Multiple Deterioration

Mechanisms in Coastal
Concrete Piles
A forensic case study

by R. Brett Holland, Kimberly E. Kurtis, Robert D. Moser, Lawrence F. Kahn, Fred Aguayo, and Preet M. Singh

B
uilt in 1977, the I-95 Turtle River bridge sits about
10 miles (16 km) inland from the Atlantic Ocean in
coastal Georgia. After decades in service, inspection
reports described visual signs of degradation. Reports of
longitudinal cracking, spalling, and exposed reinforcement,
in particular, suggested chloride-induced corrosion of the
reinforcement as primary source of damage. Observations
of “softening” below the waterline to the mudline suggested
the possibility of some chemical and/or biological attack,
although these have not been well-documented in the
region. As a result, after 36 years in service, the bridge
substructure was replaced.
Four of the original prestressed concrete piles were
subject to a forensic evaluation to identify—through
mechanical and analytical testing as well as microscopy—
the deterioration mechanisms producing the damage
observed in the field. The goal of the forensic investigation
of the recovered piles was twofold: to gain a better under-
standing of the causes and severity of degradation in a
marine environment and to allow for the identification of
appropriate methods to increase the durability and service
lives of coastal bridges and other structures exposed to
marine environments. Results from this forensic evaluation
are presented herein.
Inspection reports
The most recent inspection reports prior to pile removal
indicated that in the splash and tidal zones, the piles
showed heavy marine growth, moderate scaling and
abrasion, vertical cracking, spalling, exposed prestressing
steel, rust staining, and delaminations (refer to Fig. 1). The
reported vertical cracks varied in width from hairline to
1/4 in. (6.4 mm). For the submerged region of the piles, it
was noted by divers that the concrete piles were “soft” and
that the concrete could be easily chiseled off. Also, several
piles had vertical cracks in the corners of the submerged
zone that ran from the mudline up 6 to 12 ft (1.8 to 3.7 m)
and stopped below the tidal zone, with widths varying from
hairline to 1/32 in. (0.8 mm).
Exposure conditions in service
Tests from the brackish waters surrounding the bridge
showed that the concrete piles were exposed to sulfates up
to 2000 ppm and low pH of 4 to 5, along with chlorides.
These results suggest that the prestressed piles were sub-
jected to multiple modes of deterioration which could have
contributed to their damage during service.

Service History
Materials and pile design
The piles were 30 in. (762 mm) square in cross section,
with a central 15 in. (381 mm) diameter hollow core.
They were constructed with 1/2 in. (13 mm) prestressing
strands arranged in a square pattern and W3.8 wire
square spirals, with a nominal 3 in. (76 mm) cover. A
0.50 water-cement ratio (w/c) concrete was specified,
using ASTM C150 Type I cement. Natural quartz sand
was used for the fine aggregate, and 1 in. (25 mm) Fig. 1: Typical corrosion-induced spalling in splash zone along
maximum size aggregate (MSA) Pleistocene limestone or with marine growth in tidal and submerged zones of marine
“limerock” was used for the coarse aggregate. piling for the I-95 Turtle River Bridge

Concrete international JULY 2014 45

Corrosion of Prestressing Steel
Portland cement concrete’s highly alkaline environment
passivates embedded reinforcement by the formation of a
thin oxide layer on the surface of the steel, protecting it
from corrosion. The passive film can be broken down by
decreasing the pH of the surrounding environment, local
attack from aggressive ions (for example, chlorides), or a
concurrence of both,1 leading to active corrosion. Corrosion
of the reinforcing steels causes loss of steel area; addition-
ally, the formation of iron oxide corrosion products, which
occupy more volume than the steel, can lead to cracking
and delamination of the cover concrete, as well as rust
staining on the concrete surface.
The causes and extent of damage produced by corrosion
in the piles were investigated by performing a visual
assessment of the damage, assessment of carbonation depth,
mapping the corrosion potentials, and determination of
chloride profiles.
Visual assessment of damage
As previously noted, visual inspection of the splash and
tidal zones of the piles showed vertical cracks along the
corners of the piles, as shown in Fig. 2(a). The average crack
widths were approximately 0.01 in. (0.25 mm), but were as
large as 0.05 in. (1.27 mm). Additionally, delamination of
the cover concrete had occurred over the corner strand on
one pile. The exposed surface showed extensive corrosion
damage to the strand and staining of the surrounding
concrete (Fig. 2(b)).
The pH of the concrete cover was studied by using a
phenolphthalein indicator solution on freshly cut surfaces
of the piles. At pH greater than about 9.2, the indicator
solution turns pink, representing uncarbonated concrete.
As shown in Fig. 3, the carbonation front was found to be
approximately 1 in. (25 mm) beneath the exposed surface of
a pile, both in the submerged and tidal regions. This
limited depth suggests that it is unlikely that corrosion of
the reinforcement resulted solely from carbonation.
(a)
Fig. 2: Visual inspection of the splash and tidal zones of piles: (a) corrosion-induced longitudinal cracking; and (b) corrosion of
prestressing strands and transverse reinforcement
46 JULY 2014 Concrete international
Half-cell corrosion potentials
The half-cell potential of the embedded steel strands was
used in accordance with ASTM C876-09, “Standard Test
Method for Corrosion Potentials of Uncoated Reinforcing
Steel in Concrete,” to identify regions where corrosion was
occurring. Figure 4 shows the half-cell corrosion potentials
from all four sides of a pile. As stated in Section 5.3.2 of
ACI 222.2-01,2 according to ASTM C876, a half-cell poten-
tial more negative than −350 mV indicates a 90% or greater
probability of corrosion occurring. A half-cell potential less
negative than −200 mV indicates a 10% or less probability
of corrosion occurring. The results suggest that from 2 ft
(0.6 m) above high tide and below, there is a high probabil-
ity that corrosion is occurring. However, these potential
measurements are only indicative of the propensity for
corrosion to occur but provide no information regarding
the potential rate of corrosion. The lack of oxygen in the
submerged zones of piles explains why no corrosion-
induced damage was seen, even though the half-cell
potential suggests that corrosion is occurring. The tidal and
splash zones of piles have adequate access to moisture and
oxygen due to the wetting and drying cycles present.
Chloride profiles
The concentration of chlorides near the reinforcement
surface is critical in causing the onset of corrosion; as a
result, it is important to understand the migration of
chlorides through the concrete and the interactions
between those ions and the cementitious system. While
other transport mechanisms, such as capillary action, can
affect the transport of chlorides through the cement paste,
Fick’s second law of diffusion is most commonly used to
model the transport of chlorides (Cl–) through the concrete.
The apparent diffusion coefficient of a concrete mixture
exposed to chlorides can be determined experimentally and
used for service life estimation in a given environment.1
When the concentration of chlorides reaches a threshold
value at the surface of the reinforcing steel, corrosion will
(b)
(a) (b)

Fig. 3: Determination of pH of concrete cover: (a) phenolphthalein indicator solution on sawn surface of pile; and (b) measurement of
carbonation front

initiate when the passive film is broken down. In practice,

the total chloride content is used more frequently for
threshold values, even though it is generally believed that
the free chlorides are responsible for the initiation of
corrosion.3 The chloride threshold level (CTL) is typically
assumed to be between 0.4% to 1% mass of binder, or
approximately 0.05% to 0.2% by mass of concrete, for total
chloride content.1 Research by Moser et al.4 has also shown
that crevice effects and surface imperfections on prestress-
ing strand have an influence on the CTL for use with
service life modeling.
For the purpose of investigating the chloride diffusion
characteristics of concrete in the present study, total and
free chloride concentrations were determined at various
heights along the pile. The total chloride concentration was
measured using the ASTM C1152/C1152M-04, “Standard
Test Method for Acid-Soluble Chloride in Mortar and
Concrete,” procedure. Samples were obtained by taking 3 in.
(76 mm) diameter cores through the depth of the cross
section, and drilling at 1/2 in. (13 mm) increments using a
3/8 in. (10 mm) masonry bit to collect powder.
As seen in Fig. 5, the concentration of total chlorides at
the level of the reinforcement was significantly higher than Fig. 4: Half-cell potential map of the four faces of a typical
the typical CTL values given in the literature, with particu- precast prestressed concrete pile. Elevations are given with
larly high levels noted at the high tide level and below. The respect to high tide

Concrete international JULY 2014 47

chloride profiles for high tide, -5 ft (1.5 m), and -12 ft (3.7 m)
elevations were very similar, with the exception of the surface
chloride content which varied widely between the elevations.
The variation in surface chloride content may be due to the
effects of leaching and capillary suction during wetting and
drying cycles in the tidal zone compared to the fully saturated
condition in the submerged region. At just 2 ft (0.6 m) above
high tide, the chloride content was significantly less than in
the submerged regions. Overall, the concentrations were in
agreement with the measured half-cell corrosion potentials,
suggesting that active corrosion was occuring due to chloride-
induced depassivation of the steel.
The experimental data were fit by nonlinear regression
analysis to Fick’s second law to determine the apparent
diffusion coefficient and surface chloride concentration,
and these were used for service life modeling. Additionally,
the Life 365 Service Life Prediction Model, also based on
Fick’s second law,5 was used to estimate the diffusion
coefficient and expected service life of the piles. The Life
365 estimates were based on selection of a marine tidal
zone exposure in Savannah, GA, for a 0.50 w/c concrete
containing only portland cement. The experimentally
determined data were compared to the Life 365 data for the
estimated time to corrosion initiation based on a CTL of
0.05% by mass of concrete, which is the default value used
by Life 365.6 Table 1 shows this comparison.
Overall, Life 365 gave reasonable predictions of diffusion
coefficient, surface chloride concentration, and time to
corrosion (Table 1). It should be noted that the predicted
time to corrosion initiation represents only a portion of the
usable service life of the structure, and the period of time
for corrosion to propagate to a critical point can take years
Fig. 5: Total measured chloride content of concrete piles at
various depths. In the legend, a positive value indicates depth
below high tide, and a negative value represents height above
high tide
48 JULY 2014 Concrete international
to occur after corrosion initiates. Life 365 underestimated
the diffusion coefficient determined from curve fitting.
However, the diffusion coefficient observed could be
influenced by other damage mechanisms that were
occurring in the piles. For example, the identified biological
attack, sulfate attack, and potential cracking from
construction practices could all lead to an increased
permeability and diffusion coefficient which would not
have been accounted for in the Life 365 estimate.
Sulfate Attack
In addition to chlorides, the concrete piles were exposed
to sulfate (SO42–) concentrations of up to 2000 ppm. Sulfate
attack can damage concrete through the reaction with
hydration products to form sulfate-containing phases, such
as ettringite and gypsum (and in some cases brucite), which
can contribute to expansion, cracking, softening, and/or loss
of strength and stiffness.7 Visually, a whitish appearance of
the cement paste in damaged areas, as well as greater
incidence of cracking and spalling at corners and edges, are
indications of potential sulfate attack.
The potential for sulfate attack to contribute to the
damage found in the bridge piles was assessed by visual
inspection and surface hardness measurements. Additional
techniques not discussed herein, including X-ray diffraction
(XRD) and thermal analysis, were also employed; details on
these findings are provided by Holland.8
Visual assessment of damage
In addition to the cracking in splash and tidal zones
previously described, below the low tide line cracking was
particularly noted near the corners of the piles, extending
from the mudline up to the low tide elevation. The width
of these cracks varied widely, with a maximum of 0.05 in.
(1.3 mm), but most were approximately 0.025 in. (0.6 mm)
wide; marine life was found growing along the cracks.
Surface spalling and abrasion were also apparent in this
region. Additionally, the paste fraction nearer to the surface
had a whitish appearance (Fig. 6).
Table 1:
Comparison of Life 365 estimates to experimental
data
Experimental Life 365 % Difference
Diffusion
coefficient, 2.56 2.14 16.44
in.2/s × 10–8
Surface chloride
concentration,
0.797 0.800 0.44
% mass
concrete
Time to
corrosion 3.1 3.7 19.35
initiation, years
Hardness measurements
To assess if the changes in paste color observed through the
concrete depth could be correlated with a change in proper-
ties, hardness of the concrete was measured on cross sections
of the cover concrete. Vickers indentations were performed in
accordance with ASTM C1327-08, “Standard Test Method for
Vickers Indentation Hardness of Advanced Ceramics,” using
2.2 lb (1 kg) mass applied for 15 seconds. A minimum of five
indentations were made at 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) increments into
the section on sections polished with 1 micron alumina.
Figure 7 shows the results of the measurements for 2 ft (0.6 m)
above high tide and 12 ft (3.7 m) below in the submerged
region. The reduced hardness in the outer 2 in. (51 mm) of the
submerged region was low when compared to the same region
at greater depth. The consistency of these values with those
made at 2 ft (0.6 m) above high tide suggests that at depths of
2 in. (51 mm) or greater, the concrete is relatively unaffected by
marine exposure. The depth associated with the lower
hardness coincided with the location of the whitish color
change in the matrix as well as compositional changes
detected by XRD. These suggest sulfate attack as well as
carbonation, leaching, or both, have contributed to softening
in the near-surface paste.

Biodeterioration
Heavy marine growth was noted on the surface and
within cracks in the splash and tidal zones. Visual inspection
and microscopy were used to better understand the nature
of the apparent biodeterioration.

Visual inspection of damage
After the marine growth was cleaned from the surface of
the submerged region of the piles, large amounts of surface
damage were made visible. The damage, as seen in Fig. 8, Fig. 6: Typical cross section showing whitish discoloration, nearer
consisted of large pits on the pile surfaces, with the damage to the marine-exposed surface, on top portion of sample (length
more pronounced along the corners. There, increased of sample is about 3 in. [76 mm])
porosity (or perhaps “boreholes”) and some spalling were
evident. Cores taken in the submerged region showed
extensive damage to aggregate within 1 in. (25 mm) of the
surface of the piles to depths over 1 in. (25 mm), as shown
in Fig. 8(c). Interestingly, the damage was largely concen-
trated where Pleistocene limestone coarse aggregates had
been present on or near the surface of the piles, with this
pattern of damaged near-surface aggregate observed in over
70% of cores taken.
This damage pattern observed visually was consistent
with reported descriptions of damage to limestone and
coral by Cliona or boring sponges in brackish or seawater
exposures. There have been reports of Cliona sponges at
Gardiner’s Island, New York9; along the coast of Virginia10;
Corpus Christi in Texas11; and off the coast of Jamaica.12
Studies on the erosion rate of the sponge show that the rate
may exceed 0.04 in. (1 mm) per year of ingress in solid
limestone.13 While the factors affecting rate of marine Fig. 7: Vickers hardness measurements of polished concrete
attack on concrete are largely unknown, the rate of biologi- cross sections

Concrete international JULY 2014 49

 (a) (b) (c)

Fig. 8: Visible damage on submerged portion of a concrete pile: (a) large pits on pile surface; (b) larger concentration of pits along
pile corner; and (c) depth of penetration in concrete core caused by biodeterioration

(a) (b)
Fig. 9: Micrographs of damaged aggregates: (a) silicate-rich rod-like structures (boring sponge spicules) observed within voids in
coarse aggregate; and (b) close-up of spicules (Note: 1 mm = 0.04 in.)

cal degradation of the limestone aggregate in these piles,
greater than 1 in. (25 mm) in 35 years, is consistent with
the rate of attack measured by Neumann13 for Cliona on
solid limestone.
It is believed the sponge’s acidic secretions penetrate
calcium carbonate, forming boreholes.9, 14 The genus Cliona
sponges leave silica-rich spicules near the surface of their
borings. The length of the spicules varies by species but is
typically between 200 to 400 µm.15 Micrographs (Fig. 9) of
damaged aggregate in these piles show rod-like structures
with one pointed and one rounded end, morphologically
consistent with spicules, with energy-dispersive X-ray
spectroscopy (EDS) spectra showing the structures are
predominantly silica. Clearly, the loss of aggregate by
boring sponge attrition will have a significant negative
effect on concrete performance. In a marine environment,
in particular, the localized reductions in cover depth are
especially important, as corrosion initiation likely occurs at
earlier than anticipated ages.
Conclusions
The forensic investigation of precast prestressed concrete
piles taken from a coastal environment revealed extensive
damage derived from multiple deterioration mechanisms.
Chloride-induced corrosion of the prestressing strands in
the splash and tidal zones of the piles led to cracking and
delamination of the cover concrete as well as a loss of steel
cross section. Measured patterns of chloride ingress sug-
gested that the concrete quality was not adequate to provide
a 100+ year service life in the marine environment. Addi-
tionally, severe deterioration of the concrete due to sulfate
attack occurred in the submerged regions of the piles, with
carbonation also evident there and in the tidal regions.
Also, extensive damage to the Pleistocene limestone coarse
aggregate in the submerged region was linked to biodegra-
dation by Cliona boring sponges. It is worth noting that
inspections of other bridges along the coast suggest that the
causes of damage observed during the forensic investigation
of piling from the Turtle River Bridge are generally repre-
sentative of other regional coastal bridges.
The piles exhibited extensive damage that led to the
discovery of unexpected threats to bridge substructures in
marine environments, and the need for adequate protection
from known environmental hazards. Furthermore, the
results of the study emphasize the need to consider the
presence of multiple modes of deterioration in concrete
structures and their potential synergistic interaction. For
example, deterioration of the cover concrete caused by

50 JULY 2014 Concrete international

sulfate attack along with the formation of boreholes in
coarse aggregates very likely resulted in accelerated ingress
of chlorides and subsequent chloride-induced corrosion of
embedded reinforcing steel. As required service lives
become longer for critical infrastructure, consideration of
all potential modes of concrete deterioration becomes more
and more important to ensure that adequate serviceability
can be maintained.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial assistance pro-
vided for this study by the Georgia Department of Transportation.
Technical assistance provided by Jeremy Mitchell and colleagues in
the Georgia Tech Structural Engineering and Materials Laboratory
is also gratefully acknowledged. Permission to publish granted by
Director, Geotechnical and Structures Laboratory, U.S. Army
Engineer Research and Development Center.
References
1. Bertolini, L.; Elsener, B.; Pedeferri, P.; Redaelli, E.; and Polder,
R.B., Corrosion of Steel in Concrete: Prevention, Diagnosis, Repair,
second edition, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, Germany, 2014, 434 pp.
2. ACI Committee 222, “Corrosion of Prestressing Steels (ACI
222.2R-01) (Reapproved 2010),” American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, MI, 2001, 42 pp.
3. Mohammed, T.U., and Hamada, H., “Relationship between
Free Chloride and Total Chloride Contents in Concrete,” Cement
and Concrete Research, V. 33, No. 9, Sept. 2003, pp. 1487-1490.
4. Moser, R.D.; Singh, P.M.; Kahn, L.F.; and Kurtis, K.E.,
“Chloride-Induced Corrosion of Prestressing Steels Considering
Crevice Effects and Surface Imperfections,” Corrosion, V. 67, No. 6,
June 2011, pp. 065001-1-065001-14.
5. Ehlen, M.A., Life 365, version 2.0.1, 2009. (www.life-365.org)
6. Ehlen, M.A.; Thomas, M.D.A.; and Bentz, E.C., “Life-365
Service Life Prediction Model Version 2.0,” Concrete International,
V. 31, No. 5, May 2009, pp. 41-46.
7. Marchand, J.; Odler, I.; and Skalny, J., Sulfate Attack on Con-
crete, CRC Press, New York, 2003, 232 pp.
8. Holland, R.B., “Durability of Precast Prestressed Concrete
Piles in Marine Environments,” PhD dissertation, Georgia Institute
of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 2012, 397 pp.
9. Nicol, W.L., and Reisman, H.M., “Ecology of the Boring
Sponge (Cliona celata) at Gardiner’s Island, New York,” Chesa-
peake Science, V. 17, No. 1, Mar. 1976, pp. 1-7.

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 10. Hopkins, S.H., “Distribution of Species Cliona (Boring
Sponge) on the Eastern Shore of Virginia in Relation to Salinity,”
Chesapeake Science, V. 3, No. 2, June 1962, pp. 121-124.
11. Miller, A.N.; Strychar, K.B.; Shirley, T.C.; and Rützler, K.,
“Effects of Heat and Salinity Stress on the Sponge Cliona celata,”
International Journal of Biology, V. 2, No. 2, 2010, pp. 3-16.
12. Scott, P.J.B.; Moser, K.A.; and Risk, M.J., “Bioerosion of
Concrete and Limestone by Marine Organisms: A 13 Year Experi-
ment in Jamaica,” Marine Pollution Bulletin, V. 19, No. 5, May
1988, pp. 219-222.
13. Neumann, A.C., “Observations on Coastal Erosion in Bermuda
and Measurements of the Boring Rate of the Sponge, Cliona lampa,”
ACI member R. Brett Holland is a Staff
II–Structures at Simpson Gumpertz &
Heger Inc. in Waltham, MA. He
received his BS, MS, and PhD in civil
engineering from the Georgia Institute
of Technology, Atlanta, GA. Holland
currently works in the design, inves-
tigation, and rehabilitation of struc-
tures, with an emphasis in concrete
materials and durability modeling. Holland is a member of
ACI Committees 201, Durability of Concrete; 236, Material
Science of Concrete; and 363, High-Strength Concrete.
Kimberly E. Kurtis, FACI, is Professor
and Associate Chair for Graduate
Programs in the School of Civil and
Environmental Engineering at the
Georgia Institute of Technology. She
is a member of the ACI Technical
Activities Committee and a member
of ACI Committees 201, Durability of
Concrete; 225, Hydraulic Cements;
and 236, Material Science of Concrete.
ACI member Robert D. Moser is a
Research Civil Engineer in the Geo-
technical and Structures Laboratory of
the U.S. Army Engineer Research and
Development Center, where he is also
the Team Lead for Materials Diagnos-
tics and Forensics. He received his BS,
MS, and PhD in civil engineering from
the Georgia Institute of Technology.
His research interests are focused on the development of
novel materials and methods to increase the durability and
performance of military and civil infrastructure systems, with
a focus on force protection and infrastructure durability. He
is a member of several ACI committees, including
ACI Committee 222, Corrosion of Metals in Concrete.
52 JULY 2014 Concrete international
Limnology and Oceanography, V. 11, No. 1, 1966, pp. 92-108.
14. Mehta, P.K., Concrete in the Marine Environment, Elsevier
Science Publishers, New York, 1991, 214 pp.
15. Zea, S., and Weil, E., “Taxonomy of the Caribbean Excavating
Sponge Species Complex Cliona carribaea–C. Aprica–C. langae
(Porifera, Hadromerida, Clionaidae),” Caribbean Journal of
Science, V. 39, No. 3, 2003, pp. 348-370.
Note: Additional information on the ASTM standards discussed in
this article can be found at www.astm.org.
Received and reviewed under Institute publication policies.
Lawrence F. Kahn, FACI, has been a
Professor of Civil Engineering at the
Georgia Institute of Technology since
1976 and has also worked as a
Structural Engineer for the U.S. Naval
Civil Engineering Laboratory and for
Bechtel Power Corporation. He is a
member of ACI Committees 546,
Repair of Concrete, and 562, Evaluation,
Repair, and Rehabilitation of Concrete Buildings. His current
experimental research is concentrated on the use of
high-performance concretes for bridge structures, along with
repair and rehabilitation of concrete and masonry structures.
ACI member Federico (Fred) Aguayo
is a PhD Candidate at the Construction
Materials Research Group at the Uni-
versity of Texas (UT) at Austin, Austin, TX.
His research is focused on the durability
of concrete in sulfate environments,
with emphasis on refining ASTM C1012/
C1012M, “Standard Test Method for
Length Change of Hydraulic-Cement
Mortars Exposed to a Sulfate Solution,” to better predict and
simulate concrete field performance through accelerated
laboratory testing. He received his BS and MS in civil engin-
eering at UT Austin in 2011 and 2012, respectively. He is act-
ively involved in ACI as well as several other professional and
outreach organizations, including the Society of Professional
Hispanic Engineers. 
Preet M. Singh is Professor at the School
of Materials Science and Engineering
at the Georgia Institute of Technology.
The focus of his research is on corrosion
and stress corrosion cracking of metallic
materials. He is a fellow of ASTM Inter-
national and NACE International.