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Métodos numéricos para encontrar ceros de funciones*

Danny Fernández1 y Nicolás Vargas2

Abstract Si f (xin f ) · f (xr ) > 0 la raı́z se encuentra en el in-


tervalo o mitad superior, y se asigna el valor xin f = xmed
This electronic document is a live template. The .
various components of your paper [title, text, heads, Finalmente si f (xin f ) · f (xr ) = 0 Se debe evaluar si
etc.] are already defined on the style sheet, as illus- f (xr ) = 0, en tal caso xr es la raı́z y se debe terminar el
trated by the portions given in this document. proceso.

Método del Punto fijo:


1. INTRODUCCIÓN Es un método iterativo abierto utilizado para re-
solver ecuaciones no lineales, para aplicarlo se necesita
La aplicación de este proyecto será analizada a una funcin f (x) tal que f (x) = 0 pueda ser expresado
través de varios métodos numéricos con la finalidad de la siguiente manera: x = g(x).
de hallar los ceros de las funciones respecto al eje En caso de que esto no sea posible se suma x a
coordenado x, además será de gran utilidad y aporte ambos lados de la ecuación sin afectarla, de la manera
el análisis de similitudes y diferencias entre estos x = f (X) + x.
métodos, además se analizará cuá de ellos es el más Una vez expresado como se menciona previamente
apropiado y efectivo en el caso particular en análisis. se puede empezar el algoritmo para hallar las raı́ces, se
Cabe recalcar que existe la posibilidad de que alguno lo realiza de la siguiente manera:
de los métodos no converja o requiera de una gran
cantidad de iteraciones para hacerlo, esto no quiere x0
decir que el mtodo no tenga validéz, simplemente
muestra que no se adecuó a las caracterı́sticas de la x1 = g(x0 )
función concerniente al problema.
x2 = g(x1 )
Descripción de Métodos:
Hasta llegar a la generalización:
Método Bisección
Este es considerado un método cerrado puesto que xn = g(xn−1 ) (2)
se requiere de dos valores que encierren a la raı́z, es de-
cir un punto debe estar ubicado antes y otro punto de-
spués de la raı́z. Se basa en dividir a la mitad la función Cabe recalcar que para asegurar la convergencia del
y evaluar en que intervalo se encuentra encerrada la raı́z, método es necesario que se cumplan ciertos parámetros.
este proceso se repite varias veces hasta conseguir una Los cuáles serán descritos a continuación:
buena aproximación. g(x) y g0 (x) deben ser continuas. Además de que:
El proceso se fundamenta en la repetición de la
siguiente ecuación: | g0 (x) |≤ 1 (3)

xsup + xin f Si éstas condiciones se cumplen podemos asegurar que


xmed = (1) el método halle la raı́z, entonces se recomienda evaluar
2
esta derivada para elegir el punto inicial en este método.
Si f (xin f ) · f (xr ) < 0 la raı́z se encuentra en el intervalo
o mitad menor, y se asigna el valor xsup = xmed . Y para Método Newton Raphson:
la evaluación del intervalo donde se encuentra la raı́z se Este proceso o algoritmo se basa en hacer aprox-
debe evaluar el producto entre los puntos inicial-final y imaciones lineales a la curva en un punto (rectas tan-
el punto medio. gentes) donde el próximo punto, será seleccionado,
donde la recta tangente corte con el eje de las abscisas La ecuación utilizada para éste método es la sigu-
o eje x. La repetición del proceso llevará a encontrar la iente:
ra—’iz en la mayorı́a de los casos. δx · f (xi )
xi+1 = xi − (6)
La ecuación que representa este proceso de lineal- f (xi + δx ) − f (xi )
ización iterativo es:
Donde xi es el valor inicial para cada iteración y δx
f (xi ) es el cambio fraccionario.
xi+1 = xi − 0 (4)
f (xi ) La ventaja de éste método al igual que el método
de la secante es que evita el cálculo de la derivada nece-
Una de las desventajas de este método es que el sario para el método de Newton-Raphson y cumple la
primer valor debe ser cercano a la raı́z de modo que su misma función. Es además un algoritmo de convergen-
convergencia sea más fácil, puesto que ésta convergen- cia rápida
cia se complica en caso de existir puntos de inflexión o
pendientes grandes entre el punto inicial y la raı́z. 2. APLICACIÓN
Sin embargo, una de las ventajas más grandes que
este método presenta frente a los métodos anterior- Para el correcto análisis de todos los métodos
mente mostrados, es su rápida convergencia, ésto se numéricos anteriormente expuestos, elegiremos un ejer-
debe a que el error disminuye de forma cuadrática. cicio de aplicación, aplicaremos todos los métodos es-
tudiados al mismo problema, para de esta manera poder
Método de la Secante: entender de forma prćtica e integral, las similitudes,
El método numérico de la secante se basa profun- diferencias, gasto computacional y caracterı́sticas es-
damente en el método de Newton-Raphson, pero busca pecı́ficas que cada uno de los algoritmos utilizados
evitar el cálculo de la derivada de la función, algo que posee.
puede resultar muy complicado con determinadas fun-
ciones. Es por esto que, en lugar de utilizar una tangente
2.1. Ejemplo de aplicación:
a la funcin, toma dos puntos de ella y traza una recta se-
cante, el punto donde ésta recta intercepta el eje de las Utilice los Metodos numericos estudiados para de-
abscisas es nuestro siguiente punto, haciendo par con el terminar con tres cifras decimales la coordenada x del
punto más próximo de la anterior iteración. punto de interseccion en el primer cuadrante de la recta:
Este proceso se expresa en la siguiente ecuación y = 31 x y la curva: y = sen(x)
donde los valores iniciales de cada iteración son xi−1 y
xi :
2.2. Maintaining the Integrity of the Specifica-
f (xi ) · ((xi−1 − xi )
xi+1 = xi − (5) tions
f (xi−1 ) − f (xi )
Una de las desventajas es que las secantes trazadas The template is used to format your paper and style
se hacen entre puntos que pueden guardar gran distan- the text. All margins, column widths, line spaces, and
cia entre sı́, ésto no representarı́a la linealización de la text fonts are prescribed; please do not alter them. You
función adecuadamente y puede implicar la no conver- may note peculiarities. For example, the head margin
gencia del método. in this template measures proportionately more than is
A pesar de que éste método requiera de dos customary. This measurement and others are deliberate,
puntos para iniciar el proceso iterativo, no se considera using specifications that anticipate your paper as one
un método cerrado puesto que éstos dos puntos no part of the entire proceedings, and not as an indepen-
necesariamente encierran la raı́z. dent document. Please do not revise any of the current
designations
Método de la Secante Modificado:
Como solución al problema de secantes a puntos 3. MATH
muy distantes se desarrolló éste método que asegura
que las secantes siempre se tracen sobre un intervalo Before you begin to format your paper, first write
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3.1. Abbreviations and Acronyms
been defined before or immediately following the equa-
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Define abbreviations and acronyms the first time
beginning of a sentence: Equation (1) is . . .
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3.4. Some Common Mistakes
Do not use abbreviations in the title or heads unless they
• The word data is plural, not singular.
are unavoidable.
• The subscript for the permeability of vacuum ?0,
3.2. Units and other common scientific constants, is zero with
subscript formatting, not a lowercase letter o.
• Use either SI (MKS) or CGS as primary units. (SI
units are encouraged.) English units may be used • In American English, commas, semi-/colons, peri-
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would be the use of English units as identifiers in within quotation marks only when a complete
trade, such as 3.5-inch disk drive. thought or name is cited, such as a title or full quo-
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units, clearly state the units for each quantity that of the closing parenthesis (like this). (A parenthet-
you use in an equation. ical sentence is punctuated within the parentheses.)

• Do not mix complete spellings and abbreviations • A graph within a graph is an inset, not an insert.
of units: Wb/m2 or webers per square meter, not The word alternatively is preferred to the word al-
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text: . . . a few henries, not . . . a few H. alternates).

• Use a zero before decimal points: 0.25, not .25. • Do not use the word essentially to mean approxi-
Use cm3, not cc. (bullet list) mately or effectively.

• In your paper title, if the words that uses can ac-


3.3. Equations curately replace the word using, capitalize the u; if
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Use this sample document as your LaTeX source fonts embedded) because, in an document, this method
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cannot expect to get required margins. Note also that Figure 1. Inductance of oscillation winding
when you are creating your out PDF file, the source file on amorphous magnetic core versus DC bias
is only part of the equation. Your TEX → PDF filter magnetic field
determines the output file size. Even if you make all the
specifications to output a letter file in the source - if you
filter is set to produce A4, you will only get A4 output. cluding units in the label, present them within parenthe-
It is impossible to account for all possible situation, ses. Do not label axes only with units. In the example,
one would encounter using TEX. If you are using mul- write Magnetization (A/m) or Magnetization A[m(1)],
tiple TEX files you must make sure that the “MAIN“ not just A/m. Do not label axes with a ratio of quanti-
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5. CONCLUSIONS
4.1. Headings, etc
A conclusion section is not required. Although a
Text heads organize the topics on a relational, hi- conclusion may review the main points of the paper, do
erarchical basis. For example, the paper title is the pri- not replicate the abstract as the conclusion. A conclu-
mary text head because all subsequent material relates sion might elaborate on the importance of the work or
and elaborates on this one topic. If there are two or suggest applications and extensions.
more sub-topics, the next level head (uppercase Roman
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not at least two sub-topics, then no subheads should be
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4.2. Figures and Tables
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Positioning Figures and Tables: Place figures and
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the tables. Insert figures and tables after they are cited ments in the unnumbered footnote on the first page.
in the text. Use the abbreviation Fig. 1, even at the References are important to the reader; therefore,
beginning of a sentence. each citation must be complete and correct. If at all
possible, references should be commonly available pub-
lications.
Table 1. An Example of a Table

One Two References


Three Four
[1] G. O. Young, Synthetic structure of industrial plastics
(Book style with paper title and editor), in Plastics, 2nd
ed. vol. 3, J. Peters, Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964,
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Figure labels. Use words rather than symbols or abbre- [2] W.-K. Chen, Linear Networks and Systems (Book style).
viations when writing Figure axis labels to avoid con- Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1993, pp. 123135.
fusing the reader. As an example, write the quantity [3] H. Poor, An Introduction to Signal Detection and Esti-
Magnetization, or Magnetization, M, not just M. If in- mation. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1985, ch. 4.
[4] B. Smith, An approach to graphs of linear forms (Un- Apr. 1965.
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[6] J. Wang, Fundamentals of erbium-doped fiber amplifiers [14] G. R. Faulhaber, Design of service systems with priority
arrays (Periodical styleSubmitted for publication), IEEE reservation, in Conf. Rec. 1995 IEEE Int. Conf. Com-
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der, CO, private communication, May 1995. axial anisotropy, in 1987 Proc. INTERMAG Conf., pp.
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plastic substrate interfaces(Translation Journals style), short sections on bundle conductors (Presented Confer-
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nique for digital communications channel equalization vard Univ., Cambridge, MA, 1993.
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