A cold boot, also called a cold start or hard boot, is a method of starting a computer in which

the machine begins powering down or a specific function is sent to the computer’s processor that
triggers a restart. In a normal cold boot process, the computer executes a small program. This
process triggers another program to start, which loads the operating system. A cold boot attack is
a computer boot-based hacking attack. The term ‘boot’ is short for ‘bootstrap load,’ a very old
computing term. The original term drew on the phrase, ‘pulled up by his own bootstraps.’ In the
non-computing phrase, a person was self-sufficient enough to pull himself off the ground by
pulling on the loops on the back of a pair of cowboy boots. In computing, the computer was self-
sufficient enough that, once a sequence was initiated, it was able to load its own operating
system. Eventually, the term was shortened down to simply ‘boot load’ or ‘booting.’

When a computer cold boots, it runs through a series of predefined steps that culminate in
loading the operating system. Generally, the first steps are executed by the computer's basic
input/output system (BIOS) when it performs hardware self-tests, locates the boot drive and then
executes the boot loader program. The boot loader continues the start-up process by actually
loading the operating system. Some systems have one or two additional steps, such as a second
stage boot loader or additional hardware step, but this is still the basic process.

Most cold boots involve a user pushing the power button on a computer, but this isn’t the only
method. It is also possible to send a specific type of restart signal to the computer’s processor.
This signal circumvents all shutdown and caching procedures and restarts the computer as
though it was powered off. While this may seem to the user like a random computer restart, it is
actually a rare occurrence and may signal an attempted cold boot attack.

A boot sector is the portion of a hard disk or floppy disk that has the code stored on it to
boot special programs, and to reference other key features to keep the disk working. There are
many types of boot sectors, but there are two main ones: the master boot record and the volume
boot record. A master boot sector exists on a drive that has been partitioned, and it usually finds
the active partition and run its own volume boot record. The volume boot record, in turn, often
contains code to run the operating system on the computer. Safe mode is a function mode
available in many operating systems, electronics, and software programs in which the device or
program has limited functionality to allow the user to focus on performing diagnostic tests. The
stripped-down nature of this operating mode is also designed to be safer for the user, as the term
“safe mode” implies, since problems and conflicts which can cause errors are generally not
loaded when a program is started in this mode. One of the most classic reasons to start a device
or program in safe mode is if the device is not working properly. By restarting in this mode, the
user can look for the cause of the problem. For example, a user might have installed a new add-
on to a software program which conflicts with the program's normal operations, causing errors.
By opening the software in a safe mode, the user ensures that the new add-on doesn't
automatically load, which means that the errors will not occur while the user diagnoses the
problem.

Operating systems can be started in safe mode to allow people to get rid of malware and viruses
which load automatically at startup, or to deal with conflicts caused by the installation of new
devices or programs. Many operating systems and electronics are also designed to boot into a
safe or limited mode if there is a fundamental system error.
Safe mode has limited functionality, because the system usually turns on a minimum of devices
and programs. However, it can take longer to start up, because the device usually tests itself in
the process of booting to look for compromises in the system. Users should be aware that
sometimes an operating system, software program, or electronic device can look like it is
“hanging” while starting up in this mode.

Software programs have a variety of ways to access safe mode, and it's useful to know how to
start in a safe or diagnostic mode in case of a problem. In the case of operating systems,
Windows systems enter safe mode when the user taps the F8 key during startup, which allows
the user to enter a menu which can be used to direct the computer to boot in safe mode. Apple
users can hold down the shift key during startup to get into safe mode. It is also possible to boot
into this mode with the use of rescue discs, many of which are provided with new computers.

Privacy mode is a setting on web browsers that helps cover up a computer user's activity
while browsing the web. This setting gets rid of data and web history information on a user's
computer and prevents accessed websites from tracking a user's identity and Internet activity.
Browsers with privacy mode settings include Google Chrome®, Internet Explorer® and
Firefox®. Privacy mode can also be called incognito mode, stealth mode, or private browsing,
and may include the ability to alert the user when a website is tracking his information. Users can
enable the privacy setting on their browsers to cover their tracks when visiting sensitive
websites. A web browser is a software program offering a user interface designed to let the user
access web pages through an Internet connection. While using a browser, some web activity
needs to be recorded for a website to properly function. This information is particularly
important when accessing websites that require a user to log in to use the service. Small files
called cookies are placed on a computer to keep a login active until the user removes the cookie
or closes the session. One type of cookie, called a tracking cookie, records a user's information
and browsing activity.

When a user accesses the Internet through a web browser, there are many opportunities for a user
to have his personal information recorded. Each website he visits records information about his
Internet protocol (IP) number, type of operating system, and type of browser, to track the web
user's activity from afar. This information is usually used to track the popularity of a page and
identify the paths the user took while browsing.

Privacy mode features include blocking a user's computer from recording the user's web history.
A browser's privacy mode can also be used to keep the browser from recording page information
in the cache. The cache is a folder used to temporarily store browsing data that might need to be
accessed multiple times during a browsing session. Storing temporary files on a computer helps
reduce the need for repeatedly downloading data, speeding up the browsing experience.

Ethernet is a standard communications protocol embedded in software and hardware devices,

intended for building a local area network (LAN). Ethernet was designed by Bob Metcalfe in
1973, and through the efforts of Digital, Intel and Xerox (for which Metcalfe worked), "DIX"
Ethernet became the standard model for LANs worldwide.

A basic hard-wired LAN consists of the following components:

  Two or more computers to be linked together, or networked.
 A network interface card (NIC) in each computer.
 Ethernet cable to connect to each computer.
 A networking switch or networking hub to direct network traffic.
 Networking software.

A BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) is an electronic set of instructions that a computer uses to
successfully start operating. The BIOS is located on a chip inside of the computer and is
designed in a way that protects it from disk failure.

A main function of the BIOS is to give instructions for the power-on self test (POST). This self
test ensures that the computer has all of the necessary parts and functionality needed to
successfully start itself, such as use of memory, a keyboard and other parts. If errors are detected
during the test, the BIOS instructs the computer to give a code that reveals the problem. Error
codes are typically a series of beeps heard shortly after startup.

Modem, short for modulator-demodulator is an electronic device that converts a computer’s

digital signals into specific frequencies to travel over telephone or cable television lines. At the
destination, the receiving modem demodulates the frequencies back into digital data. Computers
use modems to communicate with one another over a network.

The modem has significantly evolved since the 1970s when the 300 baud modem was used for
connecting computers to bulletin board systems (BBSs). With this type of modem each bit,
represented digitally by a 1 or 0, was transmitted as a specific tone. The receiving modem
responded with its own dedicated frequencies so that the modems could “talk at the same time.”
The technical term for this type of modem is asynchronous.