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hψ| H0 |ψi = Ej (259)
j
74
Since a lot of problems in quantum optics deal with the simplified case of two-level
atoms it is convenient to limit the atomic Hilbert space to two dimensions and to
introduce the Pauli spin operators σ j ∈ H ⊕2 (similar as in a single spin system):
µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶
0 1 0 −i 1 0
σx = ; σy = ; σz = (260)
1 0 i 0 0 −1
Together with the raising and lowering operators
1 1
σ+ = (σ x + iσ y ) ; σ − = (σ x − iσ y ) (261)
2 2
More generally (non-pure states) one has to write down the density operator ρ:
ρ(A) = ρ11 |1i h1| + ρ22 |2i h2| + ρ12 |1i h2| + ρ21 |2i h1| (264)
®
where ρij = ci c∗j i, j = 1, 2 (265)
75
Definition of the Bloch-vector −
→
r:
r1 = 2 Re(ρ12 ) (266)
r2 = 2 Im(ρ12 ) (267)
r3 = ρ22 − ρ11 (268)
Therefore:
Generally, it follows:
76
Figure 47: Bloch representation of a state of a two-level atom [from Mandel ”Optical Coherence
and Quantum Optics”]
The interaction of a classical field E(t) with an atom can be described via the dipole
interaction:
→
−
H I = −→
−
µ (t) · E (t) (275)
The time evolution of the density matrix ρ(t) describing the state of the atom
(Hamiltonian HA = 21 ~ω 0 σ z ) follows from the Schroedinger equation with the Hamil-
tonian H = HA + HI :
∂ρ(t) 1
= [HA + HI , ρ(t)] (276)
∂t i~
77
· 1
ρ11 = [h1| HI |2i ρ21 − c.c] (277)
i~
· 1
ρ22 = − [h1| HI |2i ρ21 − c.c] (278)
i~
· 1
ρ12 = [−~ω 0 ρ12 + h1| HI |2i (ρ22 − ρ11 )] (279)
i~
· 1
ρ21 = [~ω 0 ρ21 + h2| HI |1i (ρ11 − ρ22 )] (280)
i~
· ·
Obviously (ρ11 + ρ22 ) = 0.
These equations of motions can be expressed by the Bloch vector and are called
Bloch equations:
· 1
r1 = 2 Im [h1| HI |2i] r3 − ω 0 r2 (282)
~
· 1
r2 = − 2 Re [h1| HI |2i] r3 + ω 0 r1 (283)
~
· 2 2
r3 = − Im [h1| HI |2i] r1 + Re [h1| HI |2i] r2 (284)
~ ~
78
If the interaction with a classical single-mode field E(t) = b²E0 (t) exp(−iω 1 t) + c.c.
is evaluated then the term h1| HI |2i becomes:
−
→ −
→
h1| HI |2i = −→
−
µ 12 E (t) = − h1| −
→
µ |2i E (t) (287)
The fast rotation of the Bloch-vector around the z-axis at the optical frequency
ω 0 can be eliminated by transforming into a rotating frame:
−
→
r 0 =Θ·−
→
r (288)
with
cos ω 1 t sin ω 1 t 0
Θ = − sin ω 1 t cos ω 1 t 0 (289)
0 0 1
·0
r1 = (ω 1 − ω 0 )r20 (290)
·0
r2 = (ω 0 − ω 1 )r10 + Ωr30 (291)
·0
r3 = −Ωr20 (292)
with the Rabi frequency Ω:
Ω = 2−
→
µ 12b² |E0 (t)| /~ (293)
79
Figure 48: Precession of Bloch vector vor δ = 0 (a) and δ 6= 0 (b) [from Scully ”Quantum Optics”]
A pulse which is applied to the atom initially in the ground state (r = (0, 0, 1))
which has the pulse area Ωt = π, a so-called π-pulse, flips the atomic state to the
excited state, whereas a pulse with area Ωt = π/2, a π/2-pulse, creates a coherent
superposition of upper and lower atomic state of equal weight:
80
Ωt = π π-pulse |2i −→ |1i √
(298)
Ωt = π/2 π/2-pulse |2i −→ (|2i + |1i)/ 2
This method can be used to compare the frequency of a field to an atomic transi-
tion and is called Ramsey-method. By changing T or δ the probability to detect the
atom in the excited state oscillates. These oscillations are also called Ramsey fringes.
In a Ramsey interferometer the two pulses have to be separated in time as far as pos-
sible to obtain highest sensitivity. The sensitivity is not limited by the time-of-flight
of the atom through a single interaction zone in the experiment.
Modern atomic clocks (e.g. Cs clocks) use the Ramsey method to stabilze an RF-
field to a narrow atomic transition.
81
Figure 49: Principle setup for a Ramsey measurement.
82
7.5 Rabi-Oscillation for pure states
Rabi-Oscillations are the typical dynamics for the coherent interaction of two-level
atoms with light. In the following some aspects are described more explicitly for the
case of pure states.
We are interested in the time evolution of the coefficienty ce (t) and cg (t).
ρ = ρee |ei he| + ρgg |gi hg| + ρeg |ei hg| + ρge |gi he| (300)
where ρij = ci c∗j i, j = e, g (301)
In the special case of exact resonance between the frequency of the light and the
atomic transition frequency, i.e. δ = ω 1 − ω 0 = 0, it is straightforward to derive an
exact solution from the equation of motion (280) derived above:
µ ¶ µ ¶
1 1
ce (t) = ce (0) cos Ωt − icg (0) sin Ωt (302)
2 2
µ ¶ µ ¶
1 1
cg (t) = cg (0) cos Ωt − ice (0) sin Ωt (303)
2 2
with the Rabi-frequency Ω = 2 < e|HI |g > /~.
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With the special initial condition ce (0) = 0, cg (0) = 1 one finds:
µ ¶
1
ce (t) = −i sin Ωt (304)
2
µ ¶
1
cg (t) = cos Ωt (305)
2
and for the probability Pg (t) and Pe (t) to find the atom in the ground and excited
state, respectively:
1
Pe (t) = |ce (t)|2 = (1 − cos Ωt) (306)
2
1
Pg (t) = |cg (t)|2 = (1 + cos Ωt) (307)
2
Figure 51 plots the time evolution which corresponds to the pictorial dynamics of
the Bloch vector as described above.
Figure 51: Time evolution of the probability Pg (t) and Pe (t) to find the atom in the ground (solid)
and excited (dashed) state, respectively. [from D.A. Steck Quantum and Atom Optics]
A more lengthy calculation provides an analytical solution for the case of near-
resonance with δ 6= 0. In the following the generalized Rabi-frequency Ω̃ was intro-
duced:
p p
Ω̃ = Ω2 + (ω 1 − ω 0 )2 = Ω2 + δ 2 (308)
84
With this the time evolutions are:
· µ ¶ µ ¶¸
iδt/2 1 i 1
ce (t) = e ce (0) cos Ω̃t + [δce (0) − Ωcg (0)] sin Ω̃t (309)
2 Ω̃ 2
· µ ¶ µ ¶¸
iδt/2 1 i 1
cg (t) = e cg (0) cos Ω̃t − [δcg (0) + Ωce (0)] sin Ω̃t (310)
2 Ω̃ 2
Again, with the special initial condition ce (0) = 0, cg (0) = 1 one finds:
µ ¶
iδt/2 Ω 1
ce (t) = −ie sin Ω̃t (311)
Ω̃ 2
· µ ¶ µ ¶¸
iδt/2 1 δ 1
cg (t) = e cos Ω̃t − i sin Ω̃t (312)
2 Ω̃ 2
and for the probability Pe (t) to find the atom in the excited state:
µ ¶
Ω2 1 1
Pe (t) = − cos Ω̃t (313)
Ω̃2 2 2
Figure 52 plots the time evolution of Pe (t) for different detunings. For non-vanishing
detuning the state will never be fully excited. This corresponds to a rotation of the
Bloch vector on a non-maximum circle.
Figure 52: Time evolution of the probability Pe (t) to find the atom in the excited state for different
detunings ∆. [from D.A. Steck Quantum and Atom Optics]
85
7.6 Phenomenological treatment of damping
In the previous chapter the Bloch-vector was introduced. We pointed out that the
Bloch-vector under coherent time evolution always has unity length. In case of in-
coherent evolution this is no longer the case.
· 1
ρ11 = [h1| HI |2i ρ21 − c.c] (314)
i~
· 1
ρ22 = − [h1| HI |2i ρ21 − c.c] (315)
i~
· 1
ρ12 = [−~ω 0 ρ12 + h1| HI |2i (ρ22 − ρ11 )] (316)
i~
· 1
ρ21 = [~ω 0 ρ21 + h2| HI |1i (ρ11 − ρ22 )] (317)
i~
γ ⊥ = Γ/2 + γ c (318)
With the damping rates we can formulate the generalized version of the optical
Bloch equation including damping (in the interaction picture):
86
· Ω¡ ¢
ρee = i ρeg − ρge − Γρee (319)
2
· Ω¡ ¢
ρgg = −i ρeg − ρge + Γρee (320)
2
· Ω¡ ¢
ρge = − (γ ⊥ + iδ) ρge − i ρee − ρgg (321)
2
· Ω¡ ¢
ρeg = − (γ ⊥ − iδ) ρeg + i ρee − ρgg (322)
2
·0
r1 = δr20 − γ ⊥ r10 (323)
·0
r2 = −δr10 + Ωr30 − γ ⊥ r20 (324)
·0
r3 = −Ωr20 − Γ (r30 + 1) (325)
with δ = ω 1 − ω 0
Ω 1 + γiδ
ρeg = −i ⊥
(327)
2γ ⊥ 1 + δ22 + Ω2
γ⊥ Γγ ⊥
87
Often the so-called saturation parameter S is introduced to simplify the notation.
Ω2 /Γγ ⊥
S= (328)
1 + δ 2 /γ 2⊥
With this parameter the expression for the steady-state values of ρee and |ρeg |2 are:
S/2
ρee = (329)
1+S
Γ S
|ρeg |2 = (330)
4γ ⊥ (1 + S)2
Finally, we give the analytic form for the time evolution of the excited state proba-
bility ρee (t) for the special case δ = 0, γ ⊥ = Γ/2 and the atom initially in the ground
state.
· µ ¶¸
Ω2 −(3Γ/4)t Ω2 − Γ2 /4
ρee (t) = −1 + 2 1−e cos ΩΓ t + sin ΩΓ t (331)
Ω + Γ2 /2 ΓΩΓ
p
with ΩΓ = Ω2 + (Γ/4)2 )
Note that after some initial oscillation the atomic inversion will relax to a value
below 0, i.e. the population in the upper state is always less than the population in
the lower state. The following figure plots time evolutions for different values of the
damping Γ:
88
Figure 53: Time evolution of the probability ρee (t) to find the atom in the excited state for different
damping rates Γ. [from D.A. Steck Quantum and Atom Optics]
89