re
.

to d i ff e rent de g ree s o f ha rd n e ss W h ile it i s impos sible t o

.

defin itely state j u s t wh a t p ro duc t s a s C an del ite , T algol ,

K r u to l in o r seve ral othe r co ine d name s o f h ardene d oi ls
are , va riou s inv e stigato r s have e x perim ented w ith t he m a s
to t h ei r adaptabil ity fo r p rodu cing toilet so ap s an d fo u n d
tha t s ui t abl e toilet soap s may be made from them W hile .

m any Ob j e ct ion s w er e at fi rst met w ith co nce r n ing s oap s

ma de from th es e p ro d ucts , a s to th ei r un sati sfacto ry saponi
ficatio n , t h e poo r lathe rin g qual ity o f th e s oaps an d t h ei r
o do r an d con seq u ent d i ffic u lty i n pe rf u m ing , th e r e s u lts of
mo s t investigato r s along th es e l in e s in dicate th at th e se i n
many case s w e re due to p rej ud ice again st o r un famili ar ity
w ith han dling oil s o f thi s type fo r soap m aking .

I n manu fac t u ring s oap fro m h ardene d O il s it i s u su ally

96
 S O A P —M A K I N G M A N UA L

oil i s a dvan t ageou s in a sh aving s oap A s an example o f .

a col d made so ap fo r sh avin g th e following may be tak en T .

Talgol E xtra 50 lbs .

Co c oanu t O il 10
La r d 10
°
S o da Lye , 3 8 B 20
Po t ash Lye , 3 7 B °
21
Thi s s oap may be m ad e in a crutche r by t h e me t ho d
gen e r ally u se d in m ak in g soap by th e col d p r oce s s .

T E X TIL E S O APS .

S oap i s a ve ry i mpo r t ant p r o duc t t o eve ry b ranch o f th e

tex t ile in du st ry Fo r w o olen fab r ic s i t i s u se d fo r scou ring ,
.

fulling an d t h row in g th e w ool ; in t h e s ilk in du s t ry i t is

nece s sa r y fo r degumming th e r aw silk , as well as f o r dye
ing ; i n t h e c o t ton mill s it i s u se d t o fini sh c o tt on c lo t h
and t o some ex t ent in bleach ing ; i t i s , fu rth e rmo re , e m
ploye d in a numb er O f w ay s in th e manu fac t u re O f linen .

La rge qu an t i t ie s o f s oap are th u s con su me d in an in

d u stry o f s o great an ex t en t an d th e requi re ments n e ce s
sita t e di ff e r en t soap s fo r t h e d i ff erent operation s We .

w ill , th e re fo r e , con s i de r t he s e in d etai l .

S CO UR I N G A N D FULLI N G S O APS F OR W OO L .

The s o ap s u s ed to scou r wool an d fo r fulling th e w oven

cloth a re u su ally made a s ch eaply a s po s sible Th ey are , .

how eve r , gen e r ally pu r e soaps , a s filling m ater ial s uch a s

so diu m s ilicate do es n ot readily ri ns e o u t o f th e w ool and
i f u s e d a t all mu s t be adde d ve ry sp aringly B oth col d .

m ade an d boiled s ettle d so ap s a re ma de fo r t hi s pu rpo s e .

Th e s oap i s gene ally sol d in bar rel s , hence i s run di rectly

r

to th ese from t h e c ru t che r o r s o ap k et t le As col d m ade .

so ap s t h e f ollow ing s e rve f o r wool scou rin g o r fulling .

f s eife ns ied er Z tg . p . 9 54 .

98
 C LA S S I F I CAT I O N OF SOAPS

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

II .

Palm O i l ( Cal aba r, un ble ach e d )

Hou s e Greas e
°
S oda Lye , 36 B
Wa t e r
S o dium S ilicate

H ou se G r eas e 1 85
Palm O il ( unbl eached ) 309
309
Water 39 1
S o da A sh 70
S o diu m S ili cate 60
Co rn Starch 10

Th e se so ap s are made in a c rutch e r by th e u su al p r o

ce s s fo r col d made s oaps , c rutch ed u ntil sm oo th , d r oppe d
-

in t o a bar rel an d c ru t che d by han d t h e n ext day o r j u st

be fo r e coolin g .

A s a Se t tle d s oap fo r the se ope rati ons the following

charge i s t ypi cal :

Pal m O il 34 part s
Cotton se ed foot s or its e q uivalent in
fatty aci ds
R o sin
Hou s e G r ea s e
99
 S O A P MA K I N G
-
M A N UA L

The meth o d o f boil ing suc h a soap i s the same a s fo r

any settle d s oap up to th e streng t h enin g ch ange When .

thi s s t age i s reach e d , s u fli c ient lye i s a dde d t o s trengthen

th e kettl e strongly I t i s then boiled down w ith clo se d
.

“ ”
steam on s al t b rine o r p ickl e until a sampl e of th e lye
taken f r om t he bo t to m stan ds a t l 6 2 2 B The soap i s °
-
°
.

then ru n in t o barrel s an d afte r s t anding t he rein fo r a d ay

i s han d c ru t ch e d un t il cool to p revent s t re aking o f t h e s o ap .

B e si des a s o ap of thi s t ype a settle d tallow ch ip s oap i s

u sed.

W OO L TH RO W ER S S O AP’
.

S oap s f o r wool t h r owing a re s ometi me s ma de from

ol ive oi l fo ot s but t he s e a r e o ften obj ec t ed t o becaus e
O f t he sulphu r li k e o d o r con v eye d t o t he c lo t h du e t o t he
-

metho d by wh ich t hi s o il i s extrac t e d w ith ca rbon dis ul

phide . A p o t a s h soap h arden e d s omewha t w i t h so da i s
al so u se d A s a fo r mul a fo r a su itabl e soap o f t hi s t yp e
.

thi s may be giv en .

O live O il Foots 12 p arts

Co rn O il 46
H ou se G r e ase 20
S o d a Lye , 36 B 3
°

Po t a s siu m Carbona t e ( d ry ) 534,

Pota s s iu m Hy drate ( soli d ) 23

Th i s s oap i s m ade a s a r un so ap by the gene r al

di rec t i on s already given fo r a soap t hu s m ade Th e ke t tl e .

i s boile d with op en an d clo s ed steam , ad ding wa t e r ve ry

slowly an d ai ming t o obtain a 220 225 pe r cen t yi el d o r
-
.

fat t y aci d conten t o f t h e fini sh e d so ap o f 46 p e r cent .

Wh en th e soap i s fin i sh e d a s ampl e coole d on a plate o f

gla s s should be neith e r slippe ry o r sho r t , bu t shoul d s tr ing
slightly Th e fin ish e d s oap i s ru n di r e ct ly i n t o b a rr el s
. .

1 00
 S O AP M A K I N G
-
M A N UA L

d egu mming t h e raw si lk an d i n si lk dyei ng R aw silk con .

si st s o f the tr u e s il k fibre know n as fibr o in and a gu mmy

c oa t ing , sericin , wh ich dull s t he lu s tr e o f t h e si lk unles s
r e move d . Fo r th i s pu rpo s e a sl igh t ly alkalin e ol ive oil
fo o t s s oap i s be s t a dapte d , although p al m o il an d p eanu t
o il s oap s a r e s o meti mes u se d , a s wel l a s soap s m ad e f r om

a c o mbinati on o f hou se g r ea se t o the ex t en t o f 30 pe r

cen t , t oge t he r w ith r ed oil o r s traigh t ol ei n so ap s , bo t h
.

o f wh i c h a r e ar t i ficially colo r ed green I n u s ing hou s e

.

g r eas e , i f 30 pe r cen t i s exce e de d i n c omb ina t i on wi t h

.

r e d o il, t h e t i t e r i s rais e d t o such an exten t t h a t t h e

s oap do e s no t rea dily rin s e f r o m the s ilk no r d i s solve
rea dily Th ey are als o no t a dvi sabl e becau s e th ey i mp a r t
.

a di s ag r ee able O do r to the si lk .

T o m ak e a so ap fo r t h i s pu rp o s e fr om ol ive o il f oo t s it
i s made a s a se t tl e d s oap , c a r e b eing t aken to t ho rou ghly
boil t h e m a s s o n t he s apo nific atio n change i n t h e cl os e d
s t a t e t o a s su re p r ope r s ap on ific ation Th e ke t tle i s u su ally
.

grain e d w ith lye an d g i ven a goo d w ash ch ange to r emove

the ex ce ss s tr eng t h . T h e change p r evi ou s t o the fini sh
shoul d no t be to o h e avy o r t o o l a r ge a nig r e r e s ul t s The .

l igh t e r t h e grain i s , t h e be tt e r t h e fin i she d ke tt le i s A .

yiel d o f 1 50 p e r cen t i s u sually ob t aine d T hi s so ap i s

. .

gene rally run t o a f r ame , slabbe d upon co ol ing an d p ac k e d

di re ct ly i n t o w oo den c ase s .

Fo r s ilk dyeing th e above s oap i s s ui t able , although any

w ell made s oap o f goo d o do r an d not r an c i d i s u s e able
-
.

Whi le soap alon e i s o ft en u sed in th e ba t h f o r s il k dyeing,

c e rt ai n dye s t uff s r equi r e t h e addi t ion o f a c e t i c o r s ulphu r ic
a c i d , wh ich s e t s f ree t h e f a tt y aci d s I f th e s e b e o f bad
.

O do r i t i s t a k en up by th e s il k an d i s di ffi cul t t o remove .

Th e mo st gene r ally u s e d so ap s are th e j u st men t ione d ol iv e

f o o t s soap o r a so ap ma d e fro m a goo d g r a d e r ed o il .

B o t h k i nd s a r e ex t en sively u s e d
1 02
 C LA S S I F I CA T I O N OF SOAPS

S O APS US ED F O R C TT O ON OOD S
G .

In t h e m anu fact u r e o f cotto n goo ds , a s compa r ed to the

wool an d si lk in du strie s , ve ry much le s s s o ap i s u se d and
i t i s only applie d t o the fini s h ed fab r ic eith e r to cle an the
cloth p rep arato ry to dyeing Or t o ai d in dyeing wi th ce rt a in
colo r s I t i s also u se d i n cal ico p ri n t ing F o r cle an sing
. .

th e clo th o r dina ry chip soap i s suitabl e although a mo r e

alkaline s oap fin ishe d a s a cu r d s oap i s an a dv antage in
th a t t h e f r e e alkal i contain e d t h erei n aid s i n r emoving t he
di r t an d ha s n o ha rmful eff ec t o n t h e c otton Fo r dye ing .

cotto n goo ds o r to b righten ce rt ain colo r s afte r dyeing

an olive Oil f oo t s soap i s mo st generally employed In .

calico p rinting s oap i s u se d t o wa sh an d Clea r the cl oth

afte r p rinting A soap fo r th i s pu rpo se should be ea s ily
.

soluble i n w ater an d contain n o free alkal i , r o si n o r fille r .

The b e st s oaps fo r u se in c al ico p rin t ing ar e ei th e r an ol ive

o il f o ot s s oap o r an olein s o ap .

S ULPH O N ATED O ILS .

While sulphon ated oil s are no t u se d to any grea t exten t

in t h e manu factu r e o f so ap , t h ey are u se d ve ry la r gely in
th e dye ing an d p rinting o f t urkey an d al iza r in e re d s o n
co tt on a s well a s othe r colo r s J u s t wh at ac t ion th ese o il s
.

h av e i s n o t known Tu rkey re d o il o r sulphonate d ca sto r

.

oil i s th e be s t known sulphon ate d o il .

Th e p roce s s o f making t h es e o ils i s s imple Th e equ ip .

men t neces sa ry i s a wooden tank o r ba rrel o f s u itabl e

capacity , approximately two an d a h alf t im e s t h e amoun t
of oil to be treated .Th ere are fu rth ermo r e r equ ir ed
oth e r t ank s o r ves sel s to ho ld th e solution s u s ed such a s
cau s t ic so da , ammon i a an d aci d The t ank to b e u s ed fo r
.

th e p repa ra t ion o f sulphona t e d o il s h ould be p r ov i de d

with a valve at the bo t tom o f th e t ank an d a gauge to
mea s u re the q u anti ty o f liqu i d th e r ein .

1 03
 S OAP MAKI N G
-
M A N UA L

Th e p r oces s i s carr ie d ou t as follow s '

Th re e hun dre d pound s o f ca s t o r o il a re place d in t h e

tank an d 8 0 poun d s at 66 deg B sulph u ri c aci d are . .

w eighed o u t in anoth e r v es s el Th e aci d i s run into .

the tank con t ain ing th e o il in a v ery t hi n s t ream wh ile

th e o il is w ell sti r red At n o tim e should th e temperat u re
.

exceed 4 0 deg C Th i s ope ration s houl d consum e at

. .

leas t an ho u r an d s ti r ring shoul d b e continue d h al f an

'

h ou r longe r t o in su re th e tho rough m ixing of the oi l w ith

the aci d . Th e m as s i s th en allow ed to s ettle fo r 24
h ou rs , af t e r w h ich 4 0 gallon s o f wate r a re added an d the
m ix t u re s ti rre d until it h as a un i form creamy colo r indi
cating n o d ark streak s T hi s m ixing p roce s s shoul d be
.

car efully ca rri ed ou t and wh en comple t ed allowed t o settle

,

3 6 hou rs . A t thi s poin t th e m a ss w ill h ave s epara t e d into

two laye rs , t h e lowe r laye r con sisting o f a wate r solu t ion
o f aci d an d t h e upper l aye r o f o il Th e fo rmer i s r un out
.

th rough th e valve locate d a t th e botto m o f th e tank An .

othe r wash m ay no w be given o r d ispen se d w ith a s de

s ired I n t h is wa sh t h e a ddition o f salt o r so dium su lphate
.

at t h e rate o f 1 % poun ds pe r gal lon o f wa t e r is a dvi sable .

A 2 4 d eg B cau sti c s o da solution i s p repar ed an d added

. .

slowly to t h e ac id ifie d o il w ith con stan t sti r ring Th e .

mas s firs t t u rn s creamy , t h en become s streaked , increa s ing

in streaks a s th e cau sti c solution i s pou re d in , an d finally
beco me s clea r an d tran spa rent Wate r i s now ad d ed
.

to b ring th e volu me to 75 gallon s T he o il i s n ow m ilky .

in appea rance , b u t th e a ddition o f a l ittle mo re s od a solu

ti on re sto re s th e tran sparency .

In som e cas e s ammonia i s u sed in add ition t o cau s t ic

u —
so da in n e tralizing the oil Th re e fou rth s of t h e amount
.

o f caustic so da requi re d t o comple t e t h e ne u traliza t ion i s

fi rst ad de d an d th en th e neu t raliza t ion i s co mplete d w i t h
a on e to o ne liqui d am monia and w a t e r solution .

1 04
 S OAP MAKI N G
-
M A N UA L

develop free fatty aci d of themselves and th at the devel

o p ment o f t h i s aci d re p re sents a lo ss in glycerine .T he
s electi on o f an O il o r fa t fo r soap making shoul d t he refo re
to a large extent be j udge d a s to i t s adap t ab ility by t h e free

f a tt y aci d c onte nt , as th e h igh e r t hi s conten t i s , t he grea t e r

i s t he lo s s in th e glyce rine e v en t ually Ob t aine d Glyce rin e
.

O ft en rep re s ents th e o nly profit to a s oap manufac t ure r .

I t i s ind eed nece s sary to de t e rm ine t he p ercen t age o f

f r ee fa tt y aci d befo re pu rch as ing a lo t o f stock t o be made
in t o s oap.

I n t aking up the que stion of glycer in e r ecov ery w e w ill

con s ide r t he vario u s me t ho d s t hu s
1
. Wher e the glyce rin e i s obtaine d fro m spen t lye by
'

s apon ifyin g th e fats o r o il s w i th cau stic alkal i .

2 Whe re th e glycerin e i s ob t ained by s apon i fying th e

.

fa t s o r oils by so me othe r meth o d t h an t h e above , o f w hi ch

the re a r e t h e following :
( a ) Tw itchell p ro ces s .

( b ) Sap o n ific atio n by lime in au tocl av e .

( c ) Sapon ification by ac id .

Sap o n ific atio n by wate r i n autocl av e .

( e ) Fermenta t ive ( E nzyms )

( f ) K r ebitz p roce s s .

REC OVER Y O F GLY C ER IN E F RO M SP E NT LYE .

Th e sp ent lye ob t ain ed from th e glyce rin e c h ange s in

making soap vari e s grea t ly, t h e quality dep en ding upon the
s tock s ap o n ifie d an d th e soap make r s care in h an dl ing t h e
’

op e ra t ion No t wo lye s run e xactly alike a s to p r opo r t ion

.

of t h e v a rio u s ingre di ents , alth ough t hey a r e all s im il ar

in con t ain ing th e same subs t an ce s e ithe r i n solu t ion o r
su spen s ion Spen t lye i s a wa t e r solution o f mainly g lyc
.

e r in e , fre e alkal i e ith e r a s cau s t ic alkal i o r carbona t e an d

salt , i nclu ding so diu m s ul fa t e , bu t fu rt he rmo r e con t ain s
so me so ap an d album inou s matte r ei t h e r in s olution o r
1 06
 GLY C E R I N E RE C OVER Y

suspens ion Upon standing in the storage tank the greate r

.

pa r t o f th e soap u sually s epa rate s w h en th e lye cool s I n .

o rde r to as s u re the greate st econo mi cal yield o f glyce r ine

by s apon i fying a fat w ith cau sti c s o da it i s neces s a ry to
obtain a p ropo rti on O f th r ee parts o f wate r to eve ry p a rt
o f fat mad e into s o ap Te st run s have show n that thi s i s
.

th e p rope r propo rtion and th at i t i s no t economi cal t o

grea t ly excee d thi s amount , an d i f a much le s s p ropo r ti on
i s u se d th e full yield of glyce rine i s n o t Obtain ed .

Th e spen t lye s contain va rying am ou nt s o f glycer ine ,

th e fi r s t change being riche st in glyce rin e conten t , an d thi s
being re duce d in the s u b sequ en t c h ange s I f the lye s al
.

w ays run high i n glyce rin e it i s an in dication tha t i t i s n o t

all being obtaine d Th e u sual pe rcentage i s fro m
. to
5% o r ev en mo re , alth o u gh the ave rage is s o mewh e re
aroun d 2 70 to T h e lye as i t comes fr om th e kettle
s houl d not contain any mo re th an to o f f ree

a lkal i calcu late d as so di u m carbonate , N a C O 3 I f th e p ro

.

po rtion i s high e r th an t h i s , it sh ows t h a t th e s ap o n ific atio n

has been conducte d with too h igh a p ropo r ti on o f alkali ,
a cond ition w h ich shoul d be co rrected in the k e t tle ro om .

An exces s o f fre e alkal i doe s n ot in t e rfere to any great

ex t ent w ith the su cces s ful recove ry o f the glyce r ine , bu t i

i s a waste o f bo t h alkal i an d the aci d u se d in neutral izi ng

thi s I t i s , the refore , mo re economical to run a s trong lye
.

ov er fre sh stock and n eu t ral ize th e alkal i thu s , r athe r t han

tre at ing th e lye fo r glyce ri ne recovery .

B efo re the spen t lye can be r u n into th e evapo rato r it i s

n ece ssary to remove th e albumin o u s impu ritie s an d s oap
an d to n eut ralize the e x ce s s alkal i t o betw een exactly n eu
tral an d alkali nity Th e lye sho u l d neve r b e fed
.

into th e evap o rato r in th e aci d con dition .

In o rde r to t reat t he spent lye s fo r evapo ration , t hey ar e

fi r st allow ed to cool in t he sto rage tank , after wh ich any
1 07
 S OAP MAKI N G
-
M A N UA L

so ap w hich m ay h ave s ep arate d i s ski mmed o ff an d r e

t u rn e d t o the s oap ke t tle Th i s lye i s t hen pu mpe d to t h e
.

tr e a t men t tank , an ordin ary t ank equipp e d w ith s o me

metho d o f agitating t h e l iquo r , ei t he r by a m ech ani c al
s t i rre r , s t eam blow e r o r c omp re s s ed ai r , until i t i s about
tw o fe e t fro m the top .

Afte r th e lye h as be en skim me d O ff it i s t ho roughly

agitate d an d a sampl e taken Th e amount o f lye in t h e
.

ta nk i s then calculate d . Sp en t lye i s about t i me s

h eav ie r t han wate r , o r w eigh s about 9 poun d s to t h e gallon .

Whil e t h e sampl e i s b eing te s t e d fo r alkal in ity i t i s advis

able to ad d s u lfate o f alu mina , w h ich m ay be d is solving
wh ile the sample i s being ti t rate d T hi s substance should
.

b e a dde d in t he p rop ortion o f anyw her e f r om 6 to 1 4

po un d s p e r thou s an d poun ds o f lye , depen ding upon the
amount o f i mpuri ti es con t ain e d th e r e in F o r a clean lye
.

s i x pou nd s p e r th ou san d i s su ffic ien t , bu t fo r an i mpu re

l ye a greate r quantity i s n ece s s ary Th e sul fate o f
'

alumin a u s e d sh oul d be fre e fro m a r senic an d sulfide s and

sh ould con t ain a m in imum amoun t o f gr i t ( s ili c a ) , as grit
reduce s th e li fe o f t h e pu mp valve s Thi s m ay b e e s t i
.

m ate d w i t h sufficient accu racy by r ubbing t h e fil te r ed o ff -

po r t ion s , in s oluble in w a t er be t ween t h e finge r s an d a

pla t e o f glas s Th e ob j ec t o f a d ding th e sul fa t e o f alumin a
.

i s t o t ran s form t h e so ap con t ain e d in t h e l ye in t o t h e in

s oluble alum inu m soap s , an d at t h e s ame t i me t o coagulate
th e albu minou s i mpu ri t i es I t mu s t b e re me mbe re d t h at
.

th e sul fate o f alum in a i s a d de d only fo r th e fresh lye put

‘

in t o t he t ank Thu s i f t h er e w e re
. poun d s o f lye in
th e tr ea t in g tank wh en th e fre sh lye was run in , an d
poun d s wh en th e tank i s filled , add ing nin e poun d s o f
sul fa t e o f alum in a pe r t hou san d o f lye , only 360 pou nd s
woul d be a d ded o r enough fo r p ound s Su lfate o f .

alum ina neu t ral ize s o ne th i rd o f i t s w eigh t o f cau stic

-
.

1 08
 S OAP MAKI N G
-
M AN UA L

1 36 X 2 lbs 60 B sul fu ric aci d to neu t ral

.
°
.

iz e t he to t al alkal i i n the po u n ds o f spen t lye .

Th e aci d i s a dde d an d the lye w ell sti rr ed , after wh ich

anot he r sample i s taken an d again titrate d a s b efo re From .

thi s t itra t ion th e amount o f ac i d to b e ad de d i s agai n cal

c u l ate d an d m ore aci d i s ad de d i f n eces sa r y Shoul d to o
.

much aci d h av e be en a dded , cau s t ic s oda s olution i s ad ded

u n t il th e ly e i s betw een exactly ne u tral an d alkali ne .

Th e filte red lye s at t hi s stage h av e a sligh t yellow i sh ca s t .

To b e su r e t ha t t h e lye s a re t rea t e d co r rectly th e p r ecip i

t atio n tes t i s a dvi sabl e .To car ry t h i s o u t fil t e r abou t 50
c c o f th e t re ate d lye an d divi de into t w o p ortion s in a
. .

te s t t ub e To one p o r t ion ad d ammoni a drop by d rop If

. . .

a clo u din es s develop s upo n sh ak in g, m ore alkal i i s a dded

to th e lye i n t he t ank To t h e o t h e r po rtion a d d a f ew
.

d rop s o f 1 to 5 sul furic aci d an d sh ak e t he t e st t ub e I f .

a p recip itate develop s o r th e s olution clou d s , mo re aci d i s

neede d W hen t h e lye s ar e t reate d rig ht n o clou dine s s
.

shoul d dev elop ei t h e r upon a d din g ammon ia o r t h e d i

l u t e aci d .

Th e p rop e rly tre a t ed lye i s t hen run th rou gh t h e fi l te r

p re s s wh ile sl igh t ly w arm an d th e filte re d lye i s fe d t o th e
'

evapo r ato r fro m th e filtere d lye tank . Th e lye com ing

f rom th e fil ter p re s s sh o u l d be clea r an d have a sligh t
yellow i sh cas t A s t h e p r es su r e inc re as es i t i s nece ssary to
.

cl ean th e p re s s o r so me o f th e p re s s cake w ill p as s th r ou gh

th e cloth s Whe re s odiu m s ilicate i s u s e d as a fille r , t h e
.

s ilica t e s crap sh oul d n eve r be re t u rne d to t h e soap ke t tl e

until t h e glyce rin e lye s h ave been wi th drawn Th i s p ractice
.

o f som e s o apmake r s i s t o b e s t rongly cen su red , a s it

cau se s deci de d di ffi cul ty i n filte ring th e lye , since du ring
t he tr ea t men t o f th e lye , free Silicic aci d in colloidal fo rm i s
p r o duce d by t he deco mpo sit io n o f th e so diu m s ilicate by
aci d Thi s o f t en p reven t s fil t e ring th e t rea t e d lye even a t
.

1 10
 GLYC ER I N E RE C OVE R Y

exce s s p re s su r e an d at i ts be s t retar d s th e filtering .

A s t o th e fil t e r p res s cake , t hi s may be best th r own away

in a s mall f acto ry Whe re , how eve r , th e output o f glyce rin e
.

i s ve ry large it p ays to recov er bo t h th e fatty aci d s and

alum in a i n the p re s s cake s!
I n so me case s , e speci ally wh en the lye s are very di r ty
an d the total re si du e in the c ru de glyce rine run s high , fo r
which the re is a pen alty u s u ally at t ac h ed , a d ouble fil tr a
tr atio n o f th e lye i s advi sabl e Thi s i s car ri e d o u t by fir st
.

making the lye slightly aci d in reacti on by th e ad diti on

o f alu m an d aci d , then filterin g T h i s filte re d lye i s t hen
.

neu t rali ze d to the p rope r point w ith ca u stic , a s al re ady

desc ribe d , an d p as se d t h rough th e fi lte r p re s s agai n .

While in th e m etho d o f t reating th e lye s a s given sul

fu ri e aci d i s u sed fo r neutrali z ing, som e Operato r s p re fe r
to u s e hyd rochlori c aci d , as th i s fo rm s so diu m chlo ride o r
common salt , whe rea s sul fu ric aci d fo rm s so diu m sul
fate , h av ing V5 the graining powe r o f s alt , which event
u all y ren de r s th e s alt u sele s s f o r grain in g th e soap , a s t h e

pe rcentage o f so d ium sulfate incre ase s in th e s alt Wh en .

the salt c ontain s 2 5 pe r cen t s o diu m sulfate i t i s a dvi sable

.

to th row it away S ulf u ric acid , howev e r, i s c on si de rably

.

c heape r than hyd rochlo ric an d th is m o re t han compen s ate s

the nece s s ity o f h av ing t o event u ally r ej ect th e recove red
salt I t may h e r e al so be ment ioned th at r ecov e red salt
.

contain s 5— 7 pe r cen t glyce rine which should b e wa sh ed

.

ou t in th e evaporato r be fo re it i s th rown aw ay Th e follow

.

ing table s give th e app roximate theo retical amount s o f

aci ds o f vari o u s st rength s requ i re d to neutral i ze o ne
po u n d o f cau stic so da :
Fo r 1 poun d o f cau stic s o da

a
lb s l 8 B hyd rochlo ric ( mu ri tic ) ac i d a r e requ ired
°

m
. . .

(6 0
2 92 B
66 ( 6

22
°
B .
 S OAP MAKI N G
-
M A N UA L

Fo r 1 pou n d O f cau stic s od a

lbs 50 B sulp hu ric aci d are requ ired
.
°
. .

H
60 B
0 66 ( 6
.

66 B
°
.

I t i s , o f cou r se , fea sible to n eu trali ze the spent lye with

ou t fi r st de t e rmining th e c au stic ity by t itrating a s ample and
thi s i s o ft en t h e ca se Th e op e rato r u n de r s uch conditi on s
.

firs t add s th e sulfa t e o f alumin a , t hen th e aci d , u sing

li t mu s p ap e r a s h i s in dica t o r Comparatively , t h i s meth od
.

o f t reatmen t i s much slowe r an d no t a s p o siti v e , a s t h e

'

amount o f ac i d o r alkal i to b e a dded i s at all t i me s u n

ce rt ain , fo r in the foaming o f th e lye s t h ei r action on l i t m us
i s mi slead ing ;
Afte r th e lye h as be en fil t e re d t o t h e fil t e re d ly e tank 11
i s fed t o t h e evapo ra t o r, th e meth o d o f ope ratio n of wh ich
v a r ie s somewha t w ith di ff e rent s tyl e s o r make s When i t .

firs t en t e r s th e evapo ra t o r th e lye i s about 1 1 1 2 B A fter °

-
°
.

°
bo iling t h e den si ty w ill g r adually ri s e t o 2 7 B an d r emain .

a t t h i s gravi ty fo r some t ime an d du rin g w h ich t i me mo s t

o f th e s al t i s d roppe d ou t i n th e s al t filte r A s t h e lye
.

concen t ra t e s t h e g r avi t y gradually ri ses t o 28 30 B , which °

-
°
.

i s h al f c r u de glycerin e an d con t ain s abo u t 60 p e r cent .

glyce r in e . S ome op e ra t o r s ca rr y t h e evapo ra t i on t o t hi s

po in t an d accumula t e a qu anti ty o f hal f c r ude b efo r e go ing
on t o c ru de A f t e r hal f cru de i s Ob t ained th e t emp era t u r e
.

o n t h e evap orato r increas e s , th e v acuu m increas e s an d t h e

pres su r e on the con den s a t ion d rai n goe s up ( u sing t h e s ame

amoun t of l ive steam ) A s th e liquo r grow s h eavie r th e
.

amoun t o f ev apor a t ion i s l es s , an d le s s s t eam i s r equi re d

n e c es s i t atin g t h e r egul ation o f th e s t e am p re s su re on th e
°
d r um When a t empera t u re of 2 1 0 F o n th e evap o r a t o r ,
. .

w i t h 2 6 o r mo r e inche s vacuu m o n t h e pu mp i s ar r i v e d a t ,
the c ru de s t age ha s b een re ach ed and th e liqu o r n ow con
t ain s abou t 80 pe r cen t glyce rine i n w hich shape i t i s
,
.

1 12
 S OAP MA KI N G
-
M AN UA L

t he e vapo r a t o r ; also s ave s t h e glyce rin e r e t aine d by t h e

sal t .

4 . Th e glyce r ine l iquo r s are p u re r a n d t hu s t h e tr ea t men t

o f t h e lye s i s ch eap e r an d s i mpl e r an d t h e evap o r ati on

l es s di fficul t .

5 Th e glyce r ine c an r ea dily be evapo ra t e d to 90 p e r cen t

. .

c r u de r a t he r t han 80 pe r cent c ru d e , t hu s s aving dru ms ,

.

labo r i n handling an d freigh t Th e glycerine f u rthe r more

.

r e c ei ve s a h igh e r rating and p rice , b eing know n a s sapon i

ficatio n c r u de which develop s n o glycol s in r efin ing it .

6 Th e f a t ty acid s obtain e d by t h e Twitch ell s ap o n ifi

. er

m ay b e conv e rt e d i n t o s o ap by carbona t e s , t hu s s aving

c o st in al k ali .

7 Th e r e i s a dec r ea se in th e o do r o f many s t rong

.

smelling st oc k s .

8 T h e glyce ri ne m ay b e Obtai ne d from h alf boi le d an d

.

c ol d made so ap s a s w ell a s so ft ( potash ) s oap s .

Wh il e t h e a dvantage s th u s outlined a re o f deci de d v alue

in t h e employm en t of t h e T witc h ell p roce s s , th e one grea t
di sadvan t age i s th a t t h e fatty aci d s obtain e d a re rath e r
da rk i n c olo r an d ar e no t sa t i s facto rily employe d for t h e
making o f a soap wh e re wh itene ss o f colo r is d esi re d .

To c a r ry o u t t h e p roces s th e p reviou sly he a t e d oi l o r

fa t to be s ap o n ifie d i s run into a lea d l ine d tank As .

g r eas e s an d tallow o ften c on t ain impu riti es a p reli minary

trea t m ent wi th sul fu r i c aci d i s neces s ary Fo r a grease .

pe r cen t o f hal f w ate r an d hal f 66 B sul fu ric aci d

.
°
.

The u ndilute d 66 B aci d

°
is t h e app r ox ima t e amoun t . .

sh oul d n e v e r be a dde d di rec t ly, as t h e grea se w oul d b e

ch arre d by t hi s T h e greas e shou l d b e agita t ed by st eam
.

aft e r th e r equ i r e d pe rcentage o f aci d , calcula t e d o n the

w eigh t o f t h e grea se , h as been a d ded Th e wa s h lye.

comi ng o ff shoul d be 7 1 0 B on a goo d cl ean g r eas e o r

° °
-
.

°
1 5 22 B o n c ot t o n o il o r a po o r grea se A s h a s been
°
- .
.

1 14
 GLYC ER I N E RE C O V ER Y

st a t e d th e g r ea s e i s h eate d befo re th e aci d i s ad de d o r th e

con den sation o f t h e s t eam neces sitate s th e a ddi t ion o f mo r e
aci d A ft er h aving bo il e d fo r 1 2 hou r s t h e gre as e i s
.
-

allowe d to settle fo r 1 2 hou r s an d run o ff th r ough a s w ivel

p ipe .

A fte r th e grea se ha s been wa sh ed , as j u s t explaine d ,

an d s ettled , i t i s pu mped into a cove re d wo oden tank c o n
tain ing an op en b r as s coi l Some o f th e second lye f rom
.

a p reviou s run i s u su ally lef t in t hi s tank an d th e grease

pu mp e d i nto this The amo u n t o f th i s lye sh oul d be abou t
.

o n e t h ir d to o n e h alf th e w e ight o f the grea se so th a t th ere

- -

i s abou t 60 p er c ent by w eight o f grease in the t an k af t e r

.

24 hou rs boiling . Wh e re occas ion s ari se wh en th e r e i s no

secon d ly e about 50 p e r cent by w eigh t o f di s tille d wa t e r
.

to th e amoun t o f grea s e i s r un into th e tan k to repla c e t he

lye. Th e s ap on ifie r i s then adde d t h r ough a gla s s o r
gran ite w are funn el a fte r th e content s o f th e tank h ave
been b ro u gh t to a boil I f th e boiling i s to be c ontinue d
.

48 h ou rs , 1 p e r cen t o f s ap o nifi
. e r i s ad ded Fo r 24 h ou r s
.

boiling ad d pe r cent Th e boiling i s continue d fo r 24 48

.
-

ho u r s a l low ing 1 8 inch es fo r boiling r o om o r th e grease

will boil ove r .

A fte r boiling has continu ed t h e requi re d lengt h o f t ime

th e mas s i s settle d an d t h e glyce rine wate r i s d rawn O ff to
th e t reatmen t tank Shou ld a pe r manent e mul si on h ave
.

fo rmed , du e to ad d ing too great an amou nt of sap on ifie r ,

a littl e sul fu ric aci d pe r cen t pe r cent ) w ill
.

readi ly b reak th i s D u rin g t h e ti me th is i s being don e th e

.

space betw een th e greas e and th e cove r o n th e tank i s kept

filled wi t h steam a s contact with the ai r da rken s th e fatty
aci ds .

T o the greas e remaining in th e tank di stille d wate r ( con

d en se d w ate r fro m steam co il s ) to one h alf its volume i s
-

ad de d an d the boilin g continue d 1 2—24 h ou r s Th e g r ease .

1 15
 S OAP MAKI N G
-
M AN UA L

is then sett1e d an d th e clea r greas e run o ff t h rough a

~

swivel pip e A laye r o f emul sion u sually form s b etween

.

th e clea r grea s e and ly e s o that i t m ay ea sily be d e

te r min e d when th e greas e h as al l been run off T o p re .

vent discol orati on o f the fatty aci d s it i s n ece ssa r y to

n eu t ral ize the lye with ba riu m carbon ate Th e amount o f .

thi s t o be a dde d depen ds upon the percentage o f sap o nifie r

u se d
. Abo u t th e weigh t o f s ap o n ifie r i s th e right
a mo u n t Th e ba rium carbonate i s ad de d t h rough th e fun
.

n el a t th e top o f th e tank mixe d w ith a l ittle wate r an d

th e lye t este d un t il i t i s n eu t ral to m ethyl o range in d ica t o r .

When th e fa t ty aci d s a re t hu s t reate d they w ill not da rken

u pon expos u re t o th e ai r when ru n o ff .

Fresh gre ase i s n ow p u mpe d i nto th e lye o r wa t e r r e

m ai ning in th e t ank an d the p roce s s repeate d .

Th e glyce rin e w a t e r o r fi rst lye i s r un to th e trea t ment

tank , t he fat ski mme d o ff an d neutral iz ed w ith lime u ntil i t
sh o ws pink w ith ph enolphthalein , a fte r h aving been tho r
oughly boile d w ith ste am Abou t . pe r cent lim e i s th e
.

p rope r amo u n t t o add Th e m i x tu re i s th en allow e d t o

.

settl e an d th e supe rna t ant mix t u re d rawn o ff an d run to the

glyce rin e evapo rato r fee d t ank Th e l ime w h ich h ol d s
.

con s i de rable glyce rine i s filte re d an d th e liq u o r a d de d to th e

o the r T he evapo ration i s carri e d o u t in two stages T h e
. .

glyce ri ne w a t e r i s fi r s t ev apo rate d to abou t 60 pe r cent .

glyce r ol , th en droppe d into a s ettling t ank t o s ettl e ou t th e

calciu m s ul fate T h e cl ea r liquo r i s then evap o rate d t o
.

cru d e ( abou t 90 pe r cent glyce rine ) an d th e s edi men t

.

filte re d an d al s o evapora t e d to c ru de .

A s t o th e amount o f sap o n ifier t o u s e on va ri ou s stocks ,

th i s i s be st de term ined by exper im e n t as t o how h igh a
percentage give s dark colo re d fat t y acid s Fo r goo d stock .

such a s clean t allow , p ri m e cotton see d o il , co rn oil ,

coco anu t oil an d stock o f t h i s kin d pe r cent sap o n ifier .

116
 S OAP MAKI N G
-
M A N UA L

e r al c on st i t u en t fr o m A me r i c an pe tr oleum , i t i s being manu

factu r e d in t hi s c ount r y, an d i t i s ve ry p r obabl e th a t i t w ill
replace th e Twi t ch ell r eagent becau s e o f th e advan t age s
de r ive d by u s ing i t , as comp are d t o the o l d T w i t ch ell
r eagen t .

Th e m eth o d an d equ ipm ent neces sary fo r employi ng

ei t h er t h e P fe il r ing o r K o n tac t r eagen ts i s exactly th e
same a s in u s ing t h e Tw i t ch ell p roce s s .

A UTO C LA VE SAP O NIFI C AT I O N .

Wh ile th e in tr o duc t ion of t h e Tw itchell p roce ss t o a

gre a t ex t en t r eplac ed th e autoclav e me t ho d o f sapo nifica
t ion fo r ob t ain ing fa t ty acid s fo r s o ap m aking, t h e auto
clave m e t ho d i s al s o u s ed Th i s p roces s con s is ts i n he a t
.

ing t h e p r eviou sly purifie d fa t o r O il in th e p re sence o f

lime an d w a t e r, o r w ate r only , fo r s eve ral hou r s , wh i c h
c au se s a s pli tt ing o f th e glyce ri de s in t o fat t y acid s an d
gly c e r in e Th e a d v an t age o f autocl ave sap o n ific ation ove r
.

t he Twi tc hell p r o c es s i s t h a t a grea t e r cle a v age of th e f a t s

an d o il s r e sul ts in l e s s t im e an d a t a sligh t ly le s s expen s e .

Th e glyce rin e t h u s ob t ain e d i s al so pu re r an d o f b e tt e r

colo r th an t ha t ob t ain e d by Twitchel ling t h e fa t s .

An au t o clave o r diges t o r con s i s t s o f a strongly c ons tr uct

ed , c lo sed cyl in d r ical t ank , u sually made o f copp e r , an d i s
s o bu il t a s t o r e s i s t in t e rnal p res su r e .Th e d igesto r i s
u su ally 3 to 5 fee t in di amete r an d fr om 1 8 t o 2 5 fee t h igh .

t may b e se t up h or izontally o r ve r t ically an d i s covere d

w ith an asbe s t o s j acke t to r e t ain t h e hea t V ariou s inle t s
.

an d o u t l ets fo r th e fats , steam , etc , a s w ell a s a p res su re

.

g auge an d s afe t y valve a re al so a n ecess ary par t of th e

equip men t .

LI M E SAPO NIFI CA TI O N .

Th e s apo n ific atio n in an au tocl ave i s u sually ca r ried out

by i n t rod u cing t he fats into t h e autocl ave w ith a p ercentage
1 18
 GLY C ER I N E RE C OVE R Y

of lim e, magn e si a o r z inc o x i de , toge t he r w ith w a t e r I f

.

th e fats contain any gr ea t amo u nt O f imp u ritie s , i t i s fi r st

necessary to pu r ify t h em e i t h e r by a trea t men t w ith w eak
su lfu ri c ac id , a s de sc ribed unde r th e Twi t ch ell pr oc e s s , o r
by bo iling t h em up with brin e an d se tt ling ou t the impu ri
t ie s fro m t h e h o t fa t .

To ch arge t he au t oclave a par t ial vacuu m i s crea t ed

th ere in by con den sation O f steam j u st be fo re runn ing th e
purified o il in from an eleva t ed tank Th e r equ i re d qu an
.

ti ty o f unslake d lime , 2 t o 4 pe r cen t o f the w eigh t o f the

.

fa t , i s run i n w ith th e molten fa t, toge th e r w i t h 30 p e r

c ent t o 50 pe r c en t o f wate r While
. . . pe r cen t li me i s
.

theo retically req u i red , p ractic e ha s shown th a t 2 pe r cent .

to 4 pe r cent i s s u fli c ien t The d ige sto r , h aving been

. .

ch arge d an d adj u s t e d , s t eam i s tu rne d o n and a p re ssu re

o f 8 t o 1 0 atmo sphe re s maintain ed the reo n for a pe rio d o f
s ix to ten hou r s .S ample s o f th e fat are t ak en a t
va riou s inte rv al s an d the percen t age o f fr ee fa tty ac i ds d e
ter min ed . Wh en the s apo n ificatio n i s compl ete d t h e con
tent s o f th e a u to clave a re r emoved , u s u ally by blow ing o ut
th e dige sto r in to a wooden settlin g tank , o r by fir st running
o ff th e glycerine wa t e r an d then blow ing o u t t he lime , s oap

an d fatty acid s Th e mas s dis charge d f r om th e diges t o r

.

s eparate s in to two l aye rs , the u ppe r con s is ting o f a mix

tu re o f lim e so ap o r rock an d fa tty acid s , an d t h e lowe r
”
laye r co ntain s th e glyce rine o r sw ee t wa t er The g lycer
.

in e w a t e r i s fi r s t ru n o ff t hrough a cle a r ing tank o r o il

separa t o r , if th i s h as n ot be en don e d i rectly fro m th e au t o
cl ave , an d t h e ma s s r emainin g w ash ed onc e o r t w ice mo r e
w i th wate r t o remove any glycerine sti ll r e t aine d by the
li me so ap Th e c alculated amoun t o f sul fu r ic aci d to de
.

“ ”
compos e th e lime r ock i s t hen added , an d the mas s agi
tated until t h e fatty aci d s contained t he rein are e ntirely
set fre e Ano t he r sm all w ash i s t h en g i v en and the w ash
.

1 19
 S O A P MA K I N G
-
M A N UA L

wa t e r a dd e d t o t he glycerin e wa t e r alr eady run o ff T h e .

glyce r in e w a t e r i s n eu t ralize d w i t h l im e , fil t e red an d con

cen t r ate d as in t h e Tw i t chell p r oce s s .

D ue to th e d iffi cul t ie s o f wo rking t h e au t oclave s apo nifi

ca t io n w i t h lime , deco mpo s ing th e large amoun t o f lime
so ap ob t aine d a n d dealing w ith much gyp su m for med
t h e reby wh ich c olle c ts a s a s ed i men t an d n eces sita t e s clean
ing t h e t anks , o t he r sub stance s ar e u se d t o r eplace l ime .

Magn e s ia , abou t 2 pe r c en t o f t h e w eigh t o f t h e f a t , i s u s ed

.

an d gives b e tt e r re sul t s t h an l ime O n e h al f to 1 p e r cen t

.
-
.

o f z inc oxi d e o f t he w eigh t o f th e fa t i s even b e tt e r

a dap t e d an d i s now b eing ex t en s ively employed fo r th is
p u rpo se I n u s ing z in c oxi de i t i s po s sible t o r e c ove r th e
.

zinc sal t s an d u s e t h e m ove r again i n t h e diges t o r , which

ma k es t h e p roc es s a s ch eap t o wo rk as w i t h l im e , w i t h fa r
m o re sa t i sfa ct o ry r e sult s .

A C I D SAPO N IFI CAT IO N .

Wh ile i t i s p os s ible t o sapon ify f a t s an d o il s i n an au t o

clave w i t h t h e a d di t ion o f aci d t o t h e fa t , u nl es s a s pecially
cons t ructe d d ige s t o r i s built , t he ac t ion o f t h e aci d on t h e
me t al from wh ich t h e au t ocl av e i s con s t ru cte d p r ohibit s
its u s e Th e aci d sapon ific atio n i s t h ere fo re carri ed ou t by
.

an oth e r me t ho d .

Th e m etho d o f p r o cedu r e fo r a c i d s apon ificatio n, the re

fore , i s t o fi r st pu ri fy t h e fa t s w ith dil u t e aci d as al read y
de sc r ib e d Th e pu rifie d , h o t o r warm , d ry fa t i s then r u n
.

t o a speci ally bu il t ac idifier o r a lead l in ed tank an d f r om

- -

4 p e r cen t to 6 p e r cen t o f concentra t e d s ulfu ric acid

. .

ad d ed t o t h e fa t , d epen d ing upon its ch arac t e r , t h e degree

o f sap o n ific ation requ i red , tempe ra t u re an d t ime o f sapon
ificatio n A t emp eratu r e Of 1 1 0 deg r ee s C i s main t ain ed
. .

an d th e mas s m ixe d f r o m f our t o s ix hou rs Th e t ank i s .

t he n al lowe d t o s e tt le ou t t h e t a r f o r me d du r ing t h e sapon

1 20
 S OAP MAKI N G
-
M A N UA L

fic atio n i s a rou nd , i ron ,lea d lin ed t ank w i t h a conical

s ap o ni -

b ottom , p r e f e r ably abou t t wice as long a s it i s wi de O pen .

and clo se d steam co il s a re al so nece s s ary i n t h e t ank .

The O il s a re fi r s t h eated an d run i nto thi s t ank The .

r ight te mpe rat u re t o heat thes e to i s abo u t 1 degre e to 2

degree s abov e thei r soli dification point Fo r liqu i d o il s
.

23 degrees C i s th e p rop e r he at s un de r 20 degree s C

. .

th e cl eavage tak es plac e slowly Fats titer ing 4 4 degree s

.

C o r above mu st be b rough t down i n t ite r by m ixing

.

with them O il s o f a low e r tite r a s th e fe rment o r enzyme

1 5 kille d a t abou t 4 5 degree s C . and thu s l ose s its powe r
o f s pl i tt i ng I t i s al s o nece ss a ry to h ave t h e fa t in t h e
.

l iqu i d s t a t e o r th e fe rmen t do e s n o t act Th e p rope r

.

tempe ratu r e mu st be mainta in e d w ith dry s t eam .

I t i s , o f cou rs e , n ece ssa ry to ad d w ate r , which may b e any

kin d de si re d , con den s e d , w a t e r f r o m s t eam coil s , w ell , city ,
e tc Fro m 30 p e r cent t o 4 0 pe r cent , on th e ave rage 3 5
. . .

p e r cen t o f w a t e r i s a dde d , as t h e amount n ece ssa ry i s

.

regulate d s o a s t o no t dilute the glyce rine w a t e r u n n ec e s

s ar ily . T o increase t h e hyd rolys i s a ca t alyzer , some n eu
tral s alt , u su ally mangan es e su lfa t e i s added in t h e p ropo r
tion o f pe r c en t appear s t o va ry d i rec t ly a s th e
.

s ap o n ifi c atio n numbe r o f the fa t o r o il .Th e appro x imate

pe rcentage s o f fe rm en t ive s u bstance t o b e a dde d t o va riou s
oil s an d fa t s follow :
Cocoanu t O il 8
Palm Ke rnel o il 8
Co tt on se e d oil 6 7
-

Li n see d o il 4—5
T allow Oi l 8 1 0%
-

Th e O il , wa t e r , manganes e sul fa t e an d ferment h aving

be en pl ac e d i n th e t an k in th e o r de r n ame d , t h e mixtu r e i s
agi t a t e d w i t h ai r fo r abou t a qu a rt e r o f an hou r t o fo r m

1 22
 GLYC ER I N E RE C OVER Y

an even emuls ion , i n wh ich st a t e t he ma s s i s kep t by s ti rr ing

occasionally with a i r wh ile t h e s apo nification i s taking
place A t empe ratu re i s main taine d a degre e o r t wo above
.

the t ite r poin t o f th e fa t w ith clo s e d steam which m ay

be ai de d by cove ring th e tank f o r a pe rio d o f 24 t o 48
hou rs The split t ing t ake s place r ap idly at fi rs t , t hen p r o
.

c e e d s mo re s lowly . I n 24 ho u rs 80 p er cen t o f t h e fa ts are

.

split an d in 4 8 hou r s 8 5 p e r c en t t o 90 p e r cent

. .

W hen the cl eavage h as re ache d t h e d esire d p oin t the

mas s i s h e ate d to 80 degrees 8 5 degree s C wi th li v e o r
-
.

in di rect steam wh il e s ti rring w ith ai r Then . pe r cent .

p er cent o f concentrate d su l f u ri c aci d dilu t e d w ith

water i s ad de d to break th e emul si on When the e mul s i on
.

is broken the glyce r in e w ate r i s allowe d to s et t le ou t an d

d raw n o ff . Th e glyce rine w ate r con t ain s 1 2 pe r cent .

to 2 5 p e r cent glyce ri ne an d con t ain s m angan ese sulfate ,

.

s u l fu ric acid an d albuminou s mat t e r Th r o u gh n eu t rali z a

.

tion with li m e at boiling tempe ratu re an d filtra t ion th e

impu ri tie s can almos t all be rem ove d afte r which the
glycerin e wate r may be fe d to th e evapo r a t o r Should i t be .

de s ire d to ove rcome th e troubl e du e to th e gyp sum fo r med

i n th e glyce rine , th e li me tre a t men t may be combine d with
a prev io u s t reatment o f th e glycer in e wa t e r w ith ba ri u m
hydrate to remove th e sul fu ri c acid , then late r oxali c aci d
to p recipita t e t h e li m e
.

Th e fatty ac id s obtain e d by spl itting w ith fe rment s a r e of

ve ry good colo r an d adap t abl e fo r soap m akin g .

K REB I TZ P ROC E S S .

Th e K r eb itz proce s s wh ich h a s been u sed to some e xt ent

in E u ro p e i s base d upon t h e conve rs ion o f t he fat o r o il
into l ime so a p wh ich i s tran sfo rm ed into th e so da soap by
the ad dition o f so di u m ca rbon ate T o car ry o u t t h e p roce s s
.

a conven ien t batch o f , say , poun ds o f fa t o r O il , i s run

in t o a s hall ow k e t tle con t ain ing to poun ds o f lim e
1 23
 S O A P—
MA KI N G M A N UA L

p r e v iou s ly sl ak e d w i t h to poun d s o f wa t e r Th e
.

m a s s i s slowly h ea t e d w i t h liv e s t eam t o almo st bo il ing

u n t il an emul sion i s Ob t ain ed Th e t ank i s t hen cove r e d
.

an d allow e d t o s t an d abou t 1 2 h ou rs Th e l ime soap thu s

.

fo r m e d i s d r opped fro m t h e t ank in t o t he h opp e r o f a

m ill , finely groun d an d conveye d t o a leech ing t an k Th e .

glyce rine i s w ash e d ou t an d t h e glyce r ine w a t e r r un to a

t an k f o r evapo ra t ion Th e s oap i s t hen fu r t h e r washe d
.

an d t h es e w ash ings are run t o oth e r t anks to be u s e d ove r

again t o w a sh a fre sh batch o f soap Abou t . poun d s
of w a t e r w ill w a sh t h e s oap m ade from poun d s o f
fa t wh ich make s be t w een an d poun d s o f so ap .

Th e fi r st w a sh con t ain s app rox im ately 1 0 p er cen t g lyc e r

.

in e an d u nde r o rd inary ci rcum st ance s t hi s o nly nee d b e

evapo r a t e d fo r glycerine r ecove r y .

A ft e r ex tr acting th e glyce rine t h e s oap i s s lowly in t ro

duc ed in t o a bo iling s olu tion o f so diu m c a r bona t e o r so da
ash an d bo ile d until th e so d a h a s r eplace d t he lim e Th i s .

i s in d ica t e d by the dis appearance o f t h e small lump s of

lim e soap Cau s t ic so da i s t h en ad ded t o s apon i fy t h e fat
.

no t conver t ed by th e l i me saponificatio n The so ap i s then

.

s al t ed ou t an d allow e d t o se tt le ou t t h e calcium carbon ate .

T hi s drop s t o t he bo tt om o f t h e k ettle a s a h eavy slu dge

en t angling abou t 1 0 p e r cen t o f t h e soap A po rtion of
. .

th i s s oap m ay b e r e c ove re d by agi t a t ing th e slu dge w ith

h ea t an d w a t er , pump ing t h e soap o ff t h e t op an d fil t er ing
t h e r ema in ing slu dge .

Wh il e t he soap t hu s obtain e d i s v ery goo d , th e p e r cen t

age o f glyce r in e r ecove re d i s grea t ly increas e d an d t h e
c os t o f alkal i a s carbonate i s l e s s Th e di sadvan tage s are
.

m any La r ge quan t i t ie s o f l im e a re r equ i re d ; i t i s d i fficul t

.

t o r e c o v e r th e soap from t h e lim e slu dge ; t h e op era t ion s a re

nume r ou s p r io r t o the s oap making p rop e r an d r a t he r c om
pl i c a t e d appa r a t u s i s r e q ui red
.

1 24
 S OAP MA KI N G
-
M A N UA L

he
t u s e o f v acuum V acuu m is intro duce d only wh en th e
.

d i s t illa t ion ha s p r ocee de d fo r a t im e an d th e in t roduction

o f t h i s mu s t b e ca re fully r egula t e d , els e t h e rap id influence
o f vacuum w ill cau s e th e con t en t s of th e s t ill t o ove rflow .

When d is t illation h a s b egun a con s t an t lev el o f fa t ty aci d s

i s re t aine d t h e rein by op en ing th e feed ing v alve to s ame ,
a n d t h e hea t i s s o regulate d a s t o p ro duce t h e de s i re d rate
o f distillati on A s soon a s t h e distillate flow s da rker and
.

slow e r , t h e fee ding valve to th e s till i s s hu t o ff an d th e

d is t illa t ion continu e d u ntil mo s t o f th e conten t s of th e still
are d i stilled o ff, wh ich i s I n d ica t ed by a r is e in t h e t empera
tu r e D i stilla t ion i s t hen d i scon t inue d , t h e s t ill s hu t down ,
.

an d in abou t an hou r th e content s a re s u fli c ientl y cool t o

be emp t ie d Th e res idu e i s run o ff in t o a p r op er r ec eiv
.

ing ves sel , t rea t e d w ith d ilu t e aci d an d u se d in t h e d i stil

lat ion o f t ar .

I n t h e di stilla t ion o f t a r th e sam e me t h o d as th e abov e

i s f ollow ed , only di stillation p rocee d s a t a h igh e r tempera
t u re Th e firs t po r t ion an d las t po r t ion o f t he distillate
.

fro m t ar ar e s o d ark t h a t i t i s n eces s ary t o ad d t h em to

a fre sh cha rge o f fat t y aci d s By a w el l con duc t e d distil
.

la t ion O f t a r abou t 50 p er cen t o f t h e fat t y acid s fr om the

.

t ar can b e u s e d t o mi x w i th t h e d is t i lled fat t y aci ds Th e

.

r es idu e o f t h is op era t ion called s t ear in e p itch o r c an dle t ar

con s i sts o f a h ar d , br ittle , d ark sub s t anc e E las t ic p itch
.

only re sul t s w he re di s t illa t ion h as be en k ep t cons t ant fo r

s ev eral day s wi t hout inte rr u pting th e p r oces s , an d r e
di s t illing t h e t a r In a goo d d istillation the d i stillat ion
.

lo s s i s to an d l os s in pi t c h Fat ty aci ds
wh ich a r e not acid ifie d d el ive r abou t 3 % o f p itch V e ry .

impu r e fa t s yield even a high e r pe rcentage in spite o f

ac i di fying Fo r a long t ime it w as found impos s ible t o
.

fin d any u s e fo r stearin e p itch , bu t in recen t year s a u s e

h as b een foun d fo r s am e in t h e elec t ri cal in s t alla t ion o f
cable s .

1 26
 C HAP T E R VI

An aly t i c al M e tho d s .

W h il e i t i s p o s s ib l e to a tta i n a c e r t a i n a m o u n t o f
effi c i e n cy i n d e t e r m i n i n g th e w o rth o f th e r a w m a t e r i al
e n t e r i n g i n t o t h e m a n ufa c tu re o f s o a p t h r o u gh o r
g ano l eptic m ethod s , the se are by n o mean s accu rate .

I t i s , t h e r ef o r e , n e c e s s a ry t o r e v e rt to c h e m i c al m e t h
o d s t o c o r r e c tl y d e t e r m i n e th e s e l e c t i o n o f fa t s , o il o r

o t h e r s u b s ta n c e s u s e d i n s o a p m a k in g , a s w e l l a s s t a n d
ar d iz in g a p a r t ic ul a r s o a p m a n uf a c t u r e d a n d to p r o p e rl y
r e gul at e th e gly c e r i n e re c o v e r e d .

I t i s n o t o u r p u rp o s e to c o v e r i n de t a il t h e n u m e r o u s
a n al y t i c al p r o c e s s e s w h ic h m a y b e e m p l o y e d i n t h e ex
a m in a t i o n o f f a t s a n d o il s , a lkal i s , s o a p a n d gl y c e r i n e .

a s th e s e a r e f u l l y a n d a c c u r a t e l y c o v e r e d i n v a r i o u s
te x t s , b u t r a th e r to g iv e b r i e fl y th e n e c e s s a ry t e s t s
w h i c h o u g h t t o b e c a r r i e d o u t i n fa c t o ri e s w h e r e l a r g e
a m o u n t s o f s o a p a re m a d e O c c a s i o n o fte n a r i s e s w h e r e
.

i t i s i m p o s s i b l e to e m p l o y a c h e m i s t , y e t i t i s p o s s ib l e t o
h av e t h i s w o rk d o n e b y a c o m p e t e n t p e r s o n o r to h av e
s omeon e in struc t h im sel f a s j u st ho w to ca rry out
th e m o r e s i m p l e a n al y s e s , w h i ch i s n o t a v e ry d iffi c u l t
m atte r . The va riou s stan dard solution s n ece ssa ry to
c a r ry i n g o u t t h e S im p l e r t i t r a t i o n s c a n r e a d i l y b e p u r
c h a s e d fr o m d e al e r s in c h e m i c al a p p a r a tu s a n d i t d o e s
n o t tak e e xt ra o r d in a r y i n t e l l i ge n c e fo r a n y o n e to o p

e r at e a b u r e t t e , y e t i n m an y s o a p p l a n t s i n t h i s c o u n t ry

a b s o l u t e l y n o a t t e n t i o n i s p a i d t o t h e ex a m in i n g o f r aw
m a t e r i al , t h o u gh m a n y t h o u s an d p o u n d s a r e h a n dl e d
a n n u all y , w h i ch , if t h e y w e r e m o r e c a r e ful l y e xa m in e d
w o ul d r e s ul t i n th e s av i n g o f m u c h m o r e m o n e y t h a n
127
 S OAP MA KI N G
-
M A N UA L

it co sts to e xa m i n e t h e m or h av e t h e m a t l e a s t o c c a
s io n al l y a n al y z e d.

A N ALYSI S O F F AT S A N D O I LS .

I n o r d e r t o a r r iv e a t p r o p e r r e s u l t s i n t h e a n al y s i s
o f a fa t o r o il , i t i s n e c e s s a r y to h av e a p r o p e r s a m p l e .

T o o b t a i n t h i s a s a m p l e o f s e v e ra l o f t h e p a ck a ge s o f
o il o r fa t i s t ak e n a n d t h e s e m ixe d o r m o l t e n t o g e t h e r
i n t o a c o m p o s i t e s a m p l e Wh i c h i s u s e d i n m a k i n g t h e
te s t s I f t h e o il o r fa t i s s o l i d , a t e s t e r i s u s e d i n t ak in g
.

th e s a m p l e f r o m t h e p a c ka g e a n d i f t h e y a r e l i qu i d , i t
i s a S i m p l e m a tt e r t o d r a w o ff a u n ifo r m s a m p l e fr o m
e a c h p a c k a g e a n d fr o m t h e s e to fo r m a c o m p o s i t e
sam ple .

I n p u r c h a s in g a n o il o r f a t fo r s o a p m ak i n g , t h e m a n u
fa c t u re r i s u s u al l y i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e a m o u n t of f re e f a tt y
a c i d c o n ta i n e d t h e r e in , o f m o i s t u r e , t h e t i t e r , t h e p e r
c e n t a ge o f u n s ap o n ifiab l e m a t t e r a n d to p r e v i o u sl y d e
t e r m i n e t h e c o l o r o f s o a p w h ic h w ill b e o b t a i n e d w h e r e
colo r i s an obj e ct .

DE T ER M I NATI O N O F F REE FATTY A C I D S .

S in c e t h e f r ee f atty aci d con t en t o f a fa t o r oil r ep re sents

a l o s s o f gl y c e r in e , th e gr e a t e r t h e p e r c e n t a ge o f f r e e
fa tt y a c i d , th e l e s s gl y c e r i n e i s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e fa t o r
o il , i t i s a d v i s a b l e t o p u r c h a s e a fa t o r o il w i th t h e l o w e r

f re e a c i d , o th e r p r o p e r t i e s a n d th e p ri c e b e i n g t h e s a m e .

W h i l e t h e m e a n m o l e c u l a r w e i gh t o f t h e m ix e d fr e e
fa t t y a c i d s v a r i e s w i t h t h e s a m e a n d d iff e r e n t o il s o r
fa t s a n d s h o ul d b e d e t e r m in e d f o r a n y p a r t i c ul a r
a n al y s i s fo r a c c u ra c y , t h e fr e e fa tt y a c i d i s u s u al l y e x
p r e s s e d a s o l e i c a c i d , w h i ch h as a m o l e c u l a r w e i gh t o f
2 82 .

T o c a r ry o u t t h e a n al y s i s 5 t o 2 0 gr a m s o f th e fat a r e
1 28
 S O AP M A K I N G
-
M A N UA L

T h i s m e t h o d , w h il e i t e l i m i n a t e s t h e n e c e s s i t y o f c al cu l a
t i o n , i s t r o u b l e s o m e i n t h a t i t i s d iffi c ul t to o b t a i n t h e
ex ac t w e i gh t o f fa t .

M O ISTU RE .

To c al c ul a t e t h e a m o u n t o f m o i s t u r e c o n t a in e d i n a fa t
o r oil 5 t o 1 0 g r am s ar e w eigh e d in t o a flat bo t to m di sh ,
t o ge t h e r w i t h a k n o w n a m o u n t o f c l e an , d r y s a n d , if i t
i s s o de si red . T he d i sh i s t hen he ate d Ove r a w ate r
b a th , o r a t a t e m p e r a t u r e o f 1 00 1 1 0 d e g s C , u n t i l i t
-
. .

no longe r lo se s w e ight upon d rying an d r ew eighing t h e

d i sh. O n e hou r sh ould elap se be t w een the time t he
d i s h i s p u t o n t h e w a t e r b a t h a n d t h e t i m e i t i s ta ke n o ff
to r e w e i gh . T h e d i ff e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e w e i gh t o f t h e
dis h i s pu t on th e wa te r bath an d t he tim e it i s taken o ff
w h e n i t r e a c h e s a c o n s ta n t w e i gh t i s m o i s t u r e . This
d i ffe r e n c e d iv i d e d b y t h e o ri g in al w e i gh t o f th e f a t o r
oi l X 1 00 g ive s th e p ercen t age o f moi stu re .

W h e n h i gh l y u n s a t u ra t e d fa t s o r o i l s a r e b ei n g an a
l y ze d f o r m o i s t u r e , a n e r r o r m a y b e i n t r o d u c e d e i t h e r
by the abso rption o f oxygen , which i s accel e rate d at
h i gh e r t e m p e ra t u r e , o r b y t h e fo r m a t i o n o f v o l a t il e fa t ty
acids . T h e f o r m e r c a u s e s a n i n c r e a s e i n w e i gh t , th e
l a t t e r c au s e s a d e c r e a s e . To o b v iat e th i s, t h e ab ov e
O p e r a t i o n o f d ry i n g s h o ul d b e c a r r i e d o u t i n th e p r e s
e n c e o f s o m e in e r t ga s l ik e h y d r o ge n , c a r b o n d i o xi d e ,
o r n i t r o ge n .

TIT ER .

T h e t i t e r o f a fa t o r o il i s r e al ly a n i n d ic a t i o n o f th e
a m o u n t o f s t e a r i c a c i d c o n ta i n e d t h e r e i n T h e t i te r,
.

expres s e d in degree s Centigrad e , i s the s oli difica t ion point

o f t h e fa tt y aci ds o f an o il o r fat In o r de r to carry ou t the
.

ope r a t io n a Cen t igra de t he rmom ete r g r adua t e d in on e o r

t wo t enth s o f a degree i s neces sary A t he rmo me t e r g r a d
-
.

1 30
 A NALYT I CAL M E T H OD S

u ate d b e t w e e n 1 0 d e g s c e n t i gra d e t o 60 d e g s c e n t i
. .

g ra d e i s b e s t a d a p t e d a n d th e g ra d u a t i o n s s h o ul d b e
cl e a r c u t a n d d i s t i n c t
.

To make the d ete r minatipn about 30 gram s o f fat a re

roughly w eighe d i n a metal d i sh an d 3 0 40 c u bic centi -

m e t e r s o f a 3 0 p e r c e n t ( 36 d e g s B a u m e) s o l u t i o n o f
. .

so dium hyd ro x i de , togethe r w ith 30 — 4 0 c u bic cen timete rs

o f al c o h o l , d e n a tu r e d a l c o h o l w il l d o , a r e a d de d an d th e
m a s s h e a t e d u n t il s ap o n ifie d H e a t o v e r a l o w fl a m e o r
.

o ve r an a sbesto s pla t e until t he soap thu s fo r me d i s dry ,

c o n s t an tl y s t ir r in g t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e d i s h to p r e v e n t
b u rn i n g . T h e d ri e d s o a p i s th e n d i s s o lv e d i n a b o u t 1 000
c u b i c c e n t i m e t e r s o f w a t e r , b e i n g c e r t a i n th a t a l l th e
al c o h o l h a s b e e n exp el l e d b y b o il i n g th e s o a p s o lu ti o n
fo r a b o u t h al f a n h o u r W h e n the s o a p i s i n s o l u t i o n
.

a d d s uffi c i e n t s u l p h u r i c a c i d t o d e c o m p o s e th e s o a p , ap
p r o xi m a t e l y 1 00 c u b i c c e n t i m e t e r s o f 2 5 d e g s B au mé
.

s ul p h u r i c a c i d , a n d b o il u n t i l th e fa t ty a c i d s f o r m a cl e a r
l ay e r o n t o p o f t h e l i q ui d A fe w p i e c e s o f p u m i c e s t o n e
.

pu t i n t o t h e m ix t u r e w il l p r e v e n t th e b u m p i n g c a u s e d b y
b o il i n g
. S ip h o n o ff th e w a t e r fr o m th e b o t t o m o f th e
dish an d w ash th e fat t y aci d s w ith boi ling w ate r
until free fro m s ulph u ric aci d . Collect the fatty
a c i d s in a s m al l c a s s e r o l e o r b e a k e r an d d ry th e m o v e r
a s te a m b a th o r d ry in g o v e n a t 1 1 0 d e g s C e n t ig ra d e
. .

When th e fa t ty aci ds a re d ry , c ool t hem to about 1 0

d e g s a b o v e t h e t i t e r e xp e c t e d a n d tr a n sfe r t h e m to a
.

t it e r tu b e o r s h o r t t e s t t ub e w h i c h i s fi r m l y s u p p o r t e d
b y a c o rk i n th e o p e n i n g o f a s a l t m o u t h b o t tl e Han g
.

th e th e r m o m e t e r b y a c o r d fr o m a b o v e th e s u p p o rt e d
tu b e s o it re a ch e s cl o s e t o th e b o t t o m w h e n in th e t i t e r
tu b e c o n ta i n in g t h e fa t t y a c i d s a n d s o t h at i t m a y b e
u s e d a s a s t i rr e r . S ti r th e m a s s ra th e r s l o w l y , c l o s e ly
n o t i n g th e t e m p e r a t u r e .T h e t e m p e r a tu r e w ill gra d

1 31
 S O A P—
MA KI N G M A N UA L

u all y fall during the sti rring o pe ration and finally r e -

m a i n s t a t i o n a ry fo r h alf a m in u t e o r s o t h e n r i s e f r o m
to deg s Th e h ighes t po in t to wh ich th e me r
.

c u r y r i s e s aft e r h a v in g b e e n s t a t i o n a r y i s t a ke n a s t h e
re a din g o f th e t it e r .

DE TER M I NATI O N O F U N SA PO NIFIABL E M ATT ER .

I n o r d e r to d e t e r m i n e t h e u n s ap o n ifiab l e m a t t e r i n
fa t s a n d o il s t h e y a r e fi r s t s ap o n ifie d, t h e n t h e u n s ap o n i
fiab l e , w h i c h c o n s i s t s m a i n l y o f h y d r o ca rb o n s a n d t h e
h i gh e r a l c o h o l s c h o l e s t e r o l o r p h y t o s t e r o l , i s e x t ra c t e d
w i t h e th e r o r p e tr o l e u m e th e r, t h e e t h e r e v a p o r a t e d
.

an d t h e r e s i du e w e i gh e d as u n s ap o n ifi ab l e .

T o c a r ry o u t t h e p r o c e s s fi r s t s a p o n ify ab o u t 5 gr a m s
o f fa t o r o il w i t h a n e x c e s s o f a l c o h o l i c p o t a s s iu m h y

d r a t e , 2 0 3 0 c u b i c c e n t i m e t e r s o f a 1 to 1 0 s o l u t io n o f
-

po t a s s iu m h y d r o x i d e i n al c o h o l u n t il th e al c o h o l i s
evapo ra t e d o v e r a s t eam ba t h . Wa sh t h e s o ap t hu s
f o r m e d i n t o a s e p a ra t o r y fu n n e l o f 200 c ub i c c e n t i m e t e r s
c a p a c i t y w i t h 80 1 00 c u b i c c e n t i m e te r s w a t e r
-
. Then
ad d a b o u t 60 c u b i c c e n t i m e t e r s o f e t h e r , p e t r o l e u m
e t h e r o r 86 d e g s ga s o l i n e a n d t h o r o u gh l y s h ak e th e fu n
.

n e l to ex t ra c t t h e u n s ap o n ifiab l e S h o u l d t h e tw o l a y e r s
.

n o t s e p a r a t e r e a d il y , a d d a f e w c u b i c c e n t i m e t e r s o f

al c o h o l , w h i c h w i ll r e a d il y c au s e t h e m to s e p a r a t e .

D r a w o ff th e w a t e ry s o l u t i o n f r o m b e n e a t h a n d w a s h
th e e t h e r w i t h w a t e r c o n t a i n i n g a fe w d r o p s o f s o d iu m
h y d r a t e a n d r u n to a n o t h e r d i s h P o u r t h e w a t e r y s ol u
.

t i o n i n t o t h e fun n e l a ga i n a n d r e p e a t t h e ex t r a c t i o n
o n c e o r t w i c e m o r e o r u n t il t h e e t h e r s h o w s n o d i s

c o l o r a t i o n C o m b in e t h e e t h e r e x t r a c t i o n s i n t o t h e fu n
.

n e l a n d w a s h w i th w a t e r u n t il n o a l kal in e r e a c t i o n i s
o b t a i n e d fr o m t h e w a s h w a t e r R u n t h e e t h e r e x t r a c t
.

to a w e i gh e d d i s h , e v a p o r a t e a n d d ry r ap i d l y i n a d ry i n g

1 32
 S O A P—
MA KI N G M A N UA L

fo r c o l o r T h e c o l o r t h u s o b t a i n e d i s a v e r y go o d c r i
.

te r io n a s to w h a t may b e e xp e c t e d i n th e s o a p k e t tl e .

B y m ak in g t h e a b o v e a n al y s e s o f fa t s o r o il s t h e m a i n
p r o p e r t ie s a s t o t h e i r a d a p t a b il i t y f o r b e i n g m a d e i n t o
s o a p a r e d e t e r m i n e d I n s o m e c a s e s , e s p e c iall y w h e re
.

a d ul te r a ti o n o r m ixtu r e s o f o il s a r e s u s p e c t e d , i t i s n e c
e s s a r y t o fu r th e r a n al y z e s a m e T h e m e t h o d s o f c a r ry
.

i n g o u t t h e s e a n al y s e s a r e full y c o v e r e d b y v a r i o u s t ex t s
o n f a t s a n d o il s a n d w e w il l n o t g o i n t o d e t a il s r e ga r d
i n g th e m e th o d o f p r o c e d u r e i n c a r ry i n g t h e s e o u t .

T E STIN G O F ALKAL I S U S ED I N S O AP M AKIN G .

T h e alkali s en t e ring in t o the m anu fac t u re o f s oap su ch

a s cau stic so d a o r sod iu m hy d roxi d e , c au s t ic po ta sh o r
potas siu m hy drate , ca rbonate o f so da o r so d iu m carbon a t e ,
carbon ate o f po t as h o r potas s iu m carbon a t e u su ally con
tain i mpu r i t ie s wh ich do no t en t e r in t o co mbin a t ion w i t h
t h e fa t s o r fat t y aci d s t o fo r m so ap I t i s ou t of t h e qu e s
.

tion t o u se ch emically p u r e alkali s in soap m aking , hence

it is Of t en nece ssa r y to dete r min e t h e alkalinity o f an
al k ali I t m ay again be pointe d out tha t in s apo ni fying a
.

n eutral fa t o r o il only cau sti c s o da o r po t ash a re e ffi cien t

an d t h e ca rbon ate contained in t h es e o nly co mb in e s t o a
mo r e o r le s s ex t en t w ith any free fa t ty aci d s con t ain ed i n
th e Oils o r f a t s . Cau s t ic s o da o r p o t ash o r lye s made
fro m th es e alkal is up on expo su r e t o t h e ai r are gra d
u al l y conve rte d
. in t o so d iu m o r p otas siu m ca rbon a t e b y
th e ac t ion o f th e ca rbon d io x i d e con t ai ne d in the ai r .

Wh ile the a mo u n t o f carb on ate t hu s for me d i s not ve ry

grea t an d i s gr eates t u pon th e su rface , all lye s as w ell a s
cau s t ic alkal i s contain s ome c arbon ate Thi s carbon a t e
.

in t ro duces an er ro r in t h e analysi s o f cau s t ic alkal i s when

accu r a c y i s r e q ui re d an d t hu s in t h e an alysi s of cau s t ic
so d a o r po t ash i t i s n ece s s ary to r emov e the c ar b on a t e
1 34
 A NALYT I CAL M E T H OD S

when th e t rue alkal ini t y as s odiu m hyd roxi de o r po tas

s ium hydrox id e i s d e si re d Thi s may b e don e by t itr a
. t ion
in alcoh ol wh ich ha s been ne u t ralize d .

I n o r de r t o d ete rmin e the alkalinity O f any o f th e above

mentione d alkali s , i t i s fir st n ece s sary t o obtain a r epr e
’

s ent ativ e sample o f th e s u b stance to be analyzed To do

.

thi s take small sample s f rom va riou s po rtion s o f th e pack

ag e an d combin e them into a c ompo site sample . Ca u sti c
po t ash and so da are h y gro scopi c an d s ample s S houl d be
w eighe d at once o r kept in a w ell stoppe r ed bot t le S odiu m
.

o r potas siu m ca rbonate can be w e ighe d m ore ea sily a s

th ey do n ot rapi dly ab so rb m o i stu re fro m th e air .

To weigh th e caustic so da o r potash place about five

grams on a w a t ch glas s on a balance an d we igh a s rapi dly
as po ss ible W as h into a 500 cubic cen t i mete r volu me t ric
.

flask an d bring t o t h e m ark w i th d i stille d w ate r P ipette

.

o ff 50 cubic cen t imete r s in t o a 200 c ubic c en t ime t er be ak er ,

d il u te slightly wi t h di stille d w a t e r , a dd a few d rops o f

methyl o ran g e i n dica t o r an d t it r ate w ith n ormal acid .

Fo r the carbon a t e s about 1 gram may b e we ighe d , w ash ed

into a 400 cubic c ent imeter beaker , d ilute d w ith d i st illed
wate r , methyl o r ange in dica t o r ad de d an d titra t ed w ith
no rmal aci d I t i s advi sable to u s e methyl or ange ind i
.

cato r in the s e titrati on s as phen olphth al e in i s a ff ected by

th e carbon d i ox id e gen e rate d wh en an acid reacts w ith a
ca rbon a t e an d doe s n ot give th e prope r end point , unles s
th e solu t io n i s boile d to expe l the carbo n dioxide Li t mu s
.

may al so be u se d a s the in dica t o r , but h e re again i t i s

n ece ssary to bo il a s ca rbon diox ide al s o aff ects thi s sub
s t ance As an ai d to th e action of th e se co mmon in d ica
.

t o r s th e following t able may be h elp ful

 S OA P MA KI N G
-
M A N UA L

C ol or in C ol or in
I ndicator . Acid Al kaline Action of
ion
S ol u t . S o l u tion . C0 ,
Me t hyl o range Re d Yell o w V e r y sligh t ly ac id
Phenolph t h al ein Colo r les s Red Ac i d
Litmu s Re d B lu e Aci d
I t m ay be f u r th e r s t a t ed t ha t m e t hyl o r ange a t th e n eu
tr al po in t i s o range in colo r .

T O calcula t e t h e p ercen t age o f eff e ct i v e alkali fr o m t h e

above t i t ra t ion s , i t mu s t be fi rs t p oin t e d ou t t h a t i n t h e
cas e o f cau s t i c po t ash o r s o da al iqu o it po rt ion s a r e
taken Th is i s d on e t o r e du c e t he e r r o r n ece s s a r ily in
.

volv e d by w eighing, a s t he ab so rp tion o f w a t er i s decide d .

Thu s w e ha d , s ay , exac t ly 5 gram s w h ich weigh e d

g r am s by th e t im e i t wa s bal anced Thi s w as d i s solve d
.

in 500 cub ic c en t ime t er s o f wa t e r an d 50 cub ic c entim e t er s

o r on e ten t h o f t h e amoun t Of th e solu t ion wa s t ak en , o r
in e ach 50 cub ic centi me t e r s t h ere w e r e gra ms o f th e
sample W e thu s re duce d t he e rr o r o f w eighing by o ne
.

t en t h p r ov i de d o t h e r con di t ion s in tr o du ce n o e r r e r
. In
th e cas e of t h e carbon a t e s t h e w eigh t is t aken d i r e ct ly .

O ne cub ic c en t i me t e r o f a no rmal a c i d s olu t ion i s the

equ ivalen t o f :
G r am s .

S o diu m Ca r bona t e , N aQ C O 3
So diu m Hyd r ox i d e , N aO H
S odiu m O xi de , N a2 0
Ca rbona t e IQ C O .
P o t a s s iu m Hydo x ide, K O H
Potas siu m O x ide ,
H en ce t o a r riv e at t h e al k al in i t y w e mul t iply th e num
be r o f cub ic cen t ime t e rs , r ea d on the bu r e tt e , by t he f ac t o r
opp os i t e t he t e r m s in whi c h we d e si r e to expre s s t h e al
kal inity, d iv id e the w e igh t in gram s t hu s ob t aine d by t he
o r iginal we igh t t ak en , an d mul t iply t h e r e s ul t by 1 00,
1 36
 S OAP MA KI N G -
M AN UA L

f a tt y mat t e r B e s id e s t h e s e i t i s o ften n eces sary t o d e

.

t erm in e in solubl e ma tt e r , glyce r in e , u n s ap o nifiab l e m a tt e r ,

r o sin an d suga r .

M O IST URE .

Th e an alys i s o f so ap fo r m oi s t u re , a t i t s bes t , i s mo s t
u n sa t i s fac t o ry , fo r by h ea t in g i t i s impo ss ibl e t o d rive o ff

all th e w a t er , an d o n t h e o t he r h an d vol atil e o ils d riv en

o ff by hea t are a par t o f t h e lo ss rep re sen t e d a s mo i stu re .

Th e u s ual me t ho d of dete rmin in g moi s t u re i s t o w eigh

2 t o 3 gra m s o f fin ely sh ave d s oap o n a watch glas s an d
he a t in an oven at 1 05 degre e s C f o r 2 t o 3 h ou rs Th e . .

lo s s in w eigh t i s r ep re s en t e d a s w a t e r , although i t i s really

impo s s ible t o d r ive O ff all t h e wa t e r in t h i s way .

TO o ve rcome the difli cu lties j u s t men t i on ed ei t h e r th e

S m i t h o r Fahrion m e t h o d m ay b e u s ed Allen r ecom .

’
men d s S m ith s m etho d which i s s ai d to b e t ruth fu l t o
’
w i t h in p er cen t F ahr io n s m eth o d , acco r ding t o
.

the autho r , give s r eliabl e res u l t s t o w ith in p e r cen t .

B o t h a re m ore rap i d t h an t h e ab ove manipula t ion To .

ca rry ou t the m e t h od o f S mith , 5 t o 1 0 gram s o f finely

groun d so ap a re h eate d ove r a s an d bath w ith a s mall
B un sen fl am e ben eath it, in a l arge po rcel ain c ru cible .

T h e heating t ake s 2 0 t o 30 minu t e s , o r u nti l n o fu rthe r

evidence i s p res en t o f w a t e r b eing d riv en o ff Thi s may .
'

b e t este d by t h e fogging o f a c ol d p iece o f gla s s h el d ove r

-

th e c r ucible i mmedi at ely upon r emov ing th e bu rn e r When .

n o fog appear s t he so ap i s con si de re d d ry Any lu mp s o f .

s oap m ay be broken u p by a small glas s ro d , w eighe d w ith

t h e c r u cibl e , an d w ith a roughene d en d to mo re eas ily
s ep ara t e t he lu mp s S houl d t h e soap bu rn , th i s can re adily
.

be de t ec t ed by t h e o do r , w h ic h, o f cour se , r en der s the

‘

an alys i s u sele s s Th e lo s s in weigh t i s mois t u r e

. .

1 38
 A NALYT I CAL M E T H OD S

*
By F ahr io n s me t ho d , 2 to 4 gram s of so ap are w eighe d
’

in a platinu m c rucible an d abou t t h ree time s it s weigh t

o f Oleic aci d , wh ich h a s been h ea t e d at 1 20 degree s C un t il .

all th e water i s dr iven o ff an d p rese rv e d from moi s tu r e,

i s a dde d an d r ew eigh e d Th e d ish i s t hen c autiou sl y
.

he a t e d w ith a s mall fl ame until al l t he wate r is d rive n O ff

an d all the soap i s di s solve d Care mu st be exerci se d no t .

t o h ea t too h ighly o r the Ole ic aci d w ill decompo se Th e mo .

ment th e wate r i s al l d riven o ff a clear sol u tion i s forme d ,

p rov id ed n o fille rs a re pre sent in th e so ap Th e di sh i s .

th en co ol ed in a des sic ator an d rew eighe d T he lo s s in .

weigh t o f aci d plus soap i s moi sture an d i s calcu lated o n

the weigh t o f soap taken Th i s dete rm in a t ion t ake s abou t
.

fifteen m inu t e s .

F REE AL KALI OR A CID .

( a ) Al c oho lic M e tho d .

Tes t a fresh ly c u t su rface o f th e s oap w ith a few d rop s

O f an alcoh ol ic ph enolphth ale in solu t ion I f i t doe s no t .

tu rn re d i t may be as su med free fat i s p resen t ; shoul d a

re d colo r app ear , fre e alkal i i s p re sen t I n any c as e di s .

sol ve 2 t o 5 gram s O f s oap i n 1 00 cubic centi me t e r s o f

ne u tral iz e d alc ohol and h eat to bo iling un t il in solu ti on .

F i lter o ff th e u n di ssolve d p or t ion contain ing carbonate .

etc , an d wa sh w ith alcoh ol A d d phenolph th alein to the

. .

filtrate an d tit rate w it h N/ l O ac id an d calcul a t e the pe r

cen t o f free alkali a s so dium o r potas sium hyd roxid e
. .

Shoul d th e filtrate be aci d in stead o f alk alin e, tit rate w ith .

N/ 1 0 alkal i an d calc u late the pe rcentage o f fre e fa t ty acid

a s oleic aci d .

The i nsoluble po rtion r emain ing o n t he filte r p ape r i s

w ashe d w ith w ate r until all t h e c arbon a t e i s d is solved .

Th e was h ings are th en titrated w ith N/ l O sul fu ri c aci d

’
Z ei t An g ew
. . C he m . 1 9 , 38 5

1 39
 S OAP MAKI N G -
M A N UA L

and exp resse d as s o diu m o r p ota s s i u m carbonate Should .

b o rates o r s ilicate s b e p re s en t it i s po s sibl e t o expres s i n

te rms o f th e se I f borax i s pres ent th e carbon di ox i d e i s
.

b oile d o ff afte r n e u traliz ing exactly t o methyl o range ; cool ,

add mannite an d phen olphthalein an d t i t ra t e th e bo r ic acid
w i t h stan d ar d alkal i .

(b ) B oss har d an d H u g g enber g M e tho dfl

In u sin g the alco holic meth od fo r t he d e t e rmin ation of
th e fr ee alkal i o r fat i n so ap t he re i s a po s sib il ity o f bo th
fre e fat and free alkal i be ing p re sent Upon b oiling in an .

alcoh ol ic s olu tion th e fa t w ill be s ap o n ifie d, thu s intro

d u c in g an e rro r in the analys is Th e m eth od of B o s shar d
.

and H u g g en b er g ove rcome s t h i s Obj ection T he i r me t ho d .

is bri efly a s follow s

R eag en t
s .

1 . N/ 1 0 hydrochlo ri c acid t o stan dar diz e N/ IO alcoh ol ic

s od iu m hyd roxide .

2 Appro xi m ately N/ 1 0 alcoholic so d iu m hyd ro xi de t o

.

fix an d con t rol the N/4 O stear ic aci d .

3 N/4 O steari c aci d

. P re paration : Abou t
. gram s of
s t e aric aci d ar e d is solve d in on e li t e r o f abs olute alcoho l .

th e sol u tion filte re d , th e s t r ength determine d by tit ration

again st N/ 1 0 N aO H an d t hen p rotecte d in a w ell s t op
pe re d b o tt le , o r be t te r still connecte d di rectly t o the
bu re t te .

4 A 1 0 pe r cen t soluti on o f bariu m chlo r ide

. . P rep ar a .

tion : 1 00 gram s of bar iu m chlor ide are d i ss olved in on e

lite r o f d i stille d wate r an d fil t e red Th e n eu tral ity o f the .

s olu tion shoul d be p roven as it mu st be neu tral .

5 a n ap htho l phthal ein in d icato r acc ording to So r eu

.

son . P rep aration : gram of a n aphthol phthal ein i s

di s solv ed in 1 50 cub ic c e ntimeter s o f alcohol an d 1 00 c ub ic
'

TZ e it An g ew
. . C he m . 2 7, 1 1 2 0
-

140
 S O A P —M A K I N G M A N UA L

i t i s advi s abl e t o fi r st r un a few blanks u nti l th e ey e ha s

becom e accu s t om ed to t h e change i n t h e indi ca t o r i n th e
s am e w ay Th e ch ange from g r een to r ed can th en b e
.

f
care ully obs e rve d .

Le t u s p resu m e 5 g r am s o f so ap wer e t aken f o r th e

analy s i s and 20 cubic centim e t e r s of N /4O s tea r ic acid
w er e requ i re d fo r th e t i t ra t ion then to calculate the
am oun t o f N aO H si nce t h e steari c facto r i s
20 X 2 N/4 O s teari c aci d r eally r eq u i re d .

1 cubic centi me t er N /4 O s t earic aci d p er cent .

N aO H fo r 5 gram s s oap .

A cubi c centim e t e r s N/4 O s t ear ic aci d X

p e r c en t N aO H fo r 5 gram s so ap
'

. .

H ence th e so ap conta ins pe r cen t N aO H

. .

I t i s nece s s a ry , h ow eve r , to make a co r rection by th i s

metho d . Wh en th e free alkal i amounts to ove r per
cent th e co r rec t i on i s
. and wh en th e fr ee alkali
ex ceed s p e r cent th e co rrection i s
. hence i n t h e
abov e cas e w e multiply by a dd t h i s am ount
to 0 004 064 an d m ul t iply by 1 00 to ob t ain t h e tru e pe r
centage S houl d th e alkal ini ty h av e bee n nea r
. pe r cent .

w e would h av e mul tipl ie d by an d a dde d th i s .

I f carbona t e i s al s o p re sent in th e soap , ano t h e r 5 gram s

o f s oap i s di s solve d i n 1 00 cubic centim eter s o f 50 p e r
cen t alcohol an d th e s ol u tion t itrate d di rectly afte r co oling
‘

wi th N /4O s t eari c acid , u s ing a n aphtho lp hthal ein o r

ph enolph th alein a s an i nd icato r , w ith ou t the ad diti on O f
bari um c h lo ri d e . From th e d i ff erence o f th e tw o t itr a
t i ons th e alkali p r es en t a s ca rbona t e i s determined .

I f th e deco m po s ed s oap solution is colo rle s s wi t h

ph enolph t h alei n , free fa t ty aci ds a re p res ent , wh ich m ay
b e qu ickly determ ine d w i th alcoh olic N/ 1 0 s odiu m hy
d r o x id e .

142
 A NALYT I CAL M E T H OD S

I N S O LUBL E M ATTER .

The in sol u ble mat t e r in soap may con s i s t o f o rganic o r

ino rganic sub stances Among th e o rgani c s ub stances w hich
.

are u sually p res en t in s oap ar e o a t meal , b ran , s aw du st , etc , .

whil e among th e comm on ino rganic o r mine ral co mpound s

are pu mi ce , silex , cla y, t alc , z inc oxid e , in fu so r ial ea rth ,
s an d o r o t he r mate rial u s e d as fille r s .

T o dete rmine insoluble matter , 5 gram s o f soap a r e di s

solve d in 75 cubic centi mete rs o f ho t wate r The s olution .

i s filte re d th ro u gh a weighe d goo ch crucible o r filte r pap e r .

Th e resi du e re main ing on th e filte r i s w ashe d wi th ho t

w a t e r until al l th e soap i s r emoved , i s then d r ie d to izon s tan t
i

we ight at 1 05 degree s C an d we ighe d Fro m t he di ffe rence

. .

i n weigh t of t h e gooch o r filte r p ape r an d the d ri e d re sidu e

re main ing the reon a fte r filtering an d d rying , th e to t al pe r
cen t age O f in soluble matte r may ea sily be calculate d By .

igniting the re s i du e and r eweigh ing th e amoun t o f in

solubl e mi ne ral ma t te r can be re adily de t e rmin ed .

STA RC H A N D E LATI N E
G .

S houl d starch o r gel atine be p res ent in so ap i t i s neces

s ary to ex t ract 5 gra ms o f t h e soap w i t h 1 00 cubi c centi
m eters o f 95 pe r cent neutrali ze d alcoh ol in a S oxhl et ex
. .

trac t o r until th e resi du e on th e e xtrac t ion th imble i s i n a

'

po wder fo rm I f n ece s sary th e app ar atu s shoul d be dis con

.

n ec te d an d any lump s c ru she d , a s th ese may contain s oap .

The re s id u e re m ai ning on t h e thi mbl e cons i sts o f all sub

‘

stances p res en t i n soap , in solubl e in alcohol T h i s i s d rie d .

an d w eigh e d so t hat any p ercentage o f i mp u riti e s not

actu ally d ete rm ine d can be foun d by di ff e rence Sta rch an d .

gelatine are s eparated fro m carbonate , sul fate an d b ora t e by

di ssolving th e latte r ou t th rough a filter w ith col d water Th e .

st arch an d gelatin e t h u s r emaining can be d ete rmi ned by

143
 S OA P MA KI N G -
M A N UA L
’
kn own me t ho d s , s t arch by the me t h o d of di rec t hydrolys i s
an d gel atin e by K j el dahl ing an d calcul atin g t h e co r r e spon d
ing amoun t o f gelatin e from the percentage o f n itrogen
2
therein .

TO TAL FATTY A N D RE SI N A C I D S .

T o the filtra t e fro m th e in solu ble m a tt e r a dd 4 0 c ubic

’

centi me t e r s o f half no rmal su lfu r i c aci d , al l t h e aci d being

a d ded a t once B oil , sti r t ho r oughly fo r so me minute s an d
.

keep w arm on a water bath until t h e fatty aci ds hav e col

l e cte d a s a clea r laye r on t h e su rface Cool by pl acing t h e .

beake r in ice an d syphon o ff the aci d wate r th rough a filter .

S houl d t h e fatty aci d s n o t re adily congeal a weigh e d amount

o f drie d bl each e d bee s wax o r s t eari c aci d m ay be a dde d to
-

th e ho t m ixtu re Th i s f u se s w ith th e hot ma ss and fo rm s a

.

fi r m cake o f fatty aci d s upon cool ing Wit hout r emov ing th e .

fatty aci ds fro m th e beake r , a d d abou t 300 cubic cen t imeter s

o f h o t w ate r , cool , syphon o ff th e w ate r th ro ugh th e sa me
fil t e r u se d befo re an d wa sh agai n R epea t w ashing , c ool ing .

an d syphoning p roce ss e s unti l th e wa sh wate r i s no lo nge r

aci d Wh en th is s tage i s re ach e d , d i s solv e any fa t ty acid
.

wh ich m ay h ave re maine d on t h e filte r w ith hot 9 5 p e r cen t .

alcohol into th e beaker c ontain ing the fatty aci ds Ev ap .

o r ate t h e alcohol an d dry th e beaker t o con stant w eig ht

ove r a water bath Th e fatty aci ds t hu s Obta ined r ep r e
.

s ent th e co mbine d fa t ty acid s , un combin e d fat an d '

hyd rocarbon s .

DE T ER M I N ATI O N O F RO S I N .

I f r e s in acid s are p res ent , t h i s m ay be dete r miiie d by

‘

the Liebermann Sto rch react ion

'
-
To ca r ry o u t t hi s test .

sh ake 2 cu bic cen t imete r s o f the fa t ty aci ds wi t h 5 c u bic

'

1
B u ll 1 07, B u r C h e m U S D e p t A g r i c u l t u r e
. . . . . . .

’ R i c h ar
ds an d G i e s Am J P h y s i o l ( 1 90 2 ) 7 , 1 2 9
. . . .

144
 S OAP MAKI N G -
M A N UA L

be gravi me t rically determin e d by washing t h e gasoline e x

t rac t w ith w a t e r , i t no t be ing n eces s ary t o wa sh ab solutely
fre e fro m aci d , the n ad ding gra m o f po t a ss iu m
hydroxi d e an d 5 cubic centime t er s o f alcohol in 50 cubic
cen t imeter s O f w ate r Upon sh akin g t h e re sin aci ds a r e
.

rapi dly s apo n ifie d an d ex t racte d by the d ilu t e alkal in e solu

tio n a s ro sin soaps , whi le t h e ethyl este r s r emai n in solution
in t h e ga sol ine D raw o ff th e so ap solu t ion , w ash t he
.

ga s olin e solution agai n w ith d ilu t e alkal i an d u ni t e t he

alkalin e s olution s D ecompo se t he alkal ine soap soluti on wi t h
.

an exces s o f hyd rochlo ric aci d an d weigh th e re sin aci d s

liberate d as in th e dete r mina t i on o f t o t al fat ty aci ds .

Acco rding to Lew ko witsc h, t he re su l t s ob t aine d by t h e

v o lu metr ic meth od w h ich ass ume s a combining weigh t o f
346 fo r re sin aci d s , a re ve ry l ikely t o be high O n the .

ot he r h an d tho s e obtained by the gravimetric me t h o d a re

too low .

1
Le i ste an d Stiep el h ave devi sed a s impl e r metho d fo r
the de t e rmin ation o f ro sin Th ey m ake u s e o f t h e fact
.

th a t th e r es in aci d s as s odiu m s oap s a re solubl e in ace t on e

an d p articula rly ace t one con t ain ing two pe r cen t wate r , .

wh ile t h e fatty aci d so aps are sol u bl e i n th i s solven t to

th e ex t en t o f only abou t 2 pe r cen t Fi rs t o f all it i s .

nece s sary t o s how th a t the s ampl e t o be analyze d con t ain s

a mixtu re of resin an d fa t ty aci ds T h i s may be done .

by t h e Liebermann Sto rch reac t ion al ready de scribe d

-
.

Glyce rine in t erfe re s w ith t h e me t h o d Two gram s O f fa t ty .

aci d s o r 3 gram s o f so ap ar e we ighe d in a nickel c r uc ible

an d d is solve d in 1 5 20 cubi c centi me t e rs of alcoh ol The
-
.

solution i s then ne utrali ze d w ith alcoh olic s o dium hydrox i de ,

u s ing p h enolphth alei n a s an in dica t o r Th e mas s i s con .

cen t r ate d by h ea t ove r an a sbes t o s pla t e until a sligh t film

S e i fe n s i e d e r Z tg . ( 1 9 1 3) NO . 46 .

146
 A N AL Y T I CAL M E T H OD S

fo rm s ove r it T h en abou t 1 0 gram s o f sh arp , gran u l a r ,

.

igni te d san d a re stirre d in by me an s of a sp a t ula , th e

alcohol fu rth er evapo rate d , th e mix t u re be ing con s t antly
sti r re d an d t hen tho r o u g hly d r ied in a d ry ing oven The
.

solven t fOr the coole d mas s i s acetone contain ing 2 p e r

cent w ate r It i s obtaine d f ro m acetone d rie d by i gnited
. .

s odiu m s u l fate an d a d ding 2 pe r cent w ate r by volu me

. .

O n e hun dre d cubic centi mete rs o f th i s solv en t are su ffi cient

fo r extrac t ing the above Th e e xt racti on o f the ro s in so ap
.

i s con d u cte d by a dding 1 0 c u bic centimete r s o f acetone

eig h t time s , rubbing the mas s tho rough ly w ith a spatula
an d decanting The decante d po r t ion s are comb ine d in a
.

beake r an d the s u spen ded fatty s oap s allo we d to sep arate .

The mixtu re is the n filte re d into a p revi o u sly weigh ed

fl ask an d washe d seve ral ti me s w ith th e acetone re main ing .

T he s olu t i on o f ro sin soap should sh ow n o s eparati on o f

soli d matte r a fte r h av ing evapo rate d t o half th e volu me
an d allow ing to cool I f a s eparation shoul d occu r anothe r
.

filtra t ion an d the sligh te st po s sible w a sh ing i s nece s sa r y .

T o co mp l ete th e analysi s , th e ace t on e i s completely evap

o rated an d th e mas s d rie d to con s tan t w eight i n a d ry ing
Oven The w eight foun d give s th e weigh t o f the r o sin
.

s oap I n con d u cting the dete rmination , it i s i m po rtant to

.

dry th e mixtu re o f s oap an d sand tho r o u ghly In dealing

.

wit h pota sh soap s it i s nece ss a ry t o s eparate th e fatty

aci ds fro m the s e an d u se th em a s ace t on e di s solve s to o
great a quanti ty o f a potash soap .

T O TAL ALKALI .

In t he filtrate remain ing afte r hav ing washe d t h e f atty

aci d s in th e determ in at ion o f to t al fat ty and r esi n aci ds
all the alkali p re sen t a s soap , a s carb on a t e an d a s hydroxi de
re mai ns in solution as sulfate Upon titrating thi s solu
.

tion w i t h hal f norm al alkali th e diff e rence between t h e

147
 SOAP MAKI N G
-
M A N UA L

half normal aci d us ed in decomposing the soap and alkal i

u se d in titrating t h e exces s of aci d give s th e amount o f
total alkali in th e soap By deducting t h e amou n t o f free
.

alkali p re sen t as carbonate o r hyd roxi de p revio u sly found

t he a mo u n t o f co mbined alkal i i n th e so ap m ay be
calcul ate d .

T p qu ickly dete rm ine to t al alkali in s oap a w eigh ed

p orti on o f th e soap may be ignite d to a w h i t e a sh an d th e
‘(ash titrate d fo r alkali ni ty u s ing methyl o range a s an in
dic ato r .

UN SAP O NIF IED M ATT ER .

D i s solve 5 gram s o f so ap in 50 c u bic centime t e rs o f 50

pe r cent al cohol Sh oul d any free fatty aci d s be p resent
. .

n eutral i ze t h e m w it h stan dard alkal i Wash into a sep ara .

t o ry funnel wi t h 50 pe r cent alcoh ol and extract wi t h .

1 00 cubic c entimeter s o f gasoline , boil ing a t 50 degree s to

60 degree s C W ash th e gasolin e w ith w ate r , dr aw o ff th e
.

wate ry l aye r R u n the ga solin e into a w eig he d dis h , evap

.

o rate the alcoh ol , d ry an d w eigh the re s idue as u n s apo n i

fie d m a t te r The re s idue con tai ns any hy drocarbon O il s
.

o r fats not co nve r t e d into s oap .

SIL I C A A N D S I L I C AT E S .

Th e in soluble silicate s , san d , etc , are p re s ent i n t he .

ignite d re si du e in t h e dete rmination o f insolubl e matte r .

S o di u m silicate , extensively u se d a s a fille r , h ow ever , w ill

only S h ow i ts elf i n fo rming a pa sty liq u i d Wh er e it i s .

des i re d t o dete r min e s o diu m sil ica t e , 1 0 gram s of s oap are

’

ash e d by ignition , hyd rochlo ric ac id a d ded to the ash in

exces s an d evapo rated t o drynes s Mo re hydroc hl or ic aci d .

i s th en adde d an d the ma s s i s again ev apo rate d until dry ;

then coole d ; moi s t ene d with hyd roch lo ri c aci d ; di ssol ved
in wa t er ; filte re d ; w ash e d ; th e fil trate evapo rate d t o dry
ne s s an d again taken u p wi t h hyd rochlo ric aci d an d wate r ;
1 48
 S OA P MAKI N G
-
M A N UA L

cubic c en t imete r s at a t i me , shakin g w ell af t e r each add i

tion an d le t s t an d un t i l cl ear Pou r O ff t he s oluti on
.

th rough a filte r into a w eighe d di sh an d w ash ou t t h e

fla s k w i t h a m ix t u r e o f t h ree pa rt s ab solute ethe r and t wo
pa r t s absolu t e alcohol E vapo rate t o a sy r up , d ry fo r on e
.

hou r at the t empe ratu re o f bo ilin g w a t e r , we igh , ign i t e

an d we igh aga in T h e l os s i s glycerin e T hi s mul t ipl ie d
. .

by give s t h e t o t al lo s s fo r t h e aliquo t po r t ion t aken .

T he glyce rine may al so b e d e t e r mine d by th e ace t in or

bich ro m ate metho d s afte r d riv ing o ff th e alcoh ol an d e t he r
i f s o de si re d .

S U GA R I N S O AP .

To de t e rmin e s uga r in so ap , u su ally p res en t in t r ans

pa rent so ap s , decomp o s e a soap soluti on o f 5 grams of
soap d i s solve d in 1 00 cubic cen t i me t e r s o f ho t w a t e r with
an ex c e s s o f hyd rochlo ric aci d an d s ep arate t h e f a tt y aci ds
as u su al Fil t e r th e aci d s ol u t ion into a gradua t e d fl as k
.

an d make up t o t he m ark Take an aliqu o t con t ain ing .

app roxi ma t ely 1 p e r cen t of r edu cing suga r an d de t e rmine

.

1
th e amoun t o f suga r by t h e S oxhl e t me t ho d .

GLY CER IN E A NALY SIS .

The m e t ho ds o f analyz ing glycer in e vari ed s o greatly

du e t o the fact tha t glyce rine contained impu ri t i e s w hich
acte d so much like glyce rin e as t o in t ro duce s e r iou s e r ro rs
in th e de t e rmin ati on s o f cru de glyce rin e Th i s l e d t o the .

appoin tmen t o f co mmit t ee s in th e United S t a t e s and

E u rope to i nves t iga t e t h e meth o d s o f glyce rin e analys i s .

A n in t ern ationa l co mmi tt ee me t a fte r t hei r inve s t igation s

an d deci de d th e aceti n metho d sh oul d con t rol th e buying
an d sell ing of glyce rine , bu t t h e m ore c onv eni ent
b ich r o mate metho d in a s t an dardi ze d f o rm migh t be u sed
1 B u ll 1 07, B u r . C he m U S D e pt A g r i c u l t u r e
. . . . .

1 50
 A NALYT I CAL M E T H OD S

in fac t o ry con t rol an d o t h e r t echnical pu rp ose s The .

following a re t he m e tho ds o f analysi s an d s ampl in g a s

s u ggested by th e inte rn ation al committee :

SA M PLIN G .

The mo s t sa ti s fac t o r y m e t ho d available fo r s amp l ing

cru d e glycerin e l i abl e t o contain su spend e d m at t er , o r
wh ich i s li abl e t o d epo s i t s al t o n s ettling , i s t o h ave t h e
glycerin e s ample d by a m u t u ally approved s ample r as so on
as po ss ible af t er i t i s filled in t o d ru m s , bu t in any cas e b e
fo re any s ep ara ti on o f s alt h as t aken place I n su ch c as es
.

h e sh all s ampl e w ith a s ection al s ample r ( s ee appen di x )

then seal t he drum s , b ran d th em w ith a n umb e r fo r
i dentificati on , an d keep a reco r d o f t h e b ran d number .

Th e p res enc e o f any vi s ible s alt o r other s uspen d ed m at

t er i s t o be n o t ed by t h e s ampler , an d a repo r t o f th e s am e
m ad e in h i s certificate , t ogeth e r wi th th e tempe rat u r e o f
t h e glycerin e . E ach d rum m u s t be s ample d Glycerin e
.

whi c h h as d epo si ted s alt o r oth er s oli d m a tte r c ann o t be

accu ra t ely s ample d from th e d ru m s , bu t an app ro xi m ate
s ample can be Ob t aine d by m ean s O f th e s ecti on al s ampler ,
which will allo w a complete v er t ical s ecti on o f the glycerine
to be t ak en inclu ding any depo s i t .

A NALY SIS .

1 . D e ter minatio nf o F r ee C au s ti c Al kal i — P u t 20

gr am s
O f t h e s ampl e in t o a 1 00 cc flask , d ilute w i t h appr ox
.

imatel y 50 cc o f freshly bo iled d i s tilled w ate r , ad d an

'

ex ces s of n eu tral bariu m ch lori d e sol u t ion , 1 c c o f .

ph en olph t h alein solu tion , m ake u p to t h e m ark an d m ix .

Allo w th e precipitate to s ettle , d r aw O ff 50 cc o f th e clea r

.

liqui d an d ti t r ate wi th norm al aci d Calcula t e t h e

percen t age o f N a,O exi s t ing as c aus tic alkali .

2 .D e ter minatio n o f As h an d To tal Alkalini ty — Weigh

1 51
 S O A P—
MAK I N G MAN UA L

2 t o 5 gram s o f t h e s ample in a pla t inu m d i sh , bu r n off t h e

glycerin e ove r a lum inou s Argan d bu rn er o r o th er sou rce
1
o f h ea t , givin g a lo w temperat u r e , to av oi d vol a t ili zation
an d t h e fo rm ation o f sulphi des Wh en t h e m as s i s ch ar red
.

to t h e poin t th at wate r will n ot be colo r ed by s oluble o r

g an ic m atter , lixivi a t e w i t h h o t di s t i lle d wa t er , fil t e r , w ash
an d igni te th e r es i du e in t h e pl atinu m di sh R etu rn th e .

filtrate an d wash ings t o th e d i sh , ev apo r ate t h e w a t er , an d

caref u lly ign i t e w itho u t fu s ion W eigh th e ash . .

D i s s olv e th e ash in d i s t ill ed wate r an d ti t rate to t al al

kal in ity, u s ing as in d ica t o r m e t hyl o range cold o r litm u s
bo iling .

3 D e ter min atio n o f Al kal i P r es e n t as C ar bo nate —T ake

.

1 0 grams o f the s ample , d ilu t e w ith 50 cc di stilled w a t e r , .

add suffici en t N / l aci d t o n eu t r al iz e the to tal alkal i fo u nd

at bo il un d er a r e flux con den s er fo r 1 5 to 20 min u te s ,
w as h down th e con d en s er t u b e wi th d i sti lled w ater , f ree
fro m carbon d ioxi de , an d t h en t i t r ate b ack with N / l .

N aO H , u sing p henolphthalein as indicator Calc u late the .

percentage o f N a D educ t the N a O found in ( l ) The

.
z .

d iff erence i s the percentage o f N a O exis ting as carbonate g .

4 Al kal i C o mbine d wi th O r g anic Acids —

. Th e su m o f .

t he percen t ages o f N a,O foun d a t ( 1 ) an d ( 3 ) d educ t ed

fro m t h e pe rcentage foun d a t ( 2 ) i s a m easu r e o f t h e
Na O o r oth er alkali co mbin ed with o rganic aci ds
z .

5 D e ter minati o n o f Acidity —

. Take 1 0 gr am s o f th e
.

sample , dilute with 50 cc d i stilled water fre e from c arbon

’

dioxi d e , an d t itrate with N / l N aO H an d p h enolp hth alein .

E xp re s s in te rm s o f N a O requ i r e d to n eu t ral ize 1 00 gram s

z .

6 D e ter minatio n o f T o tal R es id u e at 1 60 C — Fo r th i s

°
. .

determ in ation th e c ru d e glycerin e sh oul d be sligh tly alk a

lin e wi t h N a C 0 n o t exceeding
2 3 p er cen t N a O , i n .
Q

1
C ar b o n is r ea dily b u r n e d o ff c o mpl et e l y , wi t h o u t lo ss Of ch or l
d es , in h e ate d m u ffl e fu n ac e ad j u s t e d d u ll
0

I a g as - r to a re d b es t .

1 52
 aO AP M A K I N G
-
M A N UA L

a rotary mo t ion t he residu e b rought w holly o r nearly

in t o s olu t ion T h e d i sh i s t hen allo wed t o r emain on a
.

wa t e r bath o r top o f t h e ov en unti l th e exces s w a t er h as

evapo rated an d the r es i du e i s i n s uch a con di t ion th at
on re t u rn ing t o th e ov en a t 1 60 C i t wi ll no t spu r t Th e
°
. .

ti me t aken up t o t h i s p oin t canno t b e given d efinitely , n o r

i s i t i mpo r t an t Usu ally t wo o r th r ee h ou rs are r equi red
. .

Fro m thi s po in t , ho weve r , t h e s ch edule o f ti me mu s t be

s t ric t ly adh ere d to T he d i sh i s allo we d to r emain in
.

th e oven , t he temp er a t u re o f wh ich i s c arefully m ain

t ain ed at 1 60 C fo r o n e ho u r , when i t i s r emoved ,

°
.

coo led , t h e r es i du e trea t ed wi t h w a t e r , an d th e w a t e r

ev apo r a t ed as befo r e Th e r es i du e i s th en s ubj ecte d t o
.

a s econ d baking o f on e hou r , after which th e d is h i s

allo we d t o coo l i n a des i ccato r ove r s ulph uric aci d an d
w eigh ed . Th e t rea t m en t w ith wa t er , etc , i s rep ea t ed .

u n t il a con stan t lo s s o f 1 t o mg p er hou r i s obtain e d . .

In cas e o f aci d glyce rine a co r rec t ion m u s t be

th e
made fo r th e alkali ad d ed 1 cc N / l alk ali rep r es ents an .

ad di tion o f gr am I n th e cas e o f al k alin e c ru d es a

.

co rr ection sh oul d be m ad e fo r th e aci d added D educt .

th e increas e in w eigh t du e to th e c onv ers ion o f th e

N aO H an d N 8 C 0 3 t o N aC l 2 Th e co rr ecte d weigh t .

multipl i ed by 1 00 giv es th e perc en tage o f to tal r es id u e

°
at 1 60 C .

T h i s r e si d u e i s taken fo r th e d e termin ati on o f t h e

non volatile ace t ylizable i mpu r itie s ( se e aceti n method )
-
.

.7 O r g anic r es idu e — Subtrac t t h e a sh f rom t he t otal

re si du e a t 1 60 C R epo rt as o rgani c r e si d u e a t 1 60 C
°
.
°
.

( i t sho ul d be no t ed t h a t alkalin e s alts o f fa tty acid s a re

conv e r ted t o c arbonates on ignition an d t ha t t h e C O
th u s d er iv ed i s n o t i nclu d ed i n t he organi c
1 54
 A NALYT I CAL M E T H OD S

A C ETIN PROC E S S F OR T H E DET ER M I NATI O N O F LY C ERO L

G .

Th i s p roces s i s th e on e agreed upon at a con fe rence o f

delega t es fro m t h e B ri t i sh , F r ench , Germ an an d Amer ican
commit t ees , an d h as bee n confirme d by each o f th e abov e
committees as giving results n eare r to th e tru th th an th e
bich rom ate method on cru de s in gen eral I t i s th e p roce s s .

to be u s e d ( i f appli cabl e ) wh en eve r only on e m e th o d i s

employed O n pu re glycerines t h e results ar e i d en t ical
.

with th os e ob t aine d by th e bi ch rom ate p ro ce s s ; Fo r th e

application o f thi s meth o d th e cru de glyceri n e sh ould n o t
contain ove r 60 per c en t wa t e r . .

RE AGE N T S E Q UI RED
R .

A
( ) B es t A ce i
t c An h y d r id e — Th i s sh o u ld be carefully
.

s elec t e d A goo d s ample mu s t not r equi r e mo r e th an

.

cc no rm al N aO H fo r s apo nific atio n o f the imp u riti e s wh en

.

a blank i s r un on cc O nly a sligh t colo r sh oul d d e

.

v e l o p du ring d iges tion of th e bl ank .

Th e anhyd ri d e may be teste d fo r s t rength by th e fol

lowing m e th o d : In to a w eigh ed s t oppere d v es s el , con
taining 1 0 to 20 cc o f w ate r , run abou t 2 c c o f th e a u b y
. .

d r ide , r eplace the stoppe r an d w eigh Le t stan d w i t h o c

.

c ass io n al sh aki ng , fo r s ev er al ho u r s , to permi t th e hyd ro

lys i s o f all th e anhyd ri d e ; th en d ilu t e to abou t 200 cc , add .

ph enolph th alein an d ti t ra t e w i th N / l N aO H Th i s gives .

th e to tal aci dity d u e t o fr e e aceti c aci d an d aci d fo rm ed

from t h e anhydr id e I t i s wo rt hy o f n o t e th a t in th e
.

p resence o f much fre e anhydr i d e a compoun d i s fo rmed

wi th ph enolphth al ein , solubl e i n alkali an d ac e t i c aci d , but
i ns ol u ble in n eu tral s olu tions .I f a t u rbi dity i s n oticed
t o wa r d th e en d o f t h e n eu t r aliz a t ion i t i s an ind ica t i on t h a t
the anhyd ri d e i s incomple t ely hyd rolyze d an d in asmuch as
,
th e in di ca t o r i s with dr awn fro m t h e solu t ion , r es ults mav
b e inco r r ect .

1 55
 S O A P M A KI N G
-
M A N UA L

In t o a st opp er ed w eigh in g bo tt le con t aining a k nown

w eigh t o f r ecen t ly d is t illed an ilin e ( fro m 1 0 to 2 0 cc ) .

m easu r e abou t 2 cc o f t h e s ample , s t oppe r , m i x , c o ol an d

.

weigh W ash t h e con t en t s i nto abou t 200 cc o f c ol d w a t er ,

. .

an d tit ra t e t h e aci di t y as b e f o r e Thi s yi eld s t h e aci di t y

.

du e t o t h e o ri g inal , p r efo rm ed , aceti c aci d plu s on e h alf -

t h e aci d du e t o anhydr i de ( t h e o t h e r h al f h av ing fo rm ed

ac e t an ili d e ) ; s ub t rac t t h e s econ d r esul t f r o m t h e firs t
( bo t h c alcula t ed t o 1 00 g r am s ) an d doubl e t h e r esul t , o b
t ain ing t h e cc N / l N aO H p e r 1 00 gram s o f t h e s ampl e
. .

1 cc N / N aO H equ al s
. anhydri d e .

( )
B P u r e F u s e d S o d iu m A ce t ate — Th e pu r ch as e d sal t
i s again co mpl e t ely fus ed in a pl a t inum , s ili ca o r n ickel
di sh , av o i ding ch arring, pow der e d qu ickly an d kep t in a
s t opp er ed bo tt le o r d es i cca t o r I t i s mo s t i mpo rt an t t h a t
.

t h e so d iu m ace t ate be anhyd rou s .

( C ) A S o l u tio n of C au s tic S o da for N eu tr alizing , of

abou t N / l S t r e ng t h, F r e e fr o m C ar bo nate — Th i s can be
r eadily m ad e by di s so lv ing pu r e s o di um hyd rox i d e in i t s
o wn weigh t o f w a t e r ( p r efer ably w a t e r fr e e fro m c arbon

d i oxi d e ) an d allo wing t o s e tt le un t i l clear , o r fil t ering

t h r ough an asb es t o s o r p ap e r fil t e r The clear s olu t ion i s
.

d ilu t ed w i t h w a t e r fr ee fro m ca r bon di oxi de t o t h e s tr en gt h

r equ i red .

D
( ) N / l C a u s ti c S o d a F r e e fr o m C ar b o n ate — Pre
p ar ed as abov e an d c arefully s t an d ar d iz ed S om e c au s t ic .

so d a s olu t ion s sho w a m arke d dim inu t ion i n s t r en gt h af t e r

b eing boile d ; s u ch s olu t ion s should b e r ej ec t ed .

( )
E N / l A c i d — Ca r efu lly s t an da r dized .

( )
F P h e n o l p h th a l ein S o l u ti o n pe r cen t ph eno l ;.

ph th al ein i n alcoh ol an d n eu tr ali ze d .

TH E M E TH OD .

In a na rr o w mou t h e d
-
fl as k ( p r efe r ably r oun d bot
-

1 56
 S OAP MAKI N G
-
M A N UA L

groun d glas s conn ec t ion in t o the fl ask ,an d fil t er t h e con t en t s

th rough an ac i d w ash ed filte r in t o a J en a glas s flask o f
-

abou t 1 litr e capacity Wa sh t ho rou ghly w ith col d d is t illed

.

wate r f ree fro m carbon d ioxi de Ad d 2 cc o f p h eno l . .

ph thalein s olution ( F ) , t h en r u n in c a u s ti c so da soluti on

( C ) o r ( D ) until a fa int pinki sh yellow colo r appear s
t h rough o u t the so l u ti on T hi s n e u tr al iz ation m u st be don e
.

mo s t car ef u lly ; t h e alk al i shoul d be run do wn th e si d es o f

the fl as k , t h e con t ents o f wh ich ar e kep t r api dly sw i rling
wi t h o ccas i on al agi t ation o r ch ange o f motion until th e
s olu t ion i s n early n eutr aliz ed , as in dica t ed by th e slowe r
di s app ea r ance o f t h e colo r d ev elop e d locally by th e alkali
runn ing i nto t h e m ixt u re Wh en t h i s po in t i s reach ed
.

t h e s i des o f t h e fl ask ar e w as h e d do wn with c arbon

d iox ide — f ree w a t e r an d the alkali subs equen t ly add ed d rop
by d rop , m ixin g after each d rop un t i l t h e d es i re d t in t
i s ob t ain ed .

N o w run in fro m a bu r et t e 50 c c o r a c alculated exces s .

o f N / l N aO H ( D ) an d no t e caref u lly t h e exac t amoun t .

B oi l gen t ly fo r 1 5 mi nu t es , t h e fl ask being fit t e d w i t h a

glas s t ub e ac t ing as a par t i al con d en s er Cool as qu ickly .

as po s s ible an d t i t r a t e th e exces s o f N aO H w i t h N / 1 aci d

( E ) un t il t h e p inki sh yello w o r ch o s en en d po in t colo r -

1
j u s t r em ain s A fu rth er ad di t ion o f t h e ind ica t o r a t t h i s
.

po in t w ill cau s e an incr eas e o f t h e pink colo r ; t h i s mu s t

b e n egl ected , an d th e firs t en d po in t taken -
.

From th e N / l N aO H con su m ed c alculate th e p ercen t age

o f glycerol ( inclu d ing ace t yliz abl e impu ri ti es ) after m ak
ing t h e co r r ection fo r t h e blank t es t des cr ibed b elo w .

1 cc N / l N ao H
. gr am glycerol .

Th e co e ffi ci en t o f exp an s i on fo r n o rm al s olu t ion s i s

1 A p r e c ipi t at eat h s t i o p int is an in di c ati o n of th ep r es en c e o f
l ts W 1 11 o b t ai n e d u n l es s
.

i ron or al u rru n a, an d h i h r esu be a c or

g
t m d d b d b el ow
. O

r e c i on is a e as es c r i e .

1 58
 A NALYT I CAL M E T H OD S

per cc fo r each degre e cen ti grad e A cor r ecti on

. .

sho u l d be m ade on th i s accoun t i f n eces s ary .

B l ank Tes t— As th e acetic anhyd ri de an d s o dium acetate

may con t ain impu riti es wh i ch a ff ect th e res u l t , i t i s n ec es
s ary t o m ake a blank tes t, u s ing th e s am e qu an ti t i e s o f
_

acetic anhydr i de , s odi u m acetate an d wate r as in th e analy

s i s I t i s no t n eces sary t o fil t er th e solu ti on o f th e m el t
.

in t h is c as e , bu t s u flic ie nt tim e mu s t be allow ed fo r th e

h ydrolysi s o f the anhyd ri d e befor e proceedin g wi th th e
neu t raliz a t i on Afte r n e u traliza t i on i t i s n ot n eces sa ry to
.

add mo re t han 1 0 cc o f the N / l alkal i ( D ) , as th i s r epr e

.

s ents the exces s u su al ly pre s ent a fter the s apo n ific atio n
o f the average soap lye cr u de I n dete rmin ing th e aci d
.

equival en t o f th e N / 1 N aO H, ho w eve r , th e ent ire am oun t

t aken in th e an alysi s , 50 cc , s h o u ld be t i t r ated after d il u
.

t i on w ith 300 cc water free from carbon d io xi d e an d with

.

o ut bo iling .

D eter minatio n o f the Glyc er ol Val u e of the Acety lizab l e

Impu r ities — T he total re s id u e a t 1 60 C i s d i s solve d in
°
.

1 o r 2 cc o f w ate r , washed into th e acetyl izing fl ask an d

.

evapo r ated t o d rynes s Th en ad d anhyd rou s so di u m ace

.

tate an d acetic anhyd ri d e in the u sual am ount s an d p r ocee d

as de scribe d in the regula r analysi s After cor r ecting fo r
.

th e blank , c alculate th e resul t t o glyce r ol .

WAY S O F C AL C ULATI N G A C TUAL G LY C EROL C O NT E NT .

( 1 ) D ete rmin e th e apparent pe r cen tage o f glyce r ol in

'

th e s ample by th e acetin proces s as d escribed Th e r esult .

will inclu d e acetyl izabl e impu ri ti es i f any ar e pr es ent .

( 2 ) D etermin e th e to t al res i du e a t 1 60 C
°
.

( 3 ) D ete rm in e th e acetin v alu e o f t h e res i du e at ( 2 )

in t erms o f glycero l .

( 4 ) D educt th e resul t f oun d a t ( 3 ) f rom th e percen t

age obtain ed at ( 1 ) an d r epo r t th i s co r rected figu r e a s
1 59
 S OAP MAKI N G
-
M A N UA L

gly c e r ol. I f v ol a t il e ace t yli z able i mpu r i t i es ar e p res en t

th es e ar e inclu d e d i n t h i s figu re .

T r ime t hylenglycol i s mo r e volatile th an glycer in e and

can t h er efo re b e concen t ra t e d by fr ac t ion al d i s t ill ation An .

app r oxim a t ion t o t h e qu an t ity can be ob t ain e d from t h e

spr ead be t ween t h e ace t in an d bi ch rom a t e r e sul t s on s uch
d i s t ill a t es Th e sp r ea d multipli ed by
. w ill give th e
glycol .

BI C H RO M AT E PRO CE S S FO R LY C ERO L DET ER M I NATI O N

G . RE

A GE NTS RE Q UI RED .

( A) P u r e po tassiu m bichr omate po wdere d an d d ri ed

° °
i n ai r fre e f r o m du st o r o rgan ic v apo r s , a t 1 1 0 t o 1 2 0 C .

Thi s i s t a k en as the s t an da r d .

( B ) D ilu te B i chr o mate S o l u tion gr am s of t h e

abov e b ich roma t e a r e d is solve d in di s t ill e d w a t e r an d t h e
s olu t ion m ad e up t o o n e li t er a t 1 5 5 C °
.

n u h t —
( C ) F er r o u s Ammo iu m S p a e It i s n eve r s afe
l
to as su m e t h i s s al t t o b e c on s t an t in co mpo s ition an d i t
mu s t b e s t an d ardiz ed agains t t h e b ich rom a t e as f ollow s
d i s solv e gr am s o f bich rom a t e ( A) i n 50 cc o f wa t er . .

A d d 50 cc o f 50 p er cen t sulphu ri c aci d ( by volum e ) , and

. .

t o t h e c ol d un d ilu t e d s olu t ion a dd fro m a w eigh ing bo tt l e

a mo d era t e exces s o f the fe rrou s ammon ium s ulph a t e , an d
t i t ra t e back w i t h t h e dilu t e bich rom a t e ( B ) Calcul ate .

t h e v alu e o f t h e fer r ou s s al t i n t erm s o f bic h rom ate .

D
( ) S i lv e r C ar b o n ate — Th i s i s pr ep ared a s req u i red
f o r e a c h t es t fro m 1 40 cc o f . pe r cen t s ilve r s ulph a t e
.

s olu t io n by p r ecipi t a t ion , wi th abou t cc N / l s o dium .

c arbon a t e solution ( a li ttle l es s t h an th e calculated qu an

t i t y o f N / 1 so dium carbon ate sh oul d b e u s e d as an ex c es s
t o p r e v en t r ap id s e tt ling ) S e tt le, decan t and wash one by
.

decan t a t ion .

—
( )
E S u b a ce t
a te o f L e ad B oi l a 1 0 pe r cen t s olu t i on .

1 60
 S O A P—
MAKI N G M A N UA L

um e ) an d i mme r s e t h e ves s el in bo iling w a t e r fo r t wo

hou rs an d keep p ro t ec t e d from du s t an d o rgan ic v apor s ,
s u ch as alcoh ol , till th e titration i s completed Ad d from .

a weighing bottl e a S ligh t exces s o f th e fe rrou s ammoniu m

s ulpha t e ( C ) , m aking s po t t e sts on a po rcel ain pla t e w ith
t h e po t as s iu m fer ri cyan i d e ( F ) T itrate b ack w ith th e
.

d ilute b ich rom ate . From t h e amoun t o f bi ch r om ate r e

d u c e d calcula t e t h e perc en t age o f glycerol .

1 gram glycerol gr am s bich r o m a t e .

1 gram bich ro m a t e gr am glyc erol .

T he percen tage o f glycero l Ob t ain ed abov e inclu d es any

o xi diz able imp u r iti e s pr es en t afte r th e pu rifica t ion A co r .

r ection fo r t h e non vol a t ile i mpu riti es m ay b e m ad e by

-

running a bic h ro mate t es t o n th e r es i du e a t 1 60 C °

.

N OTE S .

( 1 ) I t i s i mpo r t an t th a t t h e concen t ra t ion o f aci d in

th e o xi d a t ion m ix t u r e an d t h e t im e o f o xi dation sh ould
b e s t ric t ly adh er e d t o .

( 2 ) B efo r e t h e bich ro mate is ad d ed to th e glycerin e

‘

s olution i t i s es sen t i al t h a t t h e sligh t exces s o f l ead b e p re

c ip itate d wi t h s u lph u ric aci d , a s s t ipul a t ed .

( 3 ) Fo r c r u d es p rac t ically fr ee fro m chlo ri d es t h e

qu an t ity o f S ilv e r carbon ate m ay b e reduce d t o on e fifth -

an d t h e basi c l ead aceta t e t o cc .

( 4 ) I t i s s ome t i m es a dvi s abl e t o ad d a littl e potas si um

s u lph ate t o in su r e a clear filtr ate .

SA M PLI N G C R U DE G LY C ER I N E .

Th e u su al metho d o f s ampl ing c ru d e glyc erin e h i the rto

h as been by m ean s o f a gl as s t ube , wh ich i s S lowly lowered
in t o t h e d ru m with t h e obj ec t O f t aking as n early as po s
sibl e a v ertical s ec t i on O f th e glycerine con t aine d in t h e
1 62
 A N AL Y T I CA L M E T H O D S

dru m Th is m etho d h as been found uns a t i s fac t o ry , ow ing

.

to th e fact th at i n col d clim ate s glycerin e run s in to t h e

t u be v ery slowly , s o th at , owing t o t h e t ime occupie d , i t i s
i mpo s sible to take a co mplete s ecti on o f t h e cru d e An.

'
oth e r obj ection to th e glas s tube i s th at i t fai ls to tak e
anyt h ing appro aching a co r rect p ropo rtion o f any s ettl ed
s alt con tain ed in the dru m .

T h e s ampler w h i c h i s illu s trate d h er ewi th h as been d e

vi s ed wit h th e Obj ec t o f overcoming the Obj ection s to t h e
glas s tube as far a s po s s ible I t con s i sts Of t wo br as s t ubes ,
.

on e fitting c l o s el v in s i d e th e oth er A numbe r o f po rts.

are cu t out in eac h tube in s uch a way t h a t w h en the po rts

are opene d a contin u ou s S lo t i s fo rme d which en ables a
co mplete s ection to b e taken th ro u gh ou t th e enti r e len gt h
o f the d rum By this a rr angemen t the glyce rine fill s into
.

th e sample r almo s t in stantan eo u sly Th e r e a re a numbe r

.

of po r t s c u t a t the botto m o f th e s ampler whic h rende r it

p o s sible to take a propo rtion o f th e s al t a t th e botto m o f
the d rum The ins tr u ment i s so con st ru cte d th at al l th e
.

po rt s , in cl u ding the botto m on es , can be clo se d s imu l ta

n e o u s ly by the s impl e actio n o f tu r n ing t h e h andle a t th e

top ; a po inter i s arranged which in dicate s on a di al wh en

the s ampler i s open o r clos e d I n s ample rs o f larger
.

s ection ( 1 in ) it i s po s sible to ar r an ge a t h i r d moti on

.

wh ereby th e botto m po r t s only are open fo r emp t yin g , but

i n s ampl er s o f s m alle r dimen si on s ( V 3 in ) th i s t hi r d mo
.

tion mu s t b e d i spen s ed wi th , oth erwi s e th e d im en sion s o f

-

t h e po rts h av e to b e s o sm all t h at the s ampler woul d not

be e ffici en t .

In u s ing th e s ample r i t i s in tr o duce d in t o the d ru m wi t h

t he po r t s clo s ed , an d wh en i t h as t ou ch e d th e bottom , th e
ports are Opene d f o r a s econ d o r tw o , th en clo se d an d w i th
drawn , an d th e sample d i sc harge d i n t o t h e rece iving ves sel
by opening th e po rts When th e d r u m contain s s alt wh ich
.

1 63
 S O A P M A KI N G
-
M A N U AL

h a s d epo si t ed , the p o rts mu st b e o pene d be f o r e the s ampl er

i s pus he d t h r ough the sal t , t hu s enabl in g a po rtio n to be in
clu de d in t h e s ample I t i s , ho weve r , almo s t imp o s s ible to
.

ob t ain a co r rec t p ropo r t ion o f s al t af t e r i t h as s ettle d in

t h e d r u m an d i t i s th e refo r e r ecomm en d ed t h a t t h e d ru m
b e s ampl ed befo re any s alt h as d epo s i ted A s ample r 1 in
. .

in d iam e t e r w ith d r aws app ro xim ately 1 0 o z f rom a 1 1 0

.

gal d r u m A s ampl er § é in i n d iam e t e r wi ll wi t h d raw

. . .

abou t 5 o z .

1 64
 S OAP MA KI N G
-
M AN UA L

A PPL IC ABIL I TY .

Th e method s a re a ppl icable in com mercial t ransactions

involvi ng fats and fatty oils u se d in th e soap , candle and
tanning i ndu stries , to e dible fats an d Oil s an d t o fats an d
fatty oil s in t en de d fo r l u bri cating and b u rning p u rpo se s .

The me tho ds a re appl icable to the raw o il s us e d in th e

va rn ish an d pain t ind u stry with the e x ceptions note d unde r
li mitation s , bu t s pe cial met hods hav e not been inclu de d .

LI M I TATIO N S .

The me t hods have not been developed wi th special re fe r

ence to waxe s ( be eswax , carnauba wa x , wool wax , etc ) .

al though some o f them may be fo u nd appli cabl e to the se

substance s Th e Co mm ittee consi ders th e Wij s metho d
.

superio r to the H anu s meth o d fo r the deter mination o f

i odine nu mbe r O f lin s ee d O il a s we ll a s oth e r o ils , althou g h
the Hanu s me thod has been consi de re d s tanda rd fo r thi s
wo rk fo r som e time an d ha s been a do pte d by the Ame ri can
“

S ociety fo r Testing Ma t er ials and in va riou s specification s .

I t has b een cus t omary to u se t h e H iibl me thod for th e

de te r mination of io dine value of t ung o il ( China w oo d O il )
bu t the Commi t te e s w o r k indicates tha t the W ij s met hod
’

is sati sfactory for th is de te rmina t ion .

S amp li n g .

TA N K C AR S .

l S A MPLI N G W H ILE LO A D I N G—Sampl e sh all be taken at

.

di sch a rge O f pipe wher e it en t e r s tank car dome The total .

sampl e taken S hall - b e n o t le ss t han 50 l b s an d shall b e a .

com p o site o f S mall s amples o f a bou t 1 p ound each , taken

’

a t regula r i n t e rval s du ring th e entire period of loa d ing .

The sam ple th u s obt aine d i s tho ro u g hly mi x e d and u n i

fo rm 3 l b portions place d in ai r tight 3 l b m etal container s
-
.
- -
. .

At l ea s t t h ree suc h samples shall b e p u t up , o n e for t he

buye r, one fo r t he s eller , and the t hir d to b e se n t t o a
1 66
 S TA N D A R D M ETH O D S

re feree c h emi s t in ca se o f di spute All sample s a re to be .

p romptly and co rrectly labe le d an d seale d .

2 S A M PLIN G F RO M C AR O N TR A C K — ( a) When c o nten t

. s
3
ar e s o l id .I n thi s case the sampl e i s taken by mean s O f
a large trye r meas u ring a bo u t 2 in acro s s and about .

'

ti m es the depth of the ca r in le ngth Seve ral trye r fu l s a re

.

take n ver tic allv and obl ique ly towar d the en ds o f the ca r
u ntil 50 lbs are acc u m u lated , when th e sa mp le i s softene d
. ,

mixed and handled as unde r In case the contents o f

the tank car have as sumed a v e ry ha rd c ond ition , a s in
W in t e r wea t he r , S O th at i t i s imposs ible to in se r t th e t rye r ,
an d i t become s ne ces sary to so ften the contents o f the car by
means o f the close d steam coil ( in nea rly all tank cars the
clo sed steam co il leaks ) o r by mean s of o pen steam in o r der
to d raw a prope r sample , s u itable ar range ments mu st be
ma de between buyer tu d s elle r fo r th e s ampl ing o f the
ca r afte r i t is s u fficiently softened , due cons ideration be ing
give n t o the possible p re sence o f wate r in the mate rial in
th e car a s received and al so to the p o ssible ad dition o f
'

water d u r ing the steaming The Committee knows of no

.

di rect method fo r sampling a har d frozen tank ca r o f tallow -

in a sa t i s facto ry manne r .

( b ) When c on ten ts ar e l iqu id The sam p le taken is to .

be a 50—l b co mp o si te made up o f nu mer ou s small sample s

.

taken from the top , bo ttom an d in t e rmediate po ints by

mean s o f a bo ttle o r metal conta ine r w ith removable stoppe r
o r top Thi s dev i ce attache d to a suitabl e pole i s lowe red
.

to the var i ou s de si red depth s , wh en th e stop pe r o r to p is

remove d and the con t ainer allowe d t o fill The 50 l b sampl e .
-
.

thu s obta in ed i s h an d l ed a s unde r

’
L i ve steam m u st n ot b e t u r n e d i nto tan k c ar s o r c o il s be f o r e
s ampl e s ar e d r awn S i n c e th e r e i s n o c e r t ai n way o f t e ll i n g wh e n
,
c o l s ar e f r e e f r o m l e ak s
r .

3
I f th er e is water p r e se n t u n d e r th e so lid m at e r i al t h i s m u s t be
n o te d an d e st i mat e d s e p ar at e ly .

1 67
 S OAP MAKI N G
-
M A N UA L

I n place o f t he dev ice d escr ibed above , any sa mple r capable

o f takin g a sample f r o m the top, b o t tom , and center , o r
f r o m a sec t i on th rough ca r , may be u sed .

( c ) Whe n c on ten ts are in s emi s ol id c ondition, or when

-

st ear in e has s epar at ed fr o m liqu id por t

ions I n t hi s case , a
.

co mbina t ion O f ( a) and ( b ) may be u sed o r by agreement

o f t he pa r t ies the whole m ay b e me lte d and p r o ce du r e ( b )

followe d .

BA RRE L S, TI ER CE S , C AS KS , DR U M S , AN D O TH ER PA C KA GE S .

All package s shall b e sampled , unles s by special agr ee men t

the pa rties a rran ge to sampl e a le sse r numb e r ; bu t in any
cas e not le ss t han 1 0 per cen t o f the t o t al nu mbe r shall be
sampled Th e t otal sample t aken shall b e at l eas t 2 0 l bs
. .

in w eigh t fo r each 1 00 ba r rels , o r equivalen t .

1 B ARR E LS , T I ER CE S AN D C A S K S —( a) When content

. s ar e

s o li d. Th e small samples s hal l be t aken by a t ry er t hr ough

the bung ho l e o r t hrough a s pecial hole bo r e d in the h ead o r
'

s ide for t h e pu rpo se , w i t h a l in o r la rge r auge r Ca r e

~
. .

shoul d be ta k en t o avoi d an d eli mina t e all bo rings and chip s

fr o m the sample The trye r i s in serte d in su c h a way a s to
.

r ea c h t h e hea d o f the ba r re l , t i erce, o r c ask Th e l arge .

sample is s of t ene d , mi xe d and han dle d acco rd ing to TA N K

CA R S

( b ) When c onten ts ar e liq u id In t h i s ca se u se i s ma de

.

o f a gl a s s t ube with cons t ri c t e d lowe r end Th i s i s ih.

s er t e d S lowly an d allowed t o fi ll w ith th e liquid , wh en t he

upp er en d is clo s ed and t he t ube w i t h dra wn , t he c on t ents

b ei ng allowed t o d r ain in to the sample con t a iner A ft e r .

the enti r e s a mple i s ta k en i t i s tho r ou ghly mi xed an d

h andle d a c co r ding t o TA N K C A R S ( l ) .

( c ) When c on tents ar e s emi s olid In t hi s c ase t h e tr ye r

-
.

o r a glas s t ub e with la rge r ou t le t i s u s ed , dep endi ng o n t he

deg r e e o f fl u idi ty .

1 68
 S OAP MAKI N G
-
M A N UA L

M O ISTU RE A N D VOLATIL E M ATT ER .

A PP AR ATU S ; Vacuu m O ven—The Co mm i t tee Standa r d

O ven .

D E S CR IPTI O N— The S t an dar d F A C V acuu m O ven ha s

. . .

b ee n des igne d wi th the idea o f a ffording a si m pl e an d co m

pac t vacuum oven wh ich wi ll give as u n i for m temperatu re s
a s pos sible o n the shel f A s the fig u re Show s , it con s ists o f
.

an i ron ca s t ing O f rectang u la r sections with h inge d front

door made t ig ht by me an s o f a ga ske t and which can be
lowe re d on o pening the oven so as to for m a sh elf o n whi ch
sample s may b e res ted T he oven contain s b u t one s hel f
.

wh ich i s hea t ed fro m above a s w ell as be low b y means of

re sistance coil s Seve ral the r mo meter holes are p rovi de d i n
.

o r der to a sce rtain defin itely the te mpe rat u re at di fferen t

poin t s o n t h e shel f I n a vacuum oven w here the he a ting
.

i s done almos t en t i rely by r adiation it i s di fficul t to main t ain

un i for m tem pe ratu re s at all points , b u t the F A C oven . . .

acco mpli sh e s thi s rath e r bette r t han mos t vac u um ovens .

Large r Ovens containing mo re t han one shelf have been

trie d by the Committe e , bu t h ave been found to be lacking
i n t empera t u re uni fo rm ity an d means of con t rol T he en ti re .

oven i s suppo rte d by means o f a 4 —in standar d pipe whi c h

.

sc rews into th e base O f the oven and w hich i n turn i s s u p

por t e d by be ing screwe d into a blind flange o f su itabl e d i
amet er wh ich rests on t he floor o r wo rk table .

M ois tu r e D is h— A shallow , glas s dish , l ippe d , bea k er

for m , app ro x imately 6 t o 7 c m diameter and 4 c m d eep ,
. .

shall b e standa r d .

D E T ER M I NATI O N— Weigh ou t 5 grams g O f t he .

p repare d s am pl e into a mo ist u re d i sh D ry to constant

.

°
weight in vac u o at a u n iform tempe rat u re , not les s than 1 5
C no r more t han 20 C abo ve the boil ing p o int o f wate r at
°
. .

th e w orking p re ssu re , whi ch mu st no t e x cee d 1 00 m m o f .

mercury .
‘
Con s t an t w eigh t i s a tt aine d when succe s s ive
1 70
S TA N D AR D M ET H O D S

Sa n o/ v

S TAN D A RD V A C U U M O VE N

1 71
 S OAP MAKI N G -
M A N UA L

d ryings fo r 1 hr p e r io d s S how an a d di t ional lo ss of no t

-
.

mo re tha t pe r c ent R epo r t los s in weigh t as M O IS

.

°
TU RE AN D VO LA TI L E M ATT ER .

The va c uu m oven m etho d canno t be con s i dere d a c cu r a t e

-

in t h e c as e o f fa t s of t h e coconu t o il g ro up con ta ining f r e e

aci d an d t he Commi t te e r e comm ends t ha t i t be u sed only fo r
Oi l s of th i s group when t h ey con t ain le s s t han 1 per c en t
free aci d I n the case o f Oils Of t h i s group c on ta in ing mo re
.

than 1 pe r c en t free aci d , recou r s e should b e h ad tempo r

ar ily t o t he rou t ine con t rol m et hod fo r mo i s t u re an d v ola
6
t ile ma t te r until the Co mmi tt ee develop s a mo r e sa t i s fact o r y
me t hod .

The ai r oven me t hod canno t be cons i de re d even appr o x i

-

ma t ely accura t e in t he ca se o f t he drying and se mi dryin g -

o ils an d tho se o f the coconu t oi l gro u p Therefo re , in the .

case o f such o il s a s c o ttonseed O il , maize o il ( corn o il ) , soy

bean oil , lin se ed oil , coconu t o il , pal m kernel O il , etc , the .

v acuum oven me th o d should alway s b e use d , excep t in t he

-

case Of fa ts o f t h e coconu t grou p containin g mo re than 1

per cen t free acid , a s no t ed above .

I N S O LUBL E I M PU R ITI E S .

D issolve th e r es i due f r o m t h e mo is t u r e an d v ola ti l e matter

4 B oi l i n g p o i n t of water at d u ce d p r essu r e s
re .

P r e s su r e B oili n g P o i nt B o ili n g P oi nt B oili n g Po int

Mm Hg . . to 1 C
°
. 15 C
°
20 C .
°
.

1 00 52 C
°
.67 C °
72 C .
°
.

90 50 65 70
80 47 62 67
70 45 60 65
60 42 57 62
50 38 53 58
40 34 49 54
5 R e s u l ts mp ar ab l e to th o s e o f th e S tan d ar d M etho d may b e O b
co
tain e d o n m os t f ats an d O i l s b y d r yi n g S g p o r t i on s o f th e sampl e ,
-
.

p r e p ar e d an d w e ig h ed as ab ov e to c o n stan t we i gh t in a we ll cori,
-

st r u cte d an d we ll v e n til ate d air ov en h el d u n i f o r mly at a t empe r a

-

C T he th er m o m ete r b ul b shou l d b e c l os e to
° °
tu r e o f 1 0 5 to 1 1 0 .

th e sampl e T h e d e fi n i ti on O f c o n st an t we igh t is th e sam e as f or the

.

S tan d ar d M etho d .

1 72
 S OAP MAKI N G
-
M A N UA L

F REE FATTY A C I D S .

10
The AL CO H O L u s e d shall be a pp roxi mately 9 5 pe r cent
et hyl alco hol , fre s hly d is ti l le d from so d i u m hy droxi de , wh ic h
w ith p henol pht halein gives a definite and di stinct en d poin t -
.

D E T ER M I NAT IO N — Weigh l to 1 5 g of the prepa red sa m pl e .

i n to an E rle n m eye r fla sk , u sing the s malle r q u antity in the

ca se o f dark co l ored , high ac i d fats A dd 50 to 1 00 cc h o t,
-
. .

ne u tral alco hol , and titrate with N / 2 , N /4 o r N / 1 0 so dium

hydro x id e d ep e n ding o n the fatty aci d con tent , u sing p h enol
pht ha l ein a s indicato r Calculate to oleic ac id , e xcept t hat in
.

the ca s e o f palm o il the r e sults may al so be expres sed in

t erms of pa l mitic acid , clearly ind ica ti ng the two me tho ds of
calculation in th e repo rt In the ca se of coconu t and palm
.

ke rnel oil s , ca l c u late to and repo rt in term s o f laur ic aci d

in a ddi tion to ole ic ac id , clearly in dicating the two met ho d s
of calcul ation in the report I n th e case of fats o r gre ase s
.

conta ining mor e than per c ent o f sol u b le mineral matter ,

a dd to th e pe rc entages o f free fa t ty ac id s a s determ ined
1 0 ti mes the percentage o f ba se s in the sol u ble mine ral
9
matte r as dete rmin ed Th is addi tion give s the equ ivalen t
.

o f fatty aci ds combined wit h the soluble mineral m at t er .

F o r r o u ti n e c o n tr o l w o r k , fil te r p ap e r is s o m e i m e s m o r e c o n t
v e n i e n t h an t t
he p r e p ar e d G o o c h c r u c i bl e , b u t m u s be v e r y c ar e t
f u lly wash e d , e s p e c i ally ar o u n d the r i m, to r e mo v e the l as r ac es 0 1 t t
f at .

3 Fo r i
r ou t n e w o r k , an as h may b e run on igi
th e o r l
n a f at, an d t he
so ul bl e mi n e r al m atte o b tai n e d by d e d u c t i g
r n th e as h on th e in s o l u
b l e i m p u r i ti e s f r o m t h i s In t h i s c as e th e G o o c h c u c ibl e S h o u l d b e
. r

p r e p ar e d w i th an ig n i te d as b e s tos mat S O that th e i m p u r i ti e s may

b e as h e d di r e c t ly af t e r b e i n g we i g h e d I n all c as e s ig n i ti o n s h ou l d b e
.

c o n s t an t we ig h t s o as to i n s u r e c o m pl e te d e c o m p o s i t i o n o f c ar
{
0
3 ou ate s .

9
See S o l u bl e M i n e r al M atte r f o ll o wi n g th e s e m e tho d s
n ote on .

W h e n th e as h c on tai n s p ho s p hate s the fac to r 1 0 c an n ot be appli e d ,

b u t th e b as es c o n s i sti n g O f c al c i u m oxid e , e tc , m u s t b e d et e r mi n e d ,
.

an d the f ac to r 1 0 appli e d to t h e m .

1 F o r r o u t i n e wo r k m ethyl or d en at u r e d e thyl al c o h o l o f app r ox i

"

m ate ly 9 5 p e r c en t s tr en gth may b e u s e d W i th th es e r e ag en ts the .

e n d p o i n t i s n ot s har p
-
.
 S TA N D A R D M ET HO D S

TIT ER .

S TA N D A RD T H ER M O M ETER— The t hermomete r i s graduate d

at ze ro and in tent h degr ee s from 1 0 C to 6 5 C , w ith one ° °
.

au x il iary re servo i r at the u ppe r end and anot her between the
z e ro mark and t h e 1 0 mark T he cav ity in the cap illar y
°
.

t u be be tween the zero mark and the 1 0 ma rk i s at least 1 °

cm below the 1 0 mark , the 1 0 mark i s about 3 o r 4 cm

.
° °
.

abov e the b u lb , th e lengt h o f th e t he rmomete r being abo u t

3 7 cm over a l l . The the rmome te r has been annealed for 75
.

h r s at 4 50 C and t h e bulb is o f Jena no rmal glas s , or

°
. .

it s eq u ivalen t , mode rately t h in , so that the the rmome te r will

be q u ick acting T he b u lb i s abo u t 3 cm long an d 6 mm in
-
. . .

d iamete r T he stem o f the t her mo meter i s 6 mm in diam

. .

eter a d made o f the bes t t he rmometer t u bing, wi th sca l e

n

etc he d o n the stem the gra d u ation i s clear cut an d dis t inct ,
,
-

b u t q u ite fine T he t he rmomete r mu st be c e rti fi e d by the

.

U S B ure a u o f Standard s
. . .

G LY C ERO L C AU ST I C SO LUT IO N — D i ssolve 2 50 g potass i u m .

hy d r o x ide in 1 900 cc dynam ite glyce rin w ith the a id of

'

hea t
DETER M I N ATIO N H e at 75 cc o f the glycerol —ca u stic so l u
h

tion to 1 50 C and a d d 50 g o f th e me l t e d fat Stir the

°
. . .

mi x t u re well an d contin u e heating unti l t he melt is ho mo

g eneo u s , at n o time allow ing the te m pe ra t u re t o exceed 1 50
°

C A l l o w to coo l somew hat an d ca re fully a d d 50 cc 3 0

. .

pe r cent s u l f u r ic ac id Now a dd hot water and heat u nti l.

the fatty aci ds se parat e ou t per fectly clear D raw o ff the .

ac id water and wash the fatty acid s wi t h hot wate r u nt il free

from mine ra l ac id , t hen filter an d heat to 1 30 C a s rapi d l y °
.

a s po s s ib l e w hile sti r ring T ransfe r the fatty acid s , when.

co o l e d s o mew hat , to a l —in b y 4 — in tite r t u be , place d in a . .

1 6 0 2 salt mouth bottle of clear g l a ss , fitte d w ith a cork

-
.
-

t hat i s per fo rated so as to ho l d th e t u be ri g idly w hen in

pos ition S u s pend the titer t he r mome ter so t hat it can be
.

1 75
 S OAP MA KI N G
-
M A N UA L

u se d a s a s t ir rer and s ti r the fatty a c ids S lowly ( abou t 1 00

revolution s p er m inute ) until the merc u ry remain s sta t ion
a ry for 30 s econ ds Allo w th e t he rmom ete r to hang quietly
.

w ith the b ulb in the c ente r o f the tube an d re port the

hi ghes t poin t to wh ic h the merc u ry r ise s a s th e t ite r o f the
fatty aci d s The t ite r shoul d be made at about 2 0 C fo r all
.
°
.

fa t s having a t ite r above 30 C and a t 1 0 C be low the °

.
°
.

ti te r fo r a ll othe r f a t s Any convenient means may be used

.

for Ob t aining a t e mp eratu r e o f 1 0 b elow th e t ite r of the °

va ri ou s fa t s The co mmi t tee recomm end s firs t o f al l a c hill

.

roo m fo r t hi s pu rpo se ; second , an artifici ally chilled small

c hamber w ith gla s s w indow ; t h ir d , i mmersion o f the salt
mouth bo t tle in wa t e r o r other liqu i d O f th e de si re d te m
p e r atu r e .

U N SAPO NIFIABL E MATTER .

E X TR A C TI O N C YLI N DER— The cyl inde r shall be glass

stoppe re d , graduated a t 40 cc , 8 0 cc and 1 30 cc , and o f the . . .

follo wing dimensions : dia me t e r abo u t PM; in , h e igh t about .

1 2 in .

PE TROL E U M ETH ER R e d istille d petrole u m ethe r , bo iling

-

u n de r 75
°
C , shall be u se d
. A blank must be ma de by .

evapora t ing 2 50 cc wi t h ab ou t .g of stearine o r o t her .

hard fa t ( p reviou sly b rough t t o constant we ight by hea t ing )

and drying as in t he ac t u al de t er mina t ion Th e blank mu st .

no t excee d a few m illigram s -

.

D E T ER M I NATI O N — Wei gh 5 g g ) o f t h e p repare d . .

sample in t o a 2 00 c c E rlen meyer fla sk , a d d 30 cc of r e

-
. .

di still ed 95 pe r cen t ( app roxi ma t ely ) e t hyl alcohol and 5 cc .

of 50 pe r cen t aqu eou s po t a ssiu m hydroxide , an d boil the

mixtur e fo r o n e ho u r under a re flu x con de n se r Tran sfer .

to th e ex t action cyl inde r and wa sh to the 4 0 cc mark with

r -
.

redis t ille d 95 p er cen t e t hyl alcohol Complete the transfe r , .

fi rs t with w arm , then w ith col d wate r , till t he to t al volume

a mo u n t s to 8 0 cc Cool th e cyl inde r and conten t s to room
.

1 76
 SOAP MAKI N G -
M A N UA L

bottle o r b o tt les and do n ot use Wi j s solu t ion which i s more

t han 30 days O l d .

T here shoul d be no more th an a sl igh t exce ss o f i o dine ,

an d no exce ss o f chlo rine Wh en the solu t ion is ma de .

fro m io din e and chlorine , t h i s p o int can b e ascertained by

no t q ui t e doubl i ng th e titrati on .

The glac ial aceti c aci d u sed fo r p repara t ion o f the W1 1 5

solution should be o f to p e r cent strength In .

ca se o f glacial acet i c acids of somewh at lowe r strength, the

Committee re commend s fre ezing and centr i fu ging o r dra i n
ing a s a means o f pu r ification .

N / 1 0 S o diu m Thios u lfate S o l u ti on— D i s solve g of .

C P so dium thiosul fate in re cently bo iled d istille d water

. .

an d dilute with the same t o o ne l ite r a t th e tempe ratu re at

wh ich th e titrations a re to be m ad e .

S tar ch P as te— Boi l 1 g of s t arc h in 200 cc o f d i stilled . .

wate r fo r 1 0 min and cool to roo m tempe ratu re

. .

An i mp rov ed starc h sol u tion may be pre pa re d by auto

c l aving 2 g o f starch an d 6 g o f bo ric ac id di ssolve d in 200
. .

cc wate r at 1 5 lbs p re s s u re for 1 5 m in Th is sol u ti on ha s

. . .

goo d keeping qual itie s .

C . M c Il hin e y , J . Am . C he m So c 29 1 222, gi v s e

th f oll o wi n g d etail s f o r the p r ep ar at i on of the i o di n e m o n o c hl o r i d e

e
s o u ti on :
T he p r e p ar ati o n o f th e i d i n e m o n oc hl o r id e s o l u ti o n p s e n ts n o
o re

g e at di ffic u l ty b u t t m u s t b e d o n e wi th c ar e an d ac c u r ac y in o r d e r
r , i

to O b tai n s ati s f ac t or y r e s u l ts T h e r e m u s t b e i n th e s o l u t i on n
. o

s e n s ibl e exc e s s e i t h e r o f i o d i n e o mo e p ar ti c u l ar ly o f c h l r i n e o v e
r r o , r

that r e q u i e d to f o r m th e m o n o c h l o r i d e
r T hi s c o n di ti on is m e s t sati s
.

fac to r il y attai n e d by di s s o l v i n g in th e wh o l e o f the ac e ti c ac i d to b e

u s e d th e r e q i s i te q u an t i t
u y O f i o di n e , u si n g a g en tl e he at to as s i s t
the s o l u t i o n if i t is f ou n d n e c e s s ar y , s e tti n g as id e a s m all p o r ti o n
,
O f th i s S o l u t i on , wh i l e p u r e an d d r y c h l or i n e is p as s e d i n to th e r e
main d e r u n til th e hal o g e n c o n te n t O f th e wh o l e so l u ti o n is d o u bl e d .

O r di n ar ily i t will b e f o u n d th at by p as s i n g the c hl o r i n e i n to the

m ai n p ar t O f th e s o l u ti o n u n til th e c har ac t er i s ti c c o l or o f f r ee i o di n e
h as j u s t b e e n di s c har g e d th e r e w ill b e a s l ig ht ex c e s s o f c hl o r i n e
whi c h i s c o r r e c te d by the ad di t i o n O f th e r e q u i s i te am o u n t o f th e
u n c h l o r i n at e d p o r t i on u n t i l al l f r e e ch l o r i n e h as b een d e st r o y e d A .

s l ig h t exc e s s O f i o di n e d o e s li ttl e o r n o h a m b u t e xc e s s o f c h l o r i n e r ,
m u s t b e avoi d e d .

1 78
 S TA N D A R D M ET H O D S

P o tas s iu m I odid e S o l u tio n— D i s solve 1 50 g of po ta ss iu m

.

io di de in water and make up to o ne liter .

N / 1 0 P o tas s iu m B ichr o mate— D issolve g of C P . .

potassium b ich rom ate in wate r and make the vo l u me up to

one lite r at th e temperat u re at w hic h titrations a re to be
made .

The Committee calls atten tion to the fact t hat occasionally

po ta s s ium bich romate i s fo un d con taining so diu m bich ro
m ate , although th i s i s O i ra r e occ u r renc e I f the an alyst
.

susp ects that he i s dealing w it h an imp u re pota ssium

bichroma t e , th e puri ty c an be a sc erta ine d by ti tration against
r e sub l imed
-
iod ine H oweve r , thi s i s unn ecess ary in the
.

great maj o rity O f cas es .

St andar dis at ion of the S o di u m Th ios u lfate S o lu tion

Place 40 cc o f the pota ssiu m bichromate solution , to w hi ch
.

has be en a dde d 1 0 cc o f the solution o f pota ssi um iod ide

.
,

in a gl as s sto ppere d fla sk A d d to th i s 5 cc o f strong

-
. .

hydro c hlo ric aCid D ilute with 1 00 cc o f wate r ,and allow the
-
. .

N / l O sodi u m th iosul fate to flo w slo wly i nto the fla sk unti l

the yellow color of the l q u id h as al mo st di sap pe ared Add .

a fe w drop s o f th e starc h paste , and wit h constan t s hakin g

contin u e to add th e N / IO sod iu m th io s u l fate sol u tion until
the bl u e co lor j u st disappears .

D E T ER M I NAT IO N acc u rate ly from to g .

(d epend ing on the i o dine numbe r ) O f the melte d and filte re d

sample into a clean , d ry , 1 6— o z glass — stoppe re d bo ttle con
.

taining 1 5 20 cc o f ca rbon tet rachlori de or c hlo ro fo rm Ad d

-
. .

2 5 cc o f iod ine sol u tion from a p ipette , allo wing to d ra in

.

for a definite tim e The e xcess O f i o dine sho u l d be from

.

50 pe r c ent to 60 pe r cent o f th e am o u nt ad ded , that i s .

from 1 00 pe r cent to 1 50 pe r cent o f the amount a b sorbe d .

M oist en the stoppe r w it h a 1 5 pe r cent pota ss iu m i o di de so

l ution to prevent loss of io dine o r chlo rin e bu t guar d against
an amoun t s u fli c ient to r u n down i n si de the bottle Le t .

1 79
 S O A P—
MAKI N G M A N UA L

t he b o tt l e s tand in a dar k place for h r a t a uni fo r m

.

te mperatu re A t t h e e nd o f t ha t t i me a dd 20 cc o f 1 5 pe r
. .

cen t pota s sium i od i de solu t ion and 1 00 cc o f d is t ille d water

. .

Titrate t he i o dine w ith N / IO so diu m t hi osulfate solution

’

which i s a d ded gradu ally, with constan t s haking , until th e

ye llow colo r o f t h e solu t ion has almos t di sa ppea re d Add .

a few d ro p s o f s t arch pa ste and contin u e titration un til the

blue color has e nti rely d isappeare d Towar d the en d o f the
.

re action stopper th e bo t tle an d s hake violent l y so t hat any

iod ine remaining in solutio n in the tetrac hlo r ide o r chlo ro
for m may b e taken up by the potas si u m io di de solution .

Conduc t two de t er mina t ions o n blanks wh ich mu st be run

in the sam e manne r a s the sample e x cep t t hat no fa t i s u se d
in th e blanks Sl ight variation s in temperature q u ite appr e
.

c ia b ly afiec t the t iter o f the i odine solu tion , as acetic acid

has a hi g h coe fficient o f expan sion I t i s , t here fore , e s sen
.

tial th at t h e b lanks an d dete rminations on th e sampl e b e

made at the s am e t i me The numbe r o f cc o f standa r d
. .

thio su l fa t e sol u tion requ ire d by th e b lank , les s the a moun t

u sed i n the dete rmination , give s the t h iosul fa t e equivalent

o f t he i odine ab sorbed by the amoun t o f sample u se d in t h e

dete rmination Calculate t o centigra ms o f i o d ine absorbe d
.

by l g o f sa mple
. pe r cen t i od in e abso r bed ) .

D E T ER M INAT IO N , T U N G O IL— Tung oil s hows an e rratic

'

be havior w i t h mos t io di ne r eagen t s an d t h is is p a rticul arly

notic e able in t he ca se o f th e H anus reagent wh ich i s en t i rely
un su i t able for dete rmining t he io dine n u mbe r o f this oi l
s ince ex t re mely high an d i rregul ar re sults ar e obtained .

The Hii bl solu t ion show s a p r ogre ssiv e ab so rp t ion up t o 24

hrs an d prob ably fo r a longe r time bu t t he peri o d requ ire d
.

i s entirely too long fo r a ch em ical dete r mination The Wi is .

s olu t ion gives good resu lt s i f th e following p reca u tions are

obs er v e d
Weigh ou t i g , u se.a n excess o f 5 5 i 3 per
1 80
 S OAP MAKI N G
-
M A N UA L

and entirely free from moisture , o r incorrec t r esul ts wi ll be

o btaine d .

Melt and thorou ghly mix the sample D i p three O f the .

cap illary tube s abov e d esc ribe d in the O il so tha t the fa t in

the tu be stands about 1 cm in height Now fu se the c ap il
'

. .

la ry en d care fu lly by mean s o f a sma l l blast flame and

allow to cool T he se t u be s a re placed in a refr ige rato r over
.

nig ht a t a tem p e ratu re of fro m 40 to 50 F Th ey are t h en °

.

fastene d by means O f a r u bbe r band o r ot h er s u itable means

to the bu l b O f a t hermometer gra d u ate d in tent h s O f a de
gree T he the rmometer i s su spende d in a beake r O f wate r
.

( wh ich i s agitate d b y air o r othe r suitable mean s ) so t hat

the bottom o f the bul b of the t hermome te r i s immer s e d to
a depth O f abo u t 3 cm Th e temperatu re O f the water i s
.

°
increased gra d u ally at the rate O f abou t 1 pe r m inute .

The p o int at wh ich the s ample become s opalescent i s fir st

noted an d the he ating con tinue d u ntil the contents O f the
t ub e b ecomes u nifo rmly t ransparent T he latte r tempe ra .

tu re i s r epo rte d a s the melting point .

B efo re fin ally m elting to a per fe ctly clear fl u id , the sample

become s opalesc ent an d u s u ally ap p ea rs clear at the top ,
bottom , and si de s before becomin g clear at the cente r The .

heating i s contin ue d until the co ntents O f the tube become

unifo rmly clear an d trans pa rent T hi s tempe ratu re i s r e .

1 2
po rted a s the melting point I t i s u s u ally only a fraction
.

O f a degree abov e th e opal escent p o int noted The the r .

mo mete r sho u l d b e re a d to the n e are st C , and in a dd i .

tion thi s te mp e rature may be reported to the neares t d egree

Fahrenhe it i f de si red .

C L O U D TE ST .

PRE C A UT IO N S The O il must b e perfectly dry , becau s e

1’
The m e l t i n g p o i n t o f O il s may b e d ete r mi n e d in g e n e r al acc o r di n g
to th e ab o v e p r o c e d u r e , tak i n g I n t o c on s i d erat i o n the l o we r te mp e r a
ture r eq u i re d .
 S TA N D A R D M ET H O D S

he
t p re sence O f mo i stu re w ill p ro duce a tu rbi di ty be fore t h e
clouding point i s reached .

°
( 2 ) The Oil mu s t be heat ed to 1 50 C ove r a fre e fla me , .

imme d iately be fo re m ak ing the t est .

( 3 ) There m ust not be too much di screpancy betw een the

tempe rature of the bath an d the clou ding po int Of the O il .

An O il t hat will cloud at the temperature o f hyd ran t wate r

s hould b e t ested in a bath o f tha t tempe rat u r e An O il that .

will clou d in a mi xt u re O f ice an d wate r s h oul d be teste d in

such a bath An Oil t hat w il l no t cl oud in a bath o f i ce
.

and water must be teste d in a b at h o f salt , ice , and wate r .

D E T ER M I NAT IO N— T he Oi l i s h eated in a po rcelain ca sse role

ove r a free fl am e to 1 50 C , stirring with th e the rmomete r
°
. .

A s soon a s it can be done with sa fe ty , the o il i s tran s fe rred

to a 4 oz O il bottle , w hich mu st be pe rfectly d ry O ne an d
. .

one hal f oun ce s o f the O il are sufficient fo r the te st A d ry

-
.

centi gr a de thermomete r i s place d in the Oil , an d the bottl e

i s th en coole d by imme rs ion in a s u it able bath The o il i s .

constantly sti rre d w ith the the rmomete r , tak ing care no t to
remove the the r mo mete r from the Oil at an y ti me du ring
the test , so a s to avoi d sti rring ai r b u bbl es into the Oil .

T he bottle i s freq uentl y remov e d fro m the bat h fo r a fe w

moment s The O il m u st not be allowed to c h ill on the
.

s i des and bottom o f the bottl e Thi s i s eff ected by con stant
.

and vigorou s s ti rr ing with the thermomete r A s soon a s .

the fir st pe rmanent clou d s hows in th e body of th e O il , the

temperature at which th i s c l o u d occu r s i s note d .

W ith care, res u lt s concordant to w ithin C can be O b .

t aine d by this met hod A F ah renheit the r mo mete r i s some

.

times use d be ca u se it has becom e c u stoma ry to repor t r e

s u lt s in degree s F ah renhei t .

The O il m u st be te st ed w it hin a s ho rt ti me a fte r h eating

°
to 1 50 C an d a r e te st m u st always be precede d by r e
.
-

heating t o tha t tempe ra t u re Th e clou d po int shoul d be

.

1 83
 S OAP MA KI N G
-
M A N UA L

app r oached a s q uickly a s po s s ib l e , ye t no t so fa s t t hat t h e

Oil i s f rozen on t he Sl de S or bo tt o m o f t he bo tt le be for e t he
clou d t es t i s r ea c he d
.

N o t es on th e Ab o v e M e t h o ds .

S A M PLIN G .

The s t and ar d size O f sample adop t e d by t he commi tt ee i s

a t leas t 3 lb s in we ight T he comm i t tee re al ize s tha t t h i s
. .

amoun t i s la rger t han any sa mple s u sually furni sh e d even

when r ep r e s en t ing shipments O f from to l bs .

bu t i t b elieve s t ha t the r equi remen t O f a large r sample i s

de s ira bl e and w ill wo r k toward un ifo r m and mo re con
cor dan t r e s ults in analysi s I t w ill p rob ably continu e t o be
.
-

t he cu s to m o f t he trade to sub mi t s malle r buye rs sample s

-
’

than requ ire d by the c ommi t tee ,bu t t hese are to b e con sid
e red only as samples fo r in sp ection an d not fo r analys is The .

stan dar d analytical sample mu s t consis t Of 3 lb s o r more . .

Th e r ea sons for keeping s ample s in a dark , cool place are

Obv io u s This i s t o prevent any increase in ranci ditv an d
.
-

any undu e incre a se in free fa t ty acids In t h e c as e of many

.

fa t s t he comm it t ee h as foun d in i t s co opera t iv e analy t ica l

-

wor k tha t f ree a ci d t ends to increa se ve ry r api dly Th i s .

t en dency i s m inimize d by low t emp era t u res .

M O ISTU RE AN D VO LATIL E M ATTE R .

A ft e r ca r e ful consi dera t ion t h e commi t tee has de c ide d t hat

mois t u re is best de t ermin e d in a vacuu m oven O f the design
whi c h accompani es the above re p o rt Nu me rou s resu l t s o n
.

’
chec k s ampl e s have confi rmed the comm ittee s co nclu s io ns .

The oven r e commende d by t he com mittee i s con s t ruc t e d o n

the ba s is o f well known p rincipl e s an d i t is hope d t ha t thi s
-

type w ill be a dopt ed generally by chemi sts who are called

'

upon to analyze fa t s an d Oils The expe riments of the com

.

mittee in dica t e tha t i t i s a mo s t d ifli c u l t ma tt er to d es ign a

vacuum oven wh ich will p ro duce unifor m t e mpera t u r es
1 84
 S OAP MA KI N G
-
M A N UA L

bu t since a c co r ding t o t h e funda men t al principle s whi c h i t

was en dea v o r ing to follow i t coul d on ly stan da r dize one
me tho d , i t wa s dec i de d t ha t the mos t d e s ir able o ne on t h e
whole w as the vacuu m — oven method a s given The re are .

ca ses whe re in a ch emist may fin d itd e sir abl e t o check a

moi s t u re dete r mina t ion or inve stigate the moi stu re c on t ent
O f a fat o r O il fu r t her by means O f O n e O f th e di stilla t i on .

me t ho d s
.

H ow ever , in co ope rative wo r k t he d i s t illation me t ho d in

-

var ious types O f appa ratu s ha s no t y ielded sati s fac tory r e

su l t
.s The di fficulti e s appe a r to be connected w ith a p r o p e r
cho ice O f solvent an d partic u larly w ith the tendency O f
drop s O f wa t e r to adhere t o va ri ou s parts Of th e g las s ap
pa ra t u s instead O f pa ss ing on t o th e mea su r ing dev ic e ;
When w o rking on coconut O il con t aining a high percen t age
O f free fat t y aci ds , conco rdant resul t s could no t b e Ob t aine d
by t he variou s m embe rs O f t he comm i tt ee when wor k ing :
w i t h i den t ical samples , solv ents an d appara t u s .

O n t he othe r hand , t he comm i tt e e foun d by ind ivi dua l

wo r k , c o operative wor k an d colla bo ra tive work by seve ral
-

membe r s o f t he commi tt ee in one labo ra t o r y , tha t the Old ,

‘

well known d irec t h eating me tho d ( wh ich the commi t tee ha s

- -

de signa t e d t he ho t plate me t hod ) yielde d v e ry sa ti sfac t ory

re sul t s on all so rts O f fats an d oil s includ ing emul sion s such
a s but t er an d oleomarga r ine and e ven on coconut O il sam
ple s con t ain ing 1 5 to 2 0 pe r cent free fatty acid s and 5 to 6
pe r cent O f mo istu re Un fo r tunately , thi s method de pend s
.

altogether on the ope rato r s skill an d while th e meth o d may

’

be t aught to any person wh ether a che mi s t or not SO that

he can o b t ain e x cellent re s u lts w ith it , i t i s di fficult to g ive
a s u ffic ientl y complete descriptio n O f it so that any che m i st
.

anywhe re a fte r rea d ing the descr i ption cou l d follow i t su c :

c e s sfu lly . The me tho d i s undoubte dly w orthy O f mu ch con ‘

fidence in ca reful hands I t i s qu ick , ac cu ra t e an d r eliable :

.

1 86
'
 S TA N D A R D M ET H O D S

I t i s probably the best s ing l e met hod fo r th e determi na t ion

O f moisture in all sorts O f sample s for routin e la bo ratory

work O n acco u nt Of t hi s fact th e committe e d e si re s to

.

anno u nce its wi l lin gne s s to in struct any pe rson in the p r ope r
u se O f the metho d who des i re s to be come acqu ainte d w i t h it
and who wi l l v isit any committee me mber s labo rato r y ’
.

I N S O LUBLE I M PU R ITIES
Thi s determ ina t i on , th e t itle fo r wh ich w as a d opte d afte r
ca reful co n sideration , dete rmines th e impu ri tie s which h av e
generally b ee n known as di rt , suspe nde d ma tte r , su spended
sol i ds , fore ign solid s , fore ign matter , etc , in the past Th e
. .

fir st solvent recommende d by the com mi tte e i s hot ke rosene

to be followe d by petroleum ether kept at o r d ina ry roo m
temp eratu re Petrole u m et he r , col d o r only slightly wa rm ,
.

i s n ot a good fat an d me t alli c soap solvent , whe rea s hot

ke rosen e di s solves the se s ub st an ces r eadily , an d fo r thi s
re ason the committee ha s reco mmended the double solvent
method so a s t o e x clu de me t allic s oaps which are de termined

below a s solubl e m ine ral ma tte r .

S OLUBL E M I N ER AL M ATTER .

S olub l e mine ral ma t te r repre sents m ine ral matte r co m

b ine d w ith fatty ac id s in the fo r m O f soaps i n solution in
the fat o r O il . Formerly , thi s mine ral matte r wa s o ften de
te r mine d in combina ti on by w eighing the se p arated metal l ic
soap o r by weig hing i t in conj unc t ion w ith the insol u ble im
p uritie s. S ince the soaps present con sist mo stl y O f lime
s oap , i t ha s be en customa ry to calculate the l ime pre se nt
the rein by taking the we igh t O f the to tal meta l lic soa p s .

Th e standard meth o d a s given above i s di rect and i nvolves

no calc u lation T he rou t ine method given in the no t e ha s
.

been placed a mong the met ho ds for the reason t ha t i t i s

u se d in so me labora t ories , bu t h as not been ado pt e d as a
s t anda r d me t hod in v iew o f th e fact that t he c om mit t ee h a s
1 87
 S OA P MA KI N G
-
M AN UA L

mad e i t a r ul e t o a dop t only one st an da r d me th od It .

sh oul d be po in te d ou t, howe v e r , t ha t th e me t ho d canno t be

c on s idere d a c cu r a t e fo r t h e r ea son tha t insoluble impu r i t ie s
may v a r y f rom s ampl e to s ampl e to a c on s ide r abl e ex te n t
and the e rro r d u e to the p r e se nce o f l ar ge pa rt icle s o f ia
‘

solubl e impu r i t ie s i s t hu s tr an s f e rre d to the so luble m in er al

ma tt e r The c om mi tt ee ha s f ound o ne t yp e o f g r ease
.

( naph t ha bone gr ea se ) wh ich show s mo st un u s ual c h ar a c

ter ist ics .The t yp e s ample c on t ain s pe r c en t s oluble
m iner a l ma tt e r by the c o mmi tt e e me tho d wh ich woul d be
e q uivalen t to pe r c en t f r e e fat ty aci d Th e ke r o s ene
.

an d ga s oline fil tr a t e was pa r ticularly clea r , n evertheles s t he

a s h wa s f oun d to contai n pe r c en t P2 0 5 eq ui v al en t t o
pe r cen t O f Ca,( P0 4 ) 2 an d p e r cen t o f Pez0 3 .

The me t hod , the re f o r e , dete r m ines t he sol u ble mine r al ma t

t e r in t hi s c a se sa t i s fac t o r ily b ut t he f ac t o r 1 0 i s not ap
pli cabl e fo r c al cula t ing t h e fa tt y aci ds combined t he r ewi t h .

I t i s ne c e ssa r y , t he r efo re , in o r der t o d et e rmine the f a tt y

a cids comb ine d w ith solubl e m ine r al mat t e r in t he o r iginal
samp le t o d e t e r mine t h e ac t ual base s in t he soluble m ine r al
ma tt e r a s o bt a ine d by ash ing the k e ro s ene an d ga soli ne fil
tra t e TO t he b ase s so det e r m ine d t he fac t o r 1 0 c an th en
.

b e applie d .

F REE FATTY A C I D .

The fa tt y a cid method a dop t ed i s su fli c iently for

accu rat
'

co mme r c ial pu rp o s e s In many rou t ine labo ratorie s the f at

.

o r Oil i s m ea su re d and not w eighed , bu t th e c o mm i tt e e re c

o mmen d s w e i gh ing t he s ample in all case s Fo r s cientific

.

pu rpo se s the re sul t i s o ften expre s s ed a s aci d nu mb e r ,

“ ”

meaning t he n umbe r O f milligr ams O f K O H requ ire d t o

neu t raliz e t he f re e acid s in o ne g r a m of f a t , bu t t he com
merc ial p r actice has b een , and is , t o e xp re s s the f a tty a c i d s
a s Ole i c aci d o r in the cas e o f pal m o il, a s pal mi t i c a c id ,
in s om e in st an c e s The Com m i tt e e sees no o bj e ctio n to the
.

'

1 88
 S O A P MA KI N G
-
M A N UA L

U N SAPO N IFIABL E M ATT ER .

Th e committe e has consi de red u n sapo nifiab l e m at te r to

inclu de tho se substances frequently found d i ssolved in fat s
and O ils wh ich a re n ot sapo nifie d b y the ca u stic alkal ie s an d
whi ch a t the s ame tim e a re sol u ble in the or dinary fat
solvent s Th e term inclu de s s u ch su b stanc es a s the highe r
.

alcohol s , s u c h as ch ole s t e rol which in found in animal fats ,

phy t o s t e rol found in some ve getable fats , para ffin and petro
leu m Oi ls , etc U N SAPO NIFIABL E M ATTER shou l d not be c on
.

fu se d in th e lay m ind with I N S OLUBLE I M PU R ITI E S O R S O LUBL E

M I N ER AL MATTE R .

The met ho d adopted by th e com mittee has been selecte d

only a fte r t he most ca re ful consi de ration O f other m e tho ds ,
su ch a s the dry e x trac ti on metho d and the wet metho d mak
ing u se O f the separa t ory funne l A t first consi deration the
.

d ry ex t raction p roc e s s wou ld seem to O ffe r the bes t basi s

fo r an u ns aponifiabl e matter met ho d , but in practice it ha s
been fou n d a bsol u t ely impos s ible fo r diff e rent analysts to
.

Obtain agreeing re sults whe n u sing any O f the d ry e x trac

tion m ethod s propose d Therefore , thi s method ha d to be
.

abo n do ne d a fte r numerou s trials , alt hough several memb er s

O f th e c o mmitte e s t rongly favore d it in the beginning
'

IOD IN E N U MB ER—The io di n e numbe r adopted by the com

mittee is th a t de t ermi ned by th e well known W i is met hod
-
.

T h i s method was a dopted afte r care f u l c ompa ri son with the

Hanu s an d Hiibl me thod s The H iibl metho d wa s clim i
.

h ate d from consi deration almo st at th e b eg in n irig o f t he com

mittee s work fo r the rea son that the time requ ired for
’

co mplete ab sorption O f th e i o d in e is unnece s sarily lon g and ,

in fact , even a fte r absorption has gon e on Ove r n ight , it i s
a ppa rently not complete In th e case O f the Hanu s and Wi is
.

me t ho ds complete absorption take s place in from 1 5 minute s

t o an h ou r , depend ing on cond iti ons Formerly, many .

che mi st s though t t he Hanu s solution rat he r eas ie r t o p repare

1 90
 STA N D A R D M ETH O D S

t han th e Wi j s solu t ion , bu t the e xper ience O f the comm itte e

was tha t t he Wi is solution was no mor e d ifli c u l t to prepare
t han t he H anu s Fu rthermo re , ab sorp tion O f i o di n e from
.

the Wij s solution a pp eare d to take plac e w ith grea te r

°
p romp t ness an d c ertainty than from the H anus and wa s
,

complete in a s horter ti m e R e s u lts by the W ij s method

.

we re al so in better ag r ee ment in the ca se o f Oil s s howing

h igh iod i n e abso r ption t han w ith th e Han u s solu tion and
s howed a slightly higher io d ine absorption fo r the same
lengt h Of t ime . H owev er , th e diffe rence wa s not great .

T he committee i n v estiga t e d th e qu estion o f substi tution

since it has been suggested that in ca se o f the W ij s solution
substitution O f iod ine in the o rganic molecule m ig ht occur ,
and found no ev idence O f th is i n the time req u ire d f o r
the determ i nation , namely , hr , o r even fo r a somewh at
.

longe r perio d O ne member o f t he comm ittee felt that it

.

was not des irable to intro duce the Wi i s method into these
s tandar d methods s ince the Hanu s metho d wa s already
standar diz e d by the A s sociation O f O fli cial Agricult u ral
Che mi sts , but the committee fel t t hat i t mu st follow the
pr inciple es t abli sh e d a t the commencement o f its work ,
namely, that Of adopting the me t ho d wh ich appea re d to
be th e be st fr om all standpoin t s , taking i nto conside ration
accuracy , convenience , simpl ici ty , t ime , e xpen se , etc , w i th
.

out allowing prec ed ent to have t h e de ci ding vote.

IOD I N E N U MB ER , T U N G O IL— The com mi ttee has made an

e x t ens iv e s t u dy O f th e appli cation o f the Wij s method to
th e determi nation o f iod ine value in t h e case o f tung o il
w i th the r esu l t that it re c ommend s t he method for th is O il
but has thought i t de s irable to li mi t the cond ition s un der
wh i c h the dete rmination i s conducte d rath e r narrowl y, al
t hough reasonably goo d re sults a re O btained by the c o m
mittee me thod w ithout making u se O f the special li m itation s .

Th e co Ope rative work O f the comm i tt e e and th e sp eci al

-

1 91
 S OAP MAKI N G-
M A N UA L

inves t iga t ion s con duc t e d by indivi dual m embe rs b r ing out

th e following poin t s
I nflue nce f
o Te mper atu r e—e
F r om 1 6
°
.
°
C to 30 C t he r e.

°
i s a m o dera t e in c rea se in t he absorp tion , bu t a bove 3 0 t he
in c rea se i s r ather r ap id so t ha t i t wa s t hough t bes t to
li m i t the t empe r ature in t he cas e o f t ung o il to 20 t o 2 5 C
° °
.

I nflu ence of Time—T he ab s o r p t ion i n cr ea s e s w i t h t he

tim e bu t appa r ently comple t e ab s o rp t ion , so fa r a s un sat
’
u r at e d bonds a r e conce r ned , o c cu r s well w i t h in on e hou r s

t ime Con sequently, one hou r was s e t a s t he prac t ical limi t

. .

Influ ence of Ex ces s—The e xce ss o f iodine s o lu t ion al so

tend s to inc rea se the i o d ine numbe r , hen c e th e Co mmi tt ee
though t i t ne c e ssa ry to l imi t the exce s s ra t he r ri gi dly t o
55 i 3 pe r ce n t , al t ho u gh wi t h great er l a t i t u d e r e s ul ts we re
reas onably g oo d .

I nfluenc e of Ag e of S ol u tion —O l d s o lu t ion s t end t o gi v e

l ow r es ul ts al though up t o 2 mo no grea t diff er en c e s w e r e
.

O bse rv ed . N eve rt hele ss , i t wa s t h ough t b e s t to limi t the age

Of t he s ol u t ion t o 30 day s—long enou gh for al l p ract i cal
pu r po s e s .

Amou nt of S ample—As a p rac t ical amoun t o f s ample t o

be wei ghed o ut the Co mmi t t e e decide d o n g w i th a
.

t ole ran c e O f g in ei t he r direction a cc o r d ing to p r e fe r

.

en c e In o t he r wo r d s , t he amoun t o f sa m ple t o be t aken

.

fo r t h e de t e r mina t ion t o be from to .g in t h e di s er e

t io n O f t h e analy st .

Th e Commi tt ee s s t u dy O f t he Hfibl m e thod whi c h has

’

been ad op te d by t he S o c ie ty fo r Te st ing Ma t e ri als i n the

ca s e o f t un g O il ind ica t e s t hat t hi s me t h od wh en applie d
t o t ung o il i s su b j ect to th e same in fl uen c e s a s t he Wij s
me t hod and i t ha s t h e ad d itional v e ry se ri ou s di sa dvant age
O f r eq uiring a long pe r io d O f ti me for absorpt ion wh ich

c anno t b e c onsid e r e d r easonable fo r a mode rn analyti c al

me t ho d When u sing t he H fibl solu t ion , t he abso r p t ion i s
.

1 92
 SO A P M AK I N G M AN UAL
-

t o mel t again and r emain melte d a t a s t ill highe r t empera

t u re This phenom enon ha s not yet been su fficiently ih
.

ves t ig ate d to a ffo rd a sa t i s factory explanation .

No n c r ystallin e sub stanc es s u ch a s glass , sealing wax and

-

va r ious o t her waxe s and wa x m ix t u re s , an d most collo ida l

s ubs tance s do no t e xh ibit a S harp m e l ting poi nt , but unde r
the appl ica t ion o f h eat fi rs t so ften ve ry gra dually and at a
consi derab ly highe r tem pe rat u re melt su fficiently to flow .

Thi s phenomenon o f me lting t h ro ugh a long range O f tem

p e ratu r e may be d ue to the amorphou s natu re O f the sub
stance o r t o the fac t that it consi sts O f a ve ry large number
O f components O f many d i ffe rent mel tin g po in t s .

The fa t s an d oils o f na t u ral origin , that i s , the animal an d

vege t able fats an d oi ls , consi st O f mixture s o f glyce rid e s and ,
generally speaking, O f a cons ider abl e nu mb e r O f s u ch c om
'

po n en ts Th es e co mponent s a re c rys t alline an d whe n sep

.

ar at e d i n th e pu re sta t e hav e d efinite melting poin ts , al

though some e x h ibit t he phen o menon O f dou ble melting

po in t Fo r the mos t part th e naturally occu r ring glycerides
.

a re mixe d glyce ri des I n the n atural fats an d O il s th ere a re

.

p r ese n t a lso c ertain h ighe r alcohol s , o f which choles t e rol is

charac t eri stic O f the an imal fats a n d Oil s and phyto s t e rol O f
many O f the ve ge table fats and O il s I n add ition t o th e
.

c rystalline glycer ide s and the high er al cohols p re s en t in

neu t ral fats , t he re a re in fats o f lower gra de, f at t y aci ds ,
which a re c rystalline , an d also va riou s non c ry stalline im
-

pur itie s O f an u n sapon ifiab e na t u re , and t h e pre sence O f

t hes e impuritie s t ends to l o we r the melting po in t They .

als o t en d t o in duce unde rcoo li ng and when t he liqu i d fat o r

O il is be ing ch ill e d fo r pu rposes O f s olidi fica t ion o r in de

t erminat ion O f ti t e r
.

The presence O f wa t e r , e sp ecially when t hi s i s tho r ou ghly

mixed or e mul sifie d w ith a fa t or O il , also influences t he
m elting poin t t o a marke d ex t ent , cau sing th e m ix t u re t o
1 94
 S TA N D A R D M ET H O D S

melt th ro u gh a longe r range O f t emperatu res than woul d be .

the ca se if the wate r w e re a b sent T his i s pa rticularly true

.

O f emul sifie d fats and o i l s , such as b u tter and oleo ma rgarine ,

both O f wh ich contain , be si des water , the sol id s natu ral l v

.

'
p resent in m ilk o r cream an d incl u ding casein , mi l k suga r ,

and salts The m elting point method re com mende d by the

.
-

Co mm ittee i s not app l i cable to suc h e mu l sions o r other

wate ry mix t u re s and the Co mmit t ee ha s found it i m po ssible
to devi se an accu rate meth o d fo r mak ing so ftening point o r -

mel ting p o in t dete rmination s O n p roducts of thi s natu re

a
.

Not only the amount o f water pre sent bu t al so t he finene ss

O f i t s particles , that i s , its state o f s u bd ivi si on and distr i

bu tion in a fa t o r O il infl u ence s the softening poin t or me l t

ing po mt and cau se s it t o va ry w idely i n di ffer en t sample s .

As a c onsequence o f th e fo rego ing facts , natu ral fa t s and

Oils do not exh ibit a de fi n ite melting poin t , compo sed a s the y

are Of mi xture s O f va riou s c rystalline glyce ri des , h ighe r

alcohol s , fa tty ac ids , an d non cy stall ine s u bstances The re
-
.

fore , the te rm me ltin g po int when appl ied to them requi res
furthe r definit io n They e xh ib it fi r st a lowe r melting po int
.

( the melting point o f the lowest melting com ponen t ) o r

wha t might be called the so fte n ing po int and following thi s
th e fat so ftens th rough a sho rte r o r longe r range O f tem
pe r atu r e to the final meltin g po int at whi ch tem peratu re the
fat i s entire ly liqu id Thi s is th e melting poin t de t e rmine d
.

’
by the Commi ttee s melting point met h o d-
T he range be
.

tween t he so fteni ng point and the final melting point var ies
gr eatly with the d i ff e rent fat s and oil s depen ding on thei r
ch emical compo n ents , th e wate r a ssoc iate d with th em .

emul s ification , etc I n the cas e o f c oconu t o il the range

.

be tw ee n so ftening point and final mel t ing point i s rath e r

sho r t ; in th e case Of but t e r , long V a riou s methods have
.

b een devi sed to d etermine th e SO calle d me lting po int o f fats

-

an d O ils M o st of the se m et h od s , howeve r , determine , not

.

1 95
 S O AP M A K I N G
-
M A N UA L

the mel t ing po in t , bu t t he s o ft eni ng poin t o r t h e fl ow po int

o f the fa t an d t h e g r ea t d iffic ul ty h a s bee n in t he pas t t o
de v ise a metho d whi c h woul d d e t er m ine e v en t hi s po int
w i t h r eas onabl e accu racy and s o that r esults coul d be e a sily
d upl i c a t e d
. I t has been th e a i m O f t he Commi tt ee to
d ev i s e a S impl e method fo r t he de te rm in a t ion o f t he mel t ing
poin t o f fa ts and oils , bu t i t shou l d b e un de rstoo d t ha t the
t er m m el t in g po in t in t h e sc ien tific sense i s not applicabl e to
nat ur al fats an d O il s.

1 96
PLA NT A N D MA CHI N E RY

HO IST, LY E T A N K, ETC .

ME LT I N G O U T
-
TRO L GH
'
S OA P MA KI N G
-
MA N U AL

\ ‘
r
 CR UT C H ER ( CRO S S SECTI O N )

HORI Z O NTAL CR UT C H ER CR UT C H ER
 PLA N T MA CH I N E R Y

WRAPPI N G M A C H I N E
( L AU N DR Y SO AP )

S LABB ER

C UTTI N G T ABLE
 S OA P MAK I N G
-
M A N UA L

A UT O M ATI C PO W ER C UTTI N G T ABL E

A UT O M ATI C P ( LA U N DR Y )
 S OAP MAKI N G
-
M A N UA L

D R Y I N G RA C K S SO AP PO W DER B ox

S CO U R I N G SO AP PRE S S FRA M E
PLA N T AN D MA CH I N E R Y
 S OAP MAKI N G
-
M A N UA L

S O AP P awn “ ! B un .

FLUFFY SOAP PO WDER E Q UIPM E NT

S OAP MAKI N G
-
M A N UA L

21 0
PLA N T A N D MA C H I N E RY
S OA P MAKI N G
-
M A N UA L

TO IL E T SO AP M ILL

TO IL E T SO AP M I LL

2 12
 S OA P MA KI N G
-
MA N UA L

PRE S S ( LETT ER I N G O N PRES S ( F OO T ) PRE S S ( FOO T )

4 S I DE S O F C A K E
)

P L ODDER
 PLANT AN D MA CH I N E RY

A UTO MATI C PRE S S ( TO IL E T ) M ULTIPL E C AK E C UTT ER

C A K E C UTT ER C H I PP ER
21 5
S OAP MAKI N G
-
M A N UA L

21 6
S O A P MA K I N G
-
M A N UA L

2 18
 App e n d ix

T a b l e s m ark e d
.
a r e tak e n fr o m th e G e r m a n Y e a r
B o o k fo r S o a p I n du s tr y
.

219
 S OAP MA KI N G -
M A N UA L

(U . S . B U REAU O F S TA N DA R D S )
T H E M ETRI C S Y S TE M .

Th e f un damen t al u ni t O f t h e me tr i c s y st em i s t h e m e t e r
( the un i t O f length ) F r o m t hi s the un i ts o f m as s
.

( g r am ) an d c ap a c i t y ( l i t e r ) ar e d e r ive d All o th e r u n i t s .

a r e t h e de c im al s ub d iv i s ion s o r mul t iple s o f t h e s e Thes e

-
.

t h r e e uni ts a r e s imply r ela t ed , s o t h a t for all p r act i c al

pu r po s e s t h e volu me o f o ne k ilogram O f wa t e r ( o ne li t e r )
is e q ual t o o ne cub i c d ecime t e r .

P refixes . M e an ing . U n i ts .

M illi one t hou s an dth 1 1 000 -

. 001
Cen t i o n e hun dr e d t h 1 1 00 -
01
M et e r f o r leng t h
.

D eci o ne t en t h 1 1 0 -
. 1
Un i t o ne 1 . G r am fo r m a s s .

D ek a t en 1 0 1 -
10 .

L i t e r fo r capa c i ty
H ec t o on e hun d r e d 1 00 1 1 00
.

Kilo on e t hou san d 1 000 1 1 000 -

.

The m e tr ic t e rm s a r e f o r me d by c ombin ing the wor ds

” “ ” “ ”
Me t e r , G r am and L i t e r w i t h the s i x nu me r ical
p refix e s .

LE NGT H

10 m ill i me t e r s m m
-
1 c en t i me t e r
-

10 c en t i me t e r s
-
1 d ec i - me t e r
10 de c i me t e rs
-
1 m ete r ( abou t 40 in c h e s ) m
lO meter s 1 de k a me t e r
-
dkm
10 d ek a m e t e rs
-
1 h ec t o me t e r
-
hm
1 0 h ect o - me t ers 1 k ilo - m e t e r ( abo u t mil e) km
2 20
 S OAP MAKI N G
-
M A N UA L

U s
. . B U R EA U O F STA N D A R D S TA B L E O F
M E T R I C EQ U I VAL E N T S

Me t e r inch e s .

Legal Eq u i v alen t Adop t e d by Ac t O f Congres s J uly 2 8,

1 866 .

Cen t ime t e r I nch

Me t e r fee t
Me t e r ya r d s
K ilo me t e r st atute mile
K ilome t e r n au t ical m il e
I nch c entime t er s
me t e r
Ya rd me t e r
S t a t u t e m ile ki lom e t e r s
N au t ical m il e k ilome t e r s

Sq . c en t i me t e r sq in c h
.

S q me t e r
. s q fee t
.

S q me t e r
. sq yar d s
.

Hec t ar e ac res
Sq k ilom e t er
. s q m ile
.

Sq . inch sq . cen t imet e r s

S q foo t
. sq m e t e r
.

Sq ya r d
. sq me t e r
.

Acre hec t are

s q kilome t e r s
.
 A P P E N DI X

WE IG H T .

gra in s
U S . . h
apo t . scruple
0 U S . . ap o th . d ram
avo i r ounce .

t roy ounce
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 avo ir pound s.

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 troy pounds
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 gro ss o r long ton
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 sho rt o r net ton s

Grain
U S
. . ap o th .

U S
. . apo th . d ram
Avo i r ounce .

T roy o u nce
Avo i r pound .

Troy pound
Gro ss or long ton
S ho r t o r net

V OLU M E .

Cu . centim ete r cu . inc h

Cu . cu f ee t
.

Cu m e t e r
. cu ya rd s
.

Cu inch
. cu c en timete rs
.

cu me t er
.

Cu ya rd
. cu mete r
.

223
 S OAP MA KI N G
-
M A N UA L

C APA C ITY .

M ill im e t e r U S l iq ounc e
. . .

M illime t e r U S ap oth d r am
. . .

Li t e r U S liq q u a rts
. . .

Li t e r U S l iq gallon
. . .

Li t e r U S d r y quar t
. .

D ekali t e r U S p eeks
. .

H e ct ol i t e r U S bu s h el s
. .

C S liq ounce
. . m illime t e rs
C S ap o th d ram
. . m illime t e rs
C S l i q q ua rts
. . l ite r
Z
C S d r y qu a rt s
. lite rs
J

C S li q. . l i t e rs
C S p e ck
. d ek ali t e r
C S bu sh el
. h e ctol i t e r

A V O I R D U P O I S W E I GH T .

1 p oun d 16 oun c es 2 56 d r am s
l ou nc e 16

T R O Y ( A P O T H E CA R I E S ) W E I GH T ( U S ) ’
. .

1 p ou n d 12 ou nc se 96 d r am s 28 8 r pl es
sc u gr ai n s
1 o u nc e 8 d r am s 24 sc r u pl es 4 80 gr a i ns
1 d r am 3 sc r u pl e s 60 gr a i n s
1 sc r u pl e 20 gr ai n s

W I N E ( A P O T H E CA R I E S ) LI Q UI D M E A S UR E ( U S ) . .

1 gal l on 8 pin t s 1 28 H . o zs. fl . d r am s mi n im s

1 pin t 16 fl . o zs . 1 28 fl . d r am s mi n im s
1 fl . oz. 8 fl . d r ams 4 8 0 mi n im s
1 fl . dr am 6 0 mi ni ms
.
 SOAP M AKI N G
-
M A N UA L

Th e f io n o
ric t f water in pipes i s as t h e squ ar e v eloci ty O f .

The capacity O f p ipes i s as t h e squ ar e O f t h ei r di amete rs ;

t hu s , doubl in g t h e d iame t er O f a pipe increases i t s capacity
fo u r t im e s .

To fin d the d iame ter o f a pu mp cylind er to mov e a giv en

quan t ity O f water per m inu t e ( 1 00 fee t O f pi ston b eing t h e
stan d a rd O f spee d ) , d iv id e th e number bf gallon s by 4 ,
t h en ex t r act th e squ ar e roo t , an d t h e pro duc t will b e t h e
di am e t e r in inc h es o f the pu mp cylin de r
'

To find the h or s e power n ec es s ar y to e l evate water t o a

-

given h e igh t , mult iply the weigh t O f t h e w ater elev ated p e r

m inu t e in po un d s by th e h eight in fee t , an d d ivi de t h e
p ro duct by ( an allow ance S ho uld be ad d ed fo r wa t e r
friction , an d a fu rth er allowance fo r lo s s in s t eam cyl in d er ,
say from 20 t o 30 pe r cen t ) .

To co mpu te the ca paci ty of pu mping eng mul t iply

ines ,
th e ar ea O f wate r p i s t on , in inch es , by t h e d is t an ce i t travel s ,
i n inch e s , in a given t ime D ed u c t 3 p e r cen t fo r s lip an d
.

ro d d isplacem ent Th e p ro du c t d iv id e d by 2 3 1 give s t h e

.

n u mbe r O f gallon s in t ime n ame d .

To fin d the v el o city in feet per minu te n eces s ary t o d is

ch arge a given volum e O f wa t e r in a given t ime , multiply
th e numbe r O f cubic fee t O f w ater by 144 and d ivi d e t h e
pro duc t by t h e are a O f t h e pip e in i nch es .

To fin d the ar ea of a r eq u ir ed pipe, th e v olum e an d v el

O c it
y O f w ate r being given , multiply t h e numb er o f cubic
fee t O f water by 1 4 4 an d d iv id e th e p ro duc t by t h e veloci t y
in feet per m inu t e The are a b eing foun d , t h e d iam ete r c an
.

“ ”
b e l ea r n ed by u s ing any t able giv ing the are a O f c i rcles
an d fin ding t he n eare s t a rea , oppos ite to wh ich w ill be found
t h e diamete r t o co rre spon d .

226
 U S E FU L I N F O R MA T I O N

Ph y s ical an d C h emi cal C ons tan ts of F ixe d O il s an d F ats .

(F ROM LEWKO WITSC H AND OTHE R A UTHORITIES ) .

Spe ci fic g ravi ty
at1 5 C
°
.
fiw!
atl
l
l
o

Li nseed oil —1 6 °
t —
o 26 °

H mp seed oil
e -

Wal n t il u o
P p y seed oil
o
n go we
-

u Oil r
Fir- seed o il
Mai e Oilz
Cott
on -
seed oil
Sesame o il
Rap e -se ed oil
Bla k c mustard o il
C ro t
o n O il
Cas to r oil
A f k ernel oil
ri co t
A mond o il
P eanu t (arach s ) O
i il
O li v O il
e .

M nhad h oil
e e
Cod li v -
oil er
°
0 t
0
S al il
e o
1 Vhal e oil
D lphi n O il
.

o
Po rpo ise oil
Neat s footo i -

Co tto n seed s tear i ne

Pl
a m o il
Cacao b u tter .

C oc oa nu to il .

Bo ne lat .

Tall w o
B tte fat
u r .

O l ma g ar m
eo r e
Sp m il
er o
Bo ttle no Oil -
se .

Car nauba “ ax

Tu ng (C h inese wood o il ) 0 9 36 - 09 4 2
y
S o a-bean Oil 0 92 4 - 0 9 2 7

227
 SOAP MAKI N G -
M AN U AL

Ph ysi cal and C h emi c al C on st

ants of Fixed O ils and
F ats .

(F RO M s xowxrsc a AND 01
'
mm AUTHO RITIES )
.

2 28
 S OAP MAKI N G
-
M A N UA L

C o mpariso n T h ermo meter Sc al es

“
of

m in D g
n Deg ree Cala a
r -
e ree Reaumur=8 2+ §n Deg ree Flihrenheit

n Deg ree Reaumurzv

ifl
-
D eg ree Celsiusz z—
a ——
l gn D ge ree Fahrenheit

n Deg reeFahrenheit: -
(n —) D
32 eg ree R

2 30
 U S E FU L I N F O R M AT I O N

So l
ution I l
S o u ti o n
Kilo. Sp. G r 1 1
. . p Gr
. .

K O H
K O H
N a on

980 4 09
1 000 1 902
.

|
.

m
1 880 81 9
2000 8 751 88 880 5
.
.
.

150 5 708 . 27 9 1 .
1 228 .

78 1 1 .
8 72 1 .
1 88 8 .

95 1 4 4 85 1 204 8
5000
.
.
.

5088 04 I 5582 2 4 57
8 000 1 1 2 54 3 9 1 1 4 1 7
.
.
. .

8 51 2 288 7
7000 1 8 1 80 8 2 1 1 98 2 0
.
.
.

7 44 2 827 8
8 000
.
.

l 88 7 8 8 888
9000 7 802 08
.
.

0000 844 8 78 } 9808

.
409 8 .

*
Q u an tities o f Al kali R eq u ir ed fo r Sapo nific atio n o f
Fats o f Av e rag e M o l e cu l ar W e ig h t8 6 0
(Tallow,Cotto nsee d Oil , Olive Oil,Etc ) .

Sol u tion Sol utio n

Sp G r
. . Sp G r .

‘
N A 0 11 K O H N a oa
i K O H N a oa
| K O H

1 000
2000
8000 9 57 3 4 i .

4 000
5000 8290 80 t.

8000 2885 2 I ; 2 9 1 0 8 0 5
. .

7 000
8000 1 1 89 1 2 8 1 1 850 4 8
9000 5528 .

1 0000 31 451 4 0 4 1 4 82 5 58 724 8 .

23 1
 S OAP MAKI N G -
M A N UA L

D ENSI TY AN D S T R E N GT H OF SU LPHURI C
ACI D ( SI D E R S K Y ) .

U
8 v

0
L4 in
0
5 ' 0
-9 g 5

O
k

C
m
V
. It
N
U “7 m t
:
. 54
a

50 $4
0 a 0
5
9-
4 2!

2 32
 S OAP MAKI N G -
M A N UA L
P E R C E N TA G E S O F S O L I D C A U S T I C SO DA A N D C A U S T I C
POTA S H I N C A U S T I C L Y E S A C C O R D I N G TO BA U M E S C A L E .

D e gr ee s D e gr e e s
B au m e N aO H KO H . B au m e N aO H KO H .

27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 36
37 3 4 90
Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q 38
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 39
_

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 40 3 4 95
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 41
o o o o o o o o o o o 42
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 43
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o o o o o o o o o o o

o o o o o o o o o o o

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 50 . 48 25 .

o o o o o o o o o o o 23 30 . 4 9 02
. 49 40 .

G LYC E R I N E C O N TE N T O F M O R E C OM M O N O I LS A N D
FAT S U S E D I N S OAP MA K I N G .

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l
C i

C ast o r O il . 45 .

C o c o an u t O il lL -
16 9
L 1 0 3 7— 1 4 7 5
.

C o c o an u t O il O11
.

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. .

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.
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)
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2 —2 5
. 1 (

O li v e O il . .

O li v e F o o t s 3 0 -6 0 5
P al m O i l 1 0— 50
—1 6
. .

P alm k e r n e l O i l
P e an u t O il .

S o ya B ean O il
T rai n O il . 2— 20
V e ge tab l e T a ll o w .
 US E FUL I N F O R MAT I O N
‘ T ab l e o f Sp e c ific G ravitie s o f Pu r e C o mmer cial
G l y c erin e with C o rrespo nd ing Pe rc entag e o f
Water T empe ratu re 1 5 C
. .

Water

235
 S OAP MAKIN G
-
M AN UA L

T abl e
" ofPerc entag e ,Spec ific G ravity and Beoume
‘

Deg ree o f Pu re G ly cerin e So lu tio ns

Water

2 36
 IN D E X

B l eac h i n g pal m o il by ai r , 1 2 .

A c eti n p r oc e s s f o r th e d et e r B O S S h af d H u g g e n b e r g m e ho d t
mi n at i o n o f gly c e r o l , 1 5 5 ,
f o r de te r mI n atIO n o f f r e e
A c id , C l u p an o d o n i c 2 0 ,
k51 1 1 5 1 4 0
B u n c h mg O f
.

A c id , H yd r o c hl o r i c , l l l .
52
A c id , Lau r ie 2 , .

C
A c i d , M y i s ti c 2
r , .

C an de l ite , 9 6
A c id , N apthe n ic , 2 4 .

C an dl e tar , 1 2 5
.

A c id , O l e i c 1 5 1 9 , , .

C ar bo li c s o ap , 7 7
.

A c i d , Pal m i t i c 2 , .
C ar b o n D i oxid e , F o r m at i o n o f in
.

A c id P i n i c 2 2
, , .

c ar b o n at e s ap o n ifi c atio n , 4 S
A ci d Resi n 1 4 4
, , .

C aI b o n ate , p o t as s i u m 2 9
.

A c id , S te ar i c , 1 5 , 1 9 .

C ar b o n at e , sap o n ific atIo n , 3 5 4 5

.

A c id S u l f u r i c , 1 1 2
, .

C ar b o n ate s o di u m , 2 8
. .

A c id S yl v i c 2 2
, , .
,
C as t i l e s o ap 7 9
.

A c i d sap o n ific atio n , 1 2 0 .

,
C ast o r o il f e r m e n t 1 2 1
.

Air bl e ac h i n g o f p alm o il 1 2 , .

, .

C ast o r o il , U s e o f in tr an s p ar e n t
A lb u m i n o u s m att e , R e m o v al r
s o ap s , 8 3
f r o m t all o w, 6
.

A l c o h o l , D e n atu r e d 8 2
.

C au s ti c po tas h , 2 6 .

, .
C au s t i c po tas h, E l e c t r o ly t i c 2 7
A l c o h o li c m e th o d f o r f r e e al k ali C au st i c s o d a, 2 6
, .

i n s o ap 1 3 9
.

, .
C h an g e s in so ap m ak i n g 3 6 -

A l k ali B l u e 6 B , i n di c ato r 1 2 9 . .

, .

C h e mI St, I mp o r tan c e o f , 1 2 7
A l k ali , T o tal , d et e r m i n at i o n o f in C h i ppe r , S o ap , 3 2 .
.

$03 0, 14 7 .
C h i p s o ap, 54
A l k ali s , 2 5 .
.

C h i p so ap , C o ld m ad e , 5 5
A l k ali s u s e d in so ap m ak i n g ,
.

T e sti n g o f 1 3 4
C h ip s o ap U n fill e d 56
, .
,
C h o m e bl e ac h i n g o f p al m o il 9
r
. .

Am alg am at o r 3 3 , .
Cl o u d t e s t fo r o il , S tan d ar d
, .

A n aly s i s , G ly c e r i n e , I n t e n a r ~

m e th od , 1 8 2 1 8 3 -
.

tio n al , 1 5 0 .
Cl u pan o d o n i c ac id , 20
A ly i
na s s, S p
oa , 1 3 7 .
C o c o an u t o il 6
.

A ly i
na s s , St d d m t
an ar e ho s d fo r C o l d Cr e am s o ap 7 8
, .

il
fats an d o s , l 6 5 C o l d m ad e c h i p so ap s 5 5
, .

Aq u e o u s s apo n ifi
, .

c at io n , 1 2 1 .
C o ld m ad e t o il e t s o ap s 7 2
A i
r ac h s o il , 7 9 .
C ol d m ad e tr an s p a e n t s o ap s 8 4 r
, .

A t l
u o c av e s apo n i fi c at
‘
ion , 1 1 8 .

C o ld p r o c es s , 3 5 , 4 3
.

A t m bil
.

e s o aps , 4 1
u o o .
C o l o p hon y , 2 2 .

B C o l o r i n g s o ap , 7 5 .

C ap r a, 7
B ar r el s , s amp l in g , 1 6 8
.

.
C o r n o il , 1 4
B au m e sc al e , 2 5
.

. C o r o s i v e s bli m ate 78
r u ,
B ayb e r r y wax , U s e in s h av i n g
.

C otto n g o o d s, S o ap s u s e d fo r,
s o ap , 8 9 .
103
B i c h r o m ate P r o cess f o r gly c e r o l
.

C o tt o n s ee d o il , 14 .

d et e r mi n ati o n , 1 6 0 . C r e am, S hav i n g , 90

B l e ac h i n g , F u ll e s e arth p r o c e s s
.

C r u d e gly c e r i n e , 1 1 3
’
r .

f o r t all o w , 4 .
C r u t c he r , 3 2
B l e ac hi n g p al m o il by bi c h r o
.

C u r d s o ap , 7 1 .

m at e m eth o d , 9 .
C u tt i n g t ab l e 3 2 . .
 S O AP MAK I N G MAN UAL -

D Gly c e ri n e s o ap s , 8 3 .

G ly c e r o l c o n t e n t , Way s o f c al
D ete r mi n at i o n of f r ee fatt y ac id , c u l at in g ac t u al , 1 5 9 .

1 28 .
Gly c e r o l d et e r mi n at i o n , A cet i n
D ete r mi n at i o n o f u n sap o n ifiabl e p r oc e ss , 1 55
m att e r , 1 3 2 .
.

Gly c e r o l d e t er mi n ati on , B i chr o

D i sti ll ati on o f fatty ac i d s , 1 2 5 .
m at e p r oc e ss f o r , 1 6 0
Dr yi n g m ac hi n e, 3 2
.

.
G r ai n i n g s oap , 3 0 .

G r e ase , 2 1 .

G r e as e , B l eac h i n g , 2 1 .

E n zym es , 1 7 . G r i n di n g so a , p 34 .

Es c h we g e r so a , p 81
H
.

Exami nat i on of fat s an d o i ls,

1 28 . H an d P ast e , 9 3 .

F H ar d wat e r , 2 9 .

H ar d e n e d o i l s in to il et so a , p U se
Fali r io n s
’
m etho d f or m o i st u r e , o f, 96 .

l sg H yd r oc ar bo n o il s , 2
il s, Exami nat i on
.

Fat an d of , H yd r o g e n at i n g o il s , 1 9
ZS
o
.

l H yd r o ly s i s o f f at s an d o il s, 17
F at s an d o il s u se d in s oa p m an u H yd r o ly t i c di s s oc i ation of p
so a ,
.

f a c tu r e , 3 .
1
Fatty ac id s, 1 4
.

.
H yd r o m et e r s , 2 5
Fatt y ac i d s , Di st ill at i o n o f , 1 2 5
.

F e r ne n ts, S pli tti n g f ats wi t h , ‘

I
l él I n di c at o r s , A c t i o n , 1 3 5 6
F ill e r s fo r l au n d r y s oap s , 5 3
-
.

.
I n s o l ub l e i mp u r i ti e s in fatt y o il s ,
F ill e r s f o r s o ap po wd e r s, 5 8 .

D ete r mi n ati o n o f ( s tan d ar d

Fi n i shi n g c han ge , 3 6 n et ho d ) 1 7 2 N ot e o n m etho d
§7
.

Fi sh o il s , 2 0
.

.
1
F l oati n g s oap , 6 2 .
I n s o l u bl e m att e r i n s o ap , d et er
Fo r m ald e h yd e s oap , 78 .
mi n ati o n o f , 1 4 3
F r am e s , 3 1 .
I n te r n at i on al c o mmi tte e o n gly
.

F r e e al k ali in s o ap , De t e r mi n a c e r i n e an aly s i s 1 50
ti o n o f , 1 3 9 .
I o di n e m an u fac t u r i ng o il , 1 9 1
, .

F r e e f att y ac id , D et e r mi n ati o n I o d i n e m e mb e r W i j s m etho d ,

.

of, 1 28 .
S tan d ar d , 1 7 7 1 8 1 N o te o n -

F r e e f att y ac id s Extr ac ti o n f r o m
.

, m eth o d , 1 9 1
t all o w, 6
.

.
I o di n e s o ap , 78
F r e e fatt y ac id , S tan d ard m e th o d .

o f dil u , 1 74 N o t e o n m et ho d ,
.
J
1 8 8 -1 8 9 .

F u l l b oil e d s oaps , 3 5 .
J o sli n , r e f . , 113

F u ll er s e ar th bl e ac hi n g
’
of tal K
l ow, 4
K i lli n g c han g e , 3 6
. ”

G K o e tts to r fer n u m b er
.

( S t an d ar d
Gly c e r i des , 2 .
m et ho d ) , 1 8 1 -1 8 2
Gly cer i n e , 2 .
K o n tak t r e ag e n t , 1 1 7
.

Gly c e r i n e an aly s i s , 1 50 .
K r eb itz P r o c e ss , 1 2 3
.

Gly c e r i n e c h an ge , 3 6 .
K r u to l in , 9 6
.

G ly c e r i n e , C r u d e , 1 1 3
.

L
.

Gly c e r i n e in s p e n t ly e s, .
R e c ov
e ry o f, 1 06 . Le i st e 81S ti e pe l m eth o d f o r
‘

Gly c e r i n e in soa , p D e te r mi nat i o n r o s i n i n s o ap , 1 4 6 .

o f, 1 49 . L i e b e r m an n , S t o r c h r e ac t i on ,
Gly c e r i n e, S ampl i n g cru d e, 1 62 . 1 44 .

24 0
 S O AP MAKI NG MAN UAL -

R o s i n, D et e r m i n at i on of in s oa , p S oap , D e t e r mi n ati o n i n s o l u b l e
1 44 .
m att e r , 1 4 3
R o si n
.

s ap o n i fic atio n , 23 . S o ap , D et e r m i n i n g gly c e r i n e in ,
R u n an d gl u e d up so a s, p 69 . 149 .

Ru n s oa s , p 39 .
S o ap , Es c hwe g e r , 8 1 .

S o ap , Fl o at i n g , 6 2 .

S o ap, F o r m ald e hyd e , 78 .

S al so d a, 29 S oap f o r wo o l , S c o u r i n g an d
f u lli n g 9 8
.

S al t , 30 . , .

S al tin out, 30 S o ap , F u ll b o il e d , 3 5 .

S o ap , I o di n e , 78
.

S al t pi c k l e , 3 7
‘
.

S o ap k e tt l e 3 1
.

S ampli n g c r u d e gly c e r i n e , 1 6 2 , .

S o ap , L au n d y 4 8
.

S amp lin fo r s tan d ar d m e t h o d , r

F
, .

1 66 . l t o e on, 1 84 .
S o ap , L i q u id , 9 4 .

S ampli n g o il s an d f ats , 1 2 8 . S o ap l y e c r u d e gly c e i n e 1 1 3 r ,

S o ap , M ar i n e , 3 9
.

S ampli n g s o ap , 1 3 7 . .

S ap o n ific atio n by f e r m e n t s , 1 2 1 . S oap , M e di c i n al , 76 .

S ap o n ific atio n , A c i d , 1 2 0 S o p , M e di c i n al , l e s s i m p o tan t

;8
. r ,
S ap o n ific atio n , Aq u e o u s 1 2 1 , . .

S ap o n ific atio n , A u to c l av e , 1 1 8 . S o ap , M e r c u r y , 78 .

S apo n ific atio n , C ar b o n at e , 4 5 . S o ap , M etalli c 1 , .

S ap o n ific atio n d e fi n e d 2 1 0 5 . , . S o ap , P e r oxi d e 78 , .

S ap o n ific atio n , L i m e 1 1 8 , . S o ap p o wd e r s , 5 6 .

S ap o n i fic atio n n u m b e r , 1 8 1 1 8 2 -
. S o ap , P u mi c e o r s an d 9 3 . .

S ap o n ific atio n , R o s i n , 2 3 . S o ap , R o s i n s e t tl e d , 5 0 .

S ap o n ific atio n , V ar i o u s m e t h o d s , S o ap , R u n an d gl u e d u p , 6 9
S o ap , S c o u r i n g , 6 1
.

1 05 .

Sc o u r mg an d f u lli n g s oa s p for S o ap , S e m i b o il e d l au n d y 4 9
-
r ,
S o ap , S hav i n g , 8 7
.

w oo l , 9 8 . .

S c o u r i n g p o wd e r s , 6 1
‘

. S o ap , S u lp h u r 7 7 . .

S c ou r i n g s o ap , 6 1 .
S o ap , T an n i n 7 8 , .

S emi b o il e d l au n d y s o ap s , 4 9
-
r . S o ap , T ar , 7 7 .

S e mi b o i l e d p r oc e s s , 4 4
-
. S o ap , T e s t f o r c o l o r o f , 1 3 3
S hav i n g c r eam , 9 0 S o ap , T ext il e , 9 8
.

. .

S hav i n g p o wd e r 90 , . S o ap , T o il et , 6 5 .

S h av i n g s o ap s 8 7 , . S o ap , T o il e t c h e ap e r , 6 8 .

S i li c a an d s ili c at e s De te r mm a , S o ap T o il e t, c o l d m ad e , 72
, .

t i o n o f in s o ap , 1 4 8 . S o ap T o il e t p e r f u mi n g an d c o l
,
S il k dy e i n g , 1 0 2 . ori ng 73 , .

S i l k i n d u st y S o aps u s e d i n ,
r , S oap , T r an s p ar e n t , 8 2 .

1 01 . S o ap, T r an s p ar e n t, c o l d m ad e
S l abb e r , 3 2 . 84 .

S m i th m e th o d f o r mms tu r e m S o ap d f o r c o tto n g o o d s , 1 0 3
0
’

u se
s oap , 1 3 8 S oap in th e s il k i n d u s r y
.

. u sed t
S o ap an aly s i s , 1 3 7
.

. 1 01
S o ap , A u t o m o bil e 4 1 , . S o ap , W i tc h h aze l , 78
So ap , C ar b o li c 7 7
.

, . S o ap , W o o l t h o w e r s 1 00 r
’
, .

S o ap , C ast il e 79 , . S oap , W o r s te d fin ish xn g , 1 0 1

S o ap , C h i p, 54 S o d a as h, 2 8
.
'

. .

S o ap, Ch ip , c o l d m ad e 5 5 , . S o d i u m c a b o n at e 2 8
r , .

S o ap , C hi p u n fill e d 56
, , . S o di u m p e r b o r at e U s e o f , in
S o ap , C ol d c r e am 78 , . s o ap p o wd e r s , 5 7 .

S o ap , C o l o r i n g , 7 5 . S o ft s o ap s , 4 0 .

S o ap c o n tain m g p he n o l s, 7 7 . S o l u bl e mi n e r al m at te r d e tm . of
S o ap , C u r d , 7 1 . in fats an d o il s , 1 7 3 N ot e . on
S o ap D efin e d , 1
. . m eth o d , 1 8 7 1 8 8 -
.
 I N D EX

S o l v ay p r oc e s s , 2 8 . T o tal al k ali , D e te r mi nati o n of in

S o y a b e an o il , 1 4 . so a , p 147 .

S p e n t l y e , R e c ov e ry o f glyc e r i n e T o t al fatt y an d r e s i n ac i d s D e ,

f r o m , 1 06 . t e r mi n at i o n o f in s oap , 1 4 4 .

S p e n t ly e s , 3 7 . T r ai n o il s , 2 0 .

S pe n t ly e s , T r e at me n t o f f o r T r an s p ar e n t s oap, 8 2 .

ly c e r i n e r ec o v e r y , 1 0 7 T r an s p ar e n t s oap , C o ld m ad e ,
S pgittin g f ats wi th f e r m e n ts , P2 1
.

‘
. 84 .

S tan d ar d m et h o d s o f an aly s i s fo r T r o weli n g s oa , p 52 .

fat s an d o il s , 1 6 5 1 9 6 -
. T s u j imo to , r e f , 20 . .

S tar c h an d g l ati n e D e te r mi n a e , T u b e s f o r r an s p ar e n s o ap , 8 5
t t
ti o n in s o ap , 1 4 3 . T u r k e y r e d o il , 1 04 .

S t e a i c ac id , 1 5, 1 9
r . T waddl e s c al e , 2 5 .

S tear i n , 2 , 1 9 . T wi c he ll m e h o d f o r r o si n , 1 4 5
t t
S t r e n g t h e n i n g c h an g e 3 6 , . T wi c he ll p r o c s s , 1 1 3
t e .

S t e n g t he n i n g ly e s , 3 8
r . T wi c h el l p r oc e s s , A d v an ag e s
t t .

S t r u n z c r u tc h e r 6 3 , . 1 13 .

S u ga in s o ap , D ete r mi n ati o n o f ,
15 g U
S u g ar , U se in t r an s p ar e n t! s o ap , U ns ap o n ifiabl e m atte r D e te r mi ,
~

83 . n at i o n o f i n o il s an d f at s , 1 3 2 .

S u l fat e o f al u mi n a, U s e o f in U n s ap o n ifiabl e m atte r , D e te r mi

s pe n t ly e s , 1 0 8 . n at i o n o f i n s o ap 148 , .

S u l p h o n ate d o il s 1 04 . . U n s ap o n ifiab l e m at te r d ete r m ,

S u lp h u r so ap s , 7 7 . i n atio n o f by st an d ar d m e t ho d ,
S we ati n g o f s o ap , 6 2 . 1 76 .

S we e t wat e r , 1 1 9 .

S yl v i c ac i d , 2 2 . V
T V ac u u m O ven S t an d ard , 1 76 .

T alg o l , 9 6 .
V e ge t abl e o il s , 6 .

T all o w, 4 .

W
Tall o w, Fu ll e r s e a th bl e ac h i n g ’
r
Wate r , 2 9
of, 4
.

T all o w, I m p r o v i n g c o l o r by e x W ate r , H ar d , 2 9 .

\Vitc h haz e l s o ap , 7 8
t r ac t i o n o f f r e e f atty ac id , 6 .

W oo l t h r o we r s s oap 1 00 ’
.

T an n i n s oa p , 78 .

W o rs t e d fi n i s hi n g s o ap s , 1 0 1
, .

T ar s o ap , 7 7 .
.

T e st fo r c o l o r o f s o ap , 1 513 .

Z
Tes t i n g o f al k al i s u s e d I n s oap
m ak i n g , 1 3 4 .
Z i nc o xi d e , U se of i n au to c l av e
T ex t il e s o ap s , 9 8 .
s ap o n i fic atio n , 1 20
T i te r , 1 30 xid e U se p
.

.
Z i nc o . of In soa . 33
T an k c ar s , S ampli n g , 1 6 6 .

T ie r ces Sam pli n g , 1 6 8

, ,

T i te r , S tan d ar d m e tho d , 1 7 5 .

T i te r , N ote o n , 1 8 9 .

Tin g o il , N ot e o n e i o di n e , n u m
ber of, 1 89
To il e t p so a , 6 S .

T o il e t s o aps , Ch e a er, 68 .

T o il e t s oap , U se 0
’
h ar d e n e d o il s
in , 9 6 .

243
 The So ap M ak er
’
-
s B o ok Sh el f
A l is t o f stan d ar d b o o k s r e l atin g to s o ap makin g
an d al lie d in d u s tr ie s .

Pu b l i sh e d an d Fo r Sal e by

D VAN NO STR AND CO M PANY

.

P u b l ish e r s an d B o o k s e l l er s

8 WAR REN STR EET N EW YO RK

As k in s o n , G e o r g e W
P erfu m e s an d Co s m e t i c s T h e ir
. .

p r e p ara t i o n a n d m an u fa c t u r e F o u r th E d it io n , t ra n s .

l a te d fr o m th e Ge r m a n , a n d r e v i s e d w i t h a d d i t i o n s b y
W L D u d l e y 3 2 i ll u s tra ti o n s 6 % x9 % Cl o t h 3 54
. . . . . .

pp . N ew Y o rk , 1 9 1 5 .

C h alm e r s , T W T h e Pr o d u c ti o n an d T r e a t m e n t of
. .

V e g e ta b l e O il s I n cl u d in g c h a p t er s o n th e r e fi ni n g o f
.

o il s , th e h y d r o ge n a t io n o f o il s , th e ge n e ra ti o n o f
h y d r o ge n , s o a p m akin g , th e re c o v e ry an d r e fi n in g o f
g ly c e r in e , a n d th e s p l ittin g of o il s 9 5 i l l u s tr a t i o n s , .

9 fo l di n g p l a t e s 8x 1 1 % Cl o t h 1 63 p p L o n d o n ,
. . . .

1 91 9 .

D eit e , C M a nu al o f T o i le t S o a p M akin g C o m p ri si n g
.
-
.

t o il e t s o a p s , m e d i c a t e d s o a p s , an d o t h e r s p e c ial ti e s .

S e c o n d R e vi s e d E d i ti o n 8 5 i l l u s tr a ti o n s 6%x10
. . .

Cl o t h 3 56 p p L o n d o n , 1 92 0
. . .

E l l i s , C arl e to n G T h e H y d ro g e n at i o n o f O i l s , Ca ta
.

l y z e r s a n d C ata ly s i s a n d th e G en e ra ti o n o f H y d r o g e n
a n d O xy g en S ec o n d E d i t io n , t h o r o u gh l y r evi s e d a n d
.

e nl ar g e d 2 4 0 i l l u s t ra t i o n s
. Cl o t h 76 7 p p . . .

N Y , 1919
. . .

F i s c h e r, M H S o a p s a u d P r o t e in s , T h eir Co l l o i d
. .

Ch e m i s try in T h e o ry an d P ra c ti c e W i t h th e c o l la b o .

ra ti o n o f G D M c L au g h l in a n d M O H o o k er 1 1 4
. . . . .

il lu s tra tio n s . Cl o t h 28 1 p p N e w Y o rk , . .

1 92 1 .
H o l d e , D T h e E xa m i na t i o n o f H y d r o c arb o n O il s , a n d
.

of th e S ap o n ifiab l e F at s an d Wax e s T ra n s l at e d fro m .

th e F o u rt h G e r m an E d i ti o n b y E d w ar d M u el l e r 115 .

il lu s t ra ti o n s 6 % x 9 % C l o t h 4 99 p p
. N Y , 1915 . . . . . .

N et, $5 00 .

H u r s t , G H S o a p s A p ra c ti c al m a n u a l o f th e m a n u
. . .

fa c t u r e o f d o m e s tic , to i l et ahd o t h e r s o ap s Second .

E d i tio n 66 il l u s tr ati o n s
. 6x 8 % Cl o t h 385 p p . . . .

L o n d o n , 1 90 7 .

H u r s t , G e o r ge H , an d S i m m o n s , W H T e x ti l e S o a p s
. . .

an d O il s A h an d b o ok o n th e p r e p a ra ti o n , p r o p e r
.

ti e s , a n d a n aly s i s o f th e s o ap s a n d o il s an d i n t e xti l e
m an u fa c t u r in g , d y ein g a n d p r in tin g T h ird E di t io n , .

r ev i s e d 1 2 i l l u s t ra tio n s
. 5% x8 % C lo th 2 1 2 p p . . . .

L o n d o n , 1 92 1 .

K o ll e r , T Co s m eti c s A h an d b o o k o f th e m an u fac t u r e ,
. .

e m p l o y m e n t , an d t e s t in g o f al l c o s m e ti c m a te r ia l s a n d
c o s m e ti c s p ec ial tie s , w i t h n u m er o u s r e c ip e s T ra n s .

l a te d fro m th e Ge r m a n T h i r d E d itio n Cl o t h . . .

2 64 p p L o n d o n , 1 92 0
. .

K opp e, S W Gl y c e ri n e
. I t s i n tro d u c ti o n , U s e s an d
. .

E x a m in a t io n F o r c h e m i s t s , p e rf u m e r s , s o ap mak e r s ,
.

p h ar m ac i s t s a n d exp l o s iv e s t ec h n ol o gi s t s 7 ill u s tra

. .

ti o n s 5 % x 7 % Cl o th 2 60 p p N e w Yo rk , 1 9 1 5
. . . . .

L a m b o rn , L L M o d er n S o a p s , C an d l e s a n d Gl yc e r in
. . . .

A p ra c tic a l m a n u al of m o d ern m e t h o d s o f u ti l i z a ti o n
of fa t s an d o i l s i n th e m a n u fa c t u re o f s o a p s an d c a n
d l e s , a n d th e r e c o v e ry o f gl y c e r in 2 2 8 i l lu s tra ti o n s ,
. .

6V 2 x9 % Cl o t h 708 p p N Y , 1 906
. . . . . .

M u r ra y , B L S ta n d ar d s an d T e s ts fo r R e a g en t C h e m
. .

ic al s .6 x9 C l o t h 4 00 p p N e w Y o rk , 1 92 0
. . . .

Pa r r y , E rn e s t J T h e C h e mi s t ry o f E s s en ti al O il s an d
.

A rt ifi ci a l P e rf u m e s V o l I , M o n o gra p h s o n E s s en tia l . .

O i l s F o u rt h E d it io n , r ev is e d a n d e n l ar ge d 5 1 il l u s
. .

tr atio n s 6%x10 . C l o t h 557 p p Lo n d o n 1 92 1 . . . . .

Vo l I I
. C o n s ti t u e n t s o f E s s e n ti a l O il s , S y n t h e ti c
.

Pe rf u m e s a n d I s o l a t e d A r o m ati c s , a n d th e An al y s i s
o f E s s en tia l O il s T hir d E d iti o n revi s e d an d en l ar ge d
.
, .

I l lu s t ra t e d 35 1 p p L o n d o n , 1 9 1 9
. . .
P ar t i n g t o n, R T h e A lk al i I n d u s tr y 63 i l l u s t r a t io n s
. . .

5% x 8 % . lo t h 3 1 8 p p L o n d o n , 1 9 1 8
. . $3 200 .

R og e rs , Al l en I n du s t ri al Ch e m i s t r y A m a n u al f o r th e
. .

s t u d e n t a n d m a n ufa c tu r e r T h ir d E d i t i o n , t h o r o u gh ly .

r ev i s e d a n d e n l a r ged 3 77 il lu s tra t i o n s 6% x9 %
. . .

Fl exib l e fa b rik o i d 1 2 55 p p N e w Y o rk , 1 920

. . .

Sc o tt , W il f r ed ( E d it o r ) WS tan d ar d M e t h o d s o f .

C h e m ic a l A n a ly s i s A m an u a l o f a n aly ti c al m e th o d s
.

a n d ge ne r a l r efe r e n c e f o r th e an al y ti c al c h e m i s t a n d
fo r the a dv an c e d s t u d en t S e c o n d E d i t io n , r e v i s e d , .
.

w i th a d d i ti o n a l t a b l e s 1 4 2 il l u s tr a ti o n s , 3 c o l o r p l at e s
. .

7x 9 % . C l o th 900 p p N Y , 1 91 7
. . . . .

S i mm o n s , W H . . Fat s , W ax e s a n d E s s en t ia l O il s .

I n Pr e s s .

S immo n s , W ill i am H S o ap I t s c o m p o s i ti o n , man u fac

. .

t u r e a n d p r o p e r t i e s 1 1 il lu s tr a t io n s 4 % x 7 % Cl o th
. . . .

1 33 p p Lo n d o n , 1 9 1 6
. .

S i mmo n s , W H , an d App l e t o n , H A
. . T h e H an d b o o k . .

o f S o a p M a n ufa c tu r e 2 7 il lu s tr a t i o n s 6x 9 C lo th
. . . .

1 66 p p Lo n do n , 1 908
. .

V an N o s tr an d s C h em ic al Ann ual
’
E d ite d b y J o h n C . .

O l s en . A h an d b o ok o f u s e fu l d a ta fo r an aly tic a l
m a n u fa c tu rin g a n d i nv e s ti g a ti n g c h e m i s t s a n d c h e m i
c al s tu d en t s Fou r t h I s s u e , e n l ar ge d 5x 7 % P l exi
. . .

b l e fab r ik o i d 78 5 p p N e w Y o r k, 1 9 1 8
. . .

W a t t , A A r t o f S o a p m ak in g A p ra c tic a l h an d b o o k o f
. .

th e m a n u fa c tur e o f h a r d a n d s oft s o a p s , t o il e t s o a p s ,
e t c S ev e n th E d iti o n , r e v i s e d a n d e n la r ged 4 3 illu s
. .

tr atio n s 5 % x 7% Cl o th 3 2 3 p p Lo n d o n , 1 9 1
3
. . . . .

Wr i g h t , C . R . A
A ni m a l a n d V e ge t ab l e Fix e d O i l s ,
.

F at s , B u tter s , an d W ax e s : T h e i r P r ep ara ti o n an d
P r o p er t i e s , a n d th e M a n u fac t u r e T h e r efr o m of Ca n
d le s , S o a p s , a n d O th er P r o du c t s T h ir d E d i t i on , r e .

v i s e d an d gr e a t l y en l a r ge d b y C A in sw o r t h M i t c h e l l . .

1 8 5 il l u s tra ti o n s , 3 p l a te s 6x 9 Cl o th 9 53 p p Lo n . . . .

d o n , 1 92 1 .
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