.

182tJ

I~
IAHR

Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

•
August 27 - 31, 1984

Proceedings Vol I

) l
 certainly true for temperatures -IOoC or above. For much lower
temperatures, it could very well turn out that this effect is less pro­
nounced. However the small magnitude of the applied loads cannot lead to
definite conclusions at this stage.
CONCLUS I ON
A series of experimental tests on simply supported circular plates with a
constant load applied at the centre have been performed at temperatures
varying between _5 0 C and _300 C.
For the short term behaviour the effective elastic modulus obtained from
beam tests is not applicable to plates. This is probably due to the bi­
axial stresses in the plate and also due to the difference in the internal
stress distribution. Assuming that the only contribution to vertical de­
flections stems from shear deformations, due to transverse anisotropy, a
better correlation with the experimental curves is thus obtained. It is
therefore suggested that for long term loads a shear model would be more
appropriate for columnar sea ice. An evaluation of the long term deflec­
tions can be obtained by reducing the transverse shear modulus. For tem­
peratures of _IOoC the long term value of G ~ .5 MPa while for temperatu­
res of _20 0 C and -30 0 C the corresponding value is ~ 5.0 MPa.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was carried under grant No. A8958 from the Natural Sciences and
Engineering Research Council of Canada. This grant is gratefully
acknowledged.
REFERENCES
Frederking, R.M.W. and Gold, L.W., 1976. "The Bearing Capacity of Ice
Covers under Static Loads". Can. J. Civil Eng., Vol. 3, pp 288-293.
Ladanyi, B. and St-Pierre, R., 1978. "Evaluation of Creep Properties
of Sea Ice by means of a Borehole Dilatometer". Proceedings of the
IAHR Symposium on Ice Problems. Lulea, Sweden, pp 97-116.
Lainey, L., 1982. "Proprietes Mecaniques de la Glace de Mer et Capaci­
te Portante de la Banquise". Ph.D. Thesis, CINEP Report # 665-237,
Ecole Poly technique, Montreal.
Lainey, L. and Tinawi, R., 1981. "Parametric Studies of Sea Ice Beams
under Short Term Loadi ngs". Proceedi ngs 0 f the I AH R Sympos i um on
Ice, Quebec, pp 607-627.
Lainey, L. and Tinawi, R., 1983. "The Importance of Transverse Aniso­
tropy for the Bearing Capacity of Ice Covers". Proceedings of

108
This correction corresponds to the case where the load is annular. Assu­
ming that this is the only contrib tion to deformation, i.e . E ~ 00. Figu­
res 2 a-d show the theoretical curve according to equation (3) where ws
at the centre was made equal to the corresponding measured deflection.
Such theoretical curves do confirm that transverse shear deformations
yield an acceptable shape for the curves except for Figure 2c where a
slight tilt in the loading ring was noticed. Table 1 s hows the required
value of G for a pure shear model based on equation 3 . This value con­
firms the ani sotropic nature of the ice since G < E/2(1 + v). As a matter
of fact if G = E/2.8 for an isotropic material, the contribution of equa­
tion (3) would be very small indeed and the theoretical and experimental
curves would not match.
LONG TERM BEHAVIOUR
Having shown th at a model based on shear deflections (due to anisotropy)
yield better correlation than a fle xural one for short term lo ads, it
becomes therefore obvious that any long term behaviour mu s t also consider
this effect.
For the plates discussed earlier at temperatures varying between -SoC and
_30 0 C, the sustained load of S 000 N yields deflections that vary with
time as shown in Figure 3. At -SoC the load was applied for only 20 minu­
tes before failure of the plate occured as shown in Figure 4. At _lOoC
two tests were ca r ried out: one for 4 days , the other for about 10 days.
At lower temperatures of _20 0 C and _30 0 C a cons tant deflections occured at
after about 1.S days. The load considered here was nevertheless very low
in magnitude.
Translating the long term deflections into corres ponding long term trans­
verse shear modulus, Figure 5 s hows typical values of G that decrease with
time. Considering the large deflection contribution due to creep which is
primarily due to relative movements between the vertical grains of the ice,
it is observed that the value of the effective transverse shear modulus
decreases by an order of magnitude after a week of sustained loading. Such
observations lead to the conclusion that most probably a punching through
phenomenon is the main criterion related to the breakthrough load in ice
covers.
Alternatively if a free board deflection criterion is used, it is believed
that a more accurate description of the deflection profile is obtained by
con s idering anisotropy and transverse shear displacements. This is

107
 P [~ a 2 + b 2 t n Q _ 7 + 3 \I b 2] (1 )
wf = 16 n D 1 + \I a 4( 1 + \I )
where P • nb 2 q represents the total load on the plate, q the applied
pressure and D the fle xural rigidity: Eh 3 /12(1 _ \1 2 ) .
The ratio of the experimental value We of the centr al deflection in com­
parison with the theoretical one wf using equation (1) yield s very large
di s crepancies. On the other hand, if the load is considered annular and
distributed over a radius b such that P : 2 nbQo where Qo if the load per
unit length, the central deflection is given by :
p [~( a 2 _ b 2 ) + 2 b 2 ~n Q] ( 2)
Wf : 1 6 nD 1 + \I a
Numerically the results of (2) are very close to the values given by (1).
On the other hand if a concentrated load is assumed, then the second and
third terms in (1) vanish since b + O. It can therefore be concluded that
a distributed, annular and a concentrated load lead to nearly identical
deflections. These theoretical evaluations are i n error as shown in
Table 1. The magnitude of the error varieswith the temperature.
There are a number of reasons that could justify these very large
differences:
1) The effective elastic modulus corre s ponding to a stress rate of
75 kPa /s is not applicable in t his case.
2) The bi-a xial state of stress in a plate.

3) The effect of transverse shear deformations due to anisotropy .

Shown in Figure 2 .1-d a re the deflections corresponding to an effective

modulus of 75 and 37 . 5 kPa/s. A reduction in effective elastic modulus
does increase the defl ect ions slightly but the difference with the experi­
menta 1 values i s sti 11 large. This is clearly say i ng that effective
elastic moduli obtained from beam tests cannot be easily used in plates
since the stress distribution is very different between the two cases. It
was therefore decided to compute the value of the required effective elas­
tic modulus that would yield the desired central deflection in the plate.
Figure2a shows theoretical curves that are still different from the expe­
rimental curves even though the central deflection is identical.
Finally a shear deformation correction Ws corresponding to the transverse
anisotropy yield a theoretical value of
Ws - 1 __P__ tn (~) for r ;;;. b ( 3)
- 4 nGh r

106
Details of the ice preparation can be found elsewhere (Murat, 1978).
Once the required thickness is reached, the tank is emptied and the cir­
cular plate resting on the ring support is subjected to a constant load of
5 000 N using an air jack. This load covers an area of 177 mm in diameter
as shown in Figure 1. Although the long term load can be controlled by
adjusting the air pressure inside the jack, initial control of the air
pressure for short term measurements is not very easy.
Eleven DCDT (Direct Current Displacement Transducers) were placed at equal
distance across the diameter of the plate as shown in Figure 1. The cen­
tral transducer was placed above the loading ring and is therefore not in
direct contact with the actual plate. This was necessary in order to
avoid damage to the transducer in case of failure of the plate. Conse­
quentl y, the central deflection does not represent the true value at the
centre of the plate but rather an average displacement over the loaded
area due to the rigidity of the loading ring. The readings from the DCDT
were stored in an HP87 computer with plotting capabilities for the deflec­
tion profile as well as the central deflection with time. The time inter­
vals at the beginning of the test are very short and are then increased.
The maximum duration on any t est at any temperature did not exc eed ten
days. Technical difficulties excluded testing at -40°C. Hower successful
tests were carried out at _5°C, _10°C, _20°C and _30°C.
It was decided for thi s fir st series of test s to keep the load constant
at 5 000 N. For very low temperatures, this represents very small strains
a nd deflections. The next series of forthcoming tests will be in the
same temperature range but with an increased load of 10 000 N.
As for the short term behaviour, the results presented here refer to loads
and corresponding deflections re corded after about 100 seconds.
SHORT TERM BEHAVIOUR
Table 1 summarizes the results obtained for four plates at the temperatu­
res shown. The variability of the applied loads i s only related to the
first few minutes of loadings. Using the results from beam tests reported
by Lainey & Tinawi (1981) for a loading rate of 75 kPa/s and corresponding
temperature, the effective elastic modulus E is seen in Table 1 to vary
between 3 300 and 5 500 MPa. Assuming Poisson's ratio v = .4 the theore­
tical deflection at the centre of the plate is evaluated according to
Timoshenko and Woinowsky-Kreiger (1959):

105
 INTRODUCTION
The evaluation of the long term behaviour of sea-ice covers in flexure is
a very complex problem primarily due to the lack of reliable flow laws for
sea ice. The few laws that are available cannot consider simultaneously
a number of important parameters such as the grain size and orientation,
temperature, anisotropy, loading conditions and whether the experiment is
performed in a uniaxial or multi-axial state of stress.
A number of indirect flexural creep tests on beams have been performed by
Vaudrey (1977), Tinawi and Murat (1978), Lainey and Tinawi (1981) and
power laws have suggested. Other tests have been performed by Ladanyi and
St-Pierre (1978) but would not be applicable to the bearing capactiy pro­
blem. The flow laws for sea ice have been used in a Finite Element
context where flexure is the basic mode for simulating the behaviour. It
has been shown by Lainey (1982) that despite the availability of such
powerful tools as the Finite Element Method and with its many possibili­
ties for handling a variety of flow laws, theory and experiment bear
little resemblance.
On the other hand, a number of empirical formulations have been proposed
by Frederking and Gold (1976) for example where a reduction in elastic
modulus is suggested for the simulation of the long term behaviour of
floating ice covers. Recently Lainey and Tinawi (1983) suggested a simi­
lar empirical law where the transverse shear modulus is reduced rather
than the elastic modulus. The advantages of such a formulation are:
1) Transverse anisotropy is considered which seems to be an important
parameter to include for evaluation of the long term behaviour.
2) Better correlation is obtained between theory and experiments perfor­
med in the laboratory (Lainey, 1982).
3) Thin plate flexural theory can be used providing the transverse ani­
sotropy is considered as a correction for shear deformation.
The object of this paper is to try to evaluate for a given set of parame­
ters (obviously not all) the long term transverse shear modulus by perfor­
ming tests on simply supported circular plates loaded with a central
pressure load as shown in Figure 1.
EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP
Sea ice was grown in the laboratory in a circular tank about 2 000 mm in
diameter. S2 columnar ice about 100-120 mm thick represents typical dl­
mensions of the circular plate resting on a circular ring inside the tank.

104
 IAHR Ice Symposium 1984
18
•
Hamburg

BEHAVIOUR OF SEA ICE · PLATES UNDER

LONG TERM LOADING

Rene Ti nawi , Department of Civil Montreal, Que.

Professor Engi neeri ng , Canada
Luc Gagnon, Ecole Poly technique
Graduate Research Assistant

ABS TRACT
The behaviour of sea ice circular plates tested in the laboratory under a
sustained load is examined at temperatures varying between _5 0 C and _30 0 C.
S2 type sea ice characterizes the material . Creep deflections based on
flexural thin plate theory assuming isotropy and homogeneity yieldresults
that are very different from the observed tests. Shear deformations due
to transverse anisotropy must be considered in order to have closer corre­
lation between theory and experiments. Based on these tests, a reduction
in the transverse shear modulus with time is suggested for evaluation of
the long term deflections of sea ice under a sustained load. This implies
that a shear model, rather than a flexural model, is better suited for
long term predictions. Verification with field test is yet to be
performed.

103
 readily available compressors. Preliminary design calculations for full­
scale air blasting systems can be made from currently available data. Air
gun 8y~tems should not be >TJllch more complex or expensive than ice control
systems that have already wOn acceptance, e.g. bubblers.

Reference!')
Colburn, J.W. and Wood, C.D., 1973 . Development of an explosive icebreak­
er. Final report for U.S. r.oast Guard, Southwest Research Institute,
San Antonio.
'"!ellor, M., J982. Breaking ice ,.,ith explosive .s . CRREL Report 82-40, U.S.
Army Cold Regions Research and F.ngineerin~ Laboratory, Hanover, NH.
Mellor, M., J981. Protection oE offshore structures by explosives. 7th
International GonEerence on Port and Ocean Engineering Onder Arctic
Conditions (POAC 83), Helsinki.
Mellor, M., 1984. Ice blasting with compressed gas devices. Special
Report, U.S. Army Cold Regio~s Research and Engineerin~ Laboratory,
Hanover, NH (in press).
Mellor, M. and Kovacs, A., J972. Breakage of floating ice by compressed
gas ~lasting. Special Report 184, U.S. Army Gold Regions Research and
Engineerin~ Laboratory, HanovE?:J:', r-m,
"lood, C.D., 1970. Analysis of an explosive icebreaker. Report on project
no. JI-2793 for U.S. Coast Guard, Southwest Research Institute, San
Antonio.

102
 Compressor requi rements depe.nd on the tota 1 gltn e nergy for s imu 1 tane­
aus discharges, on the firing frequency, and on receiver cap acity. A very
big glln (11 '!J) or 10 of the test guns (1. 1 MJ), firing continuously every
20 s, might consl~e about as much air as a bub b l e r system on a small ship.
For preliminary design estimates the f o llowin g procedure is suggeste d:
t. Determine the thi c knes s of the i ce laver to be broken or dis­
placed, t (m).
2. Taking scaled o ptimum thickness as 0.4 m/~Tl/J, determine the
r e quired discharge energy as E = (t/0. 4) 3 MJ.
J. Establish optimum ~is charge depth d (m) in the range 0 < t/El/J
< O.~.

4. Estimate crater diameter as D ~ S.RE I/J m.

5. Choose gun pressure p in the range 17-20 MFa from compressor con­
siderations.
6. Calculate chamber volume V from p and E, assuming adiabatic expan­
sian.
7. Estimate compressor requirements from p, V, number of guns, firing
seq uenc e, and air storage capacity.
8. Check pressure wave h a7. ard, uBing specified gu n pressure at 1 m
range, and assuming inverse proportionality of pres su re Rnd range. Figure
8 ca n be us ed for preliminary est imate s .

'I 'I
0.1 - ­

0
"­
::);

~
~
Figure 8 . Estimate of peak
pressure as a function of
Q:
0 .01 ­ scaled distance for d eepl y
0
~ submerged air gun.
a.

,I ,I
10

Conclusions
Underwater gas blasting can break, release or displace ice without
thr ea tening nearby structures, fish or marine mammals. Existing air gu ns
developed f o r offshore seismic work can be adapted for icebreakin g, IJsin g

101
gas expansion energy. The latter figure is very close to the best values
in Table 1.
The FARE system seems to fall somewhat below the air gun and Cardox/
Airdox in demonstrated performance. Possible reasons are: (1) lower
discharge pressure, (2) directional discharge, (3) slower release.
Practical Applications
Gas blasting can be used to break floating ice or to displace tightly
packed ice fragments. Potential applications include relief of ice forces
or resistance to motion, release of ice jams, ice demolition and dispersal
of frazil.
The best candidate for development seems to be the air gun, since it
is effective, available, safe and easy to install (Fig. 7). High pressure
air systems are more complicated. Direct combustion seems less effective
and it may be difficult to convey combustion products to suitably placed
discharge ports.

Figure 7. Bolt model 800 air gun.

Note that gun does not damage itself
or its hose, firing line and slings.

While system des ign for a "Super-Bubb ler" could vary c<'nsiderab ly,
depending on the problem, it is expected that one or more guns would be
located or inserted under ice or inside water-filled voids of ice accumula­
tions. Air would come from a central compressor. For a large gun, or a
battery of smaller guns, a standard 0.8-MPa screw compressor might feed a
booster (available units charge about 0.04 m3 at 17 MPa every 10 s), which
in turn could supply a receiver (reservoir).
With existing manufacturing technology, a single gun could probably be
made to give 10 times the energy used in the Bolt/CRREL tests, i.e. 11 MJ.
This would extend the ice thickness capability by a factor of 2.15, up to
m. To attack thick ice, the most practical expedient for now might be a
grou ping of synChronized guns.

100
 Figure 6. Air gun discharging immediately below ice 0.36 m thick.

Taking Table I at face value, the air gun produced the biggest scaled
crater, and actual test observations suggest that the air gun was the best
icebreaker. Ice thickness for the air gun tests (Fig. 6) was probably a
bit below optimum, which would account for the high value of D/t. Ice
thickness for the best scaled Cardox crater was probably a bit above
optimum, and it is possible that slightly better results could have been
obtained for D/t. For optimum charges of high explosive placed just below
the ice, D/t ~
15, and it seems possible that a similar value could apply
to gas blasting.
The Cardox/Airdox system had the lowest specific energy, with the air
gun not far behind. Since specific energy is minimized when the ice is
thicker than the optimum value for maximizing crater diameter, it is
believed that the air gun would have done better in thicker ice. Specific
energy for "maximum diameter" icebreaking with explosives is about 0.42
MJ/m 3 when based on heat of explosion and about 0.083 MJ/m 3 when based on

99
 Figure 5. Crater produced by
Cardox shell fired directly
below ice 0.5 m thick.

similitude), (2) there is an optimum relation between ice thickness and

discharge energy, (3) there is an optimum discharge depth below the ice for
best results. The optimum depth is likely to be near zero for optimum
discharge energy, but greater for discharges bigger than optimum. For a
given discharge energy, there is a critical ice thickness and a critical
charge depth; when these values are exceeded, the ice does not break suffi­
ciently for the gas bubble to vent.
In normal operation, all the devices had about the same energy (. 1
MJ), and in cube root scaling the differences are almost insignificant.
Thus the various devices ought to give about the same results if discharge
pressure does not have a strong influence. Direct comparisons cannot be
made in an orderly way, but from a variety of plots of the scattered data,
a few conclusions can be drawn (Table I).

T"ble'. Simple compo!!lrlson 01 test results.

Pres s .
r!!'lnQ O £nsl"Qy
Best c."ter
d '''<neter
2 Opt Imum
ice depth
Opt Iml..l'l'l
Ch"roe
dept" 3
Crt tIc,,'"
I ce depth
Cr I tie",
cho!!lrgG

dePth 3

.."
specific
ener9'f 5
£ouly •
.t. S
of HE
1/3
SystMl (MP&) (MJ) m/(IoU
1/ 3
) Wit) rr'I/(MJ
1/3
) m/(MJ
1/3
) ",/( MJ
1/'
> m/( MJ 1 (MJ/~ 3) ",,' I

Cardoxjl 6J-76 0.9-1.0 5.62 1 1.5 ~ 0.5 .,. 0.6 > 0.5 .. 1.8 0.081 ~ 0.45
Alrdoll' < O.B

Ai r aon 17 >.> 5.91 11. I 2. D.}5 ·0 > O.JS "" 1.8 0.11 .. 1.J6

2 .)-4.3 3 .84 2. 0.) '" O.~ > 0 • .37 > 0.5 0.29 0.45
FflRE 0.6-1.2
"
AI

1 ~rd o)( "nd Alrdox shellS Q"V9 "JlI'Ost identic", effectS.

?: Zone where Ice IS well freQ/I'IElnted and dlsolaced. Dla/l'lElter scaled wj,h resoect to Lube root of ener~ and with

resoeLt t o j ce th i(:kness.

3 For ne"r-ootlmul'1 m"t c h o f enerqy and Ice thickness.

4 At 5m<'l I I ch<!lrQe deo ths.

5 For best craters.

98
Low Pressure Air Guns. In 1984 a low pressure air gun was tested for CRREL
by Bolt Technology Corporation (Mellor, 1984). The gun was one designed
for offshore seismic exploration (Fig. 2 and 7). Operating pressure for
the tests was 17 MPa and chamber volume was 0.032 m3 , giving an energy
release of about 1.1 MJ when discharging to atmospheric pressure. The gun
was charged through a small diameter flexible hose from a portable 4-stage
compressor capable of delivering pressures up to 21 MPa. With a chamber
pressure of 13.8 MPa, the gun gives a peak pressure of 0.7 MPa at 1 m
distance ("7 bar-metre gun"), and underwater pressure can be expected to
decrease inversely with distance. For release from 13.8 MPa I}l: 9.1 m
depth, the period of the first bubble pulse is about 165 ms. For testing,
the gun was lowered by a crane through a hole in the ice and was fired
electrically.

Field Tests and Results

Most test discharges were beneath the ice, since underwater explosions
are far more effective for icebreaking than are air blasts or shots inside
the ice. Airdox, Cardox and air gun discharges tended to develop spherical
symmetry, but the FARE device had directional discharge from a "rigid"
plate (believed by the developer to enhance blast effects by a factor of 2).

Figure 4. FARE barge in ice

0.32 m thick.

It was not feasible to vary systematically the discharge energy, ice

thickness or charge depth, so measurements were usually limited to ice
thickness and fracture zone dimensions (Fig. 5). In CRREL tests, compara­
tive shots were made with. high explosive.
Field test results are summarized elsewhere (Mellor, 1984). For
interpretation, it is necessary to calculate discharge energies, to assume
some kind of energy scaling, and to draw on knowledge of conventional
underwater explosions. We assume here: (1) linear dimensions of the
problem scale with the cube root of discharge energy (implying geometric

97
 t
TO f'1I.. L ING
V"LVI: ....

80t..£NOID VALVE

SHELL

BODY

III-'"N'"""~ Pl8TON

FIRING PISTON

HIGH-PRESSUflE

Figure 2 . Air discharge heads. Left: Airdox automatic discharge shell.

Center: Airdox receiver shell. Right: Bolt Technology air gun.

r.arbon Dioxide Devices . CRR~L tested self-contained carbon dioxide shells

(Cardox) which give much the same effect as Airdox (Mellor and Kovacs,
1972). The Cardox shells, manufactured and serviced by the Long-Airdox
~orporation for use in coal mining, are slender cylinde rs filled with
liquid CO 2 at approximately 14 MPa. A heater element submerged in the CO 2
is fired electrically and the sudden pressure rise ruptures n sealing disc
at pressures between 69 and 131 MPa, causing vaporized r.0 2 to dis charge
through angled ports (Fi~. 3). ' Discharge pressure is comparable to that of
Airdox. Shells used for icebreaking (type 2:11-130) were 1 . 5 m long and 59
mm in diameter. r.ha rged weight was 15.1 kg and nominal charge weight was
1.8 kg. Discharge energy was taken as 0.9 MJ. Smaller Cardox shells (type
2-50) were used for another study involving frozen ground.

Sel Ser,..
f 6; "ML1114 at ,.I .ni,,'lI
C~'()On Oiou" .
Figure 3. Cardox shel l.

96
Figure I. FARE system, showing barge
layout and detail of exhaust valve.
co".u"nON
VOL.UM!

/1'"

"'ALVE
nAT

a c harge pressure of 0.55 MFa in a chamber volume of 0.14 m 3 , adiabatic

expanAion (taking y = 1.3) gave a potential energv of approximately 1. I
~J. Re-load time was .v 10 s. The equipment was in a semi-submersible
pontoon, 4.9 m long by 3.7 m wide (Fi@:. I and 4). The discharge port (178
mm dia.) was in a flat forede ck , 3 m long by 1.7 m wde (additional ports
were fitted but not used much). The foredeck was slid underneath unbroken
ice and inclined up to IS" to vary discharge death.

High Pressure Airblasting Equipment. CRREL tested ao airblasting system

called Airdox (Mellor and Kovacs, 1972). Developed for use in coal mines,
it was manufactured by the Long-Airdox Corporation. The energy source was
a 6-stal\e compressor delivering 1.5 m3/min (free air) at il3 MJ>a. Driven by
a 37-kW electric motor, the compressor charged six parallel-connected
receiver tubes with a capacity of 0.025 m3. Dimensions of the unit were
3.2 x 1.5 x 0.7 m and it wei~hed 2.5 tonnes. Most tests were mane with a
shell whi ch fires automatically when a preset pressure is reached ("'ig.
2). This shell was .1 m long and 67 mm in diameter, and hart an air capacity
of 0.0052 m3 , giving discharge energies of 0.92 ann 1.1 ~J at Q9 and 83 MFa
respectively. A receiver shell with slightly smaller capacity (Fig . 2) was
also available. The compressor enclosure waA on a tracked vehicle. For
testing, shells were inserted into the water throul\h holes drilled in the
ice, and air was supplied throu gh high pressure flexible hasp..

95
 Introduction
Most marine and hyclraulic structures are designed t o ·.• ithstand forces
passively, but active systems have been considered for insurance against
abnormally high forces, as supplernents for clealing with brief periods of
very high forces, and as expedients for relieving heavy ice accumulations.
Cunventional explosives provide a cheap and efficient means for breaking
and clearing ice (Mellor, 1981), but there is some apprehension about high
explosives.
Studies suggest that the s ho ck wave produced by detonation of high
explosive is probably of little direct value for icebreaking (Mellor,
1982). "ruption of the gas bubble, with its 03ttendant hydrodynamic
effects, is the dominant influen ce. Thus the ideal ice-breaking explosive
may be one that produces a gas bubble but no significan t shock wave, since
it is shock that has the main potential for harming structures and fish.
Low explosives and pr0pellants, which deflagrate rather than detonate, are
a step in the right direction, but gas-generating devices operating at low
pressure seem ~ore desirable, especially if capable of repetitive firing.
Gas blasting was studied more than a decade .go for improving the
performance of icebreaking vessels, especially on inland waters. Like
other supplementary icebreaking systems, it seemed unattractive for ordin­
ary ice navigation at speeds of several knots, but it was never fully
evaluated for situations where the relative mo ti on is very slow. These
early studies have recently been re-assessed, ann tests have been made with
another nevice.

Gas Blasting Equipment

In the early seventies, gas blasting tests sponsored by the U.S. Coast
(;uard were mane by Southwest Research In stitute (SWRIl and by CRREL. In
19 ~4 some additional tests were made by ~olt Technolo~y Corporation in
association wit h CRREL. Equipment used fo r these tests is described below.

SWRI FARE Oevice. SWRI used a svstem in which a mixture of air and hydro­
carbon fuel is ignited and exhausted through a discharge port into water
just below the ice (Wood, 1970; Colburn and Wood, 1973). The system,
called FARE (fuel-air repetitive explosions), was adapted from an earlier
soil excavation system (REOSOO). The combustion chamber was charged with
compressed air and pro!)ane to initial pressures in the range 0.28-0.62 MPa
(gauge); after ignition the pressure increased by a factor of 6 and combus­
tion products were discharged through an exhaust valve and discharge port
(Fi.g. l). Maximum pressures at discharl\e were 2.3-4.3 MPa (absolute). For

94
 I.lll-lR Ice Symposium 1984
IUt~

•
Hamburg

ICEllREAKING BY GAS RLASTING

Ma lco 1m Me l'lor U.S. Army Cold Regions United States

Research and Engineering
Laboratory, Hanover, N.Y ..

ABSTRACT
Icebreaking tests utilizing high pressure air and C02 (70-90 MDa), low
pressure air (~ 17 MPa) and fuel/o"idant comhustion (2.3-4.3 MPa) are re­
vie~ed and the results are interpreted. Applying cube root energy scaling
to test discharges of aoproximately 1 ;''1J, it appears that fracture craters
up to about 5.S m/~Jl/3 in rliarneter can be formed by optimum underwater
blasts. Optimum ice thickness seems to be ahout 0.4 m/?'U l / 3 , i.e. opti­
mum discharge energy for ice t(m) thick is about (t/O .4) 3 :1]. ()ptimum dis­
charge depth for optimum energy is probably in the range 0 - 0.6 m/MJl/3.
The specific energy for an optimum blast is 2. O.l ill/m 3 , which is about the
same as for a high explosive blast when specific energy is based on gas
expansion rather than heat of explosion. Critical ice thickness for
shallow discharges is probably about 0.6 "1/'1J1/3 , and critical chan~e
depth for discharges optimized to shallow depth is about I.R m/?'U l / 3 .
Practical systems for clearing or displacing ice could be hased on air
guns developed for offshore seismic work, with gun pressure in the range
17-20 MPa and single-gun energy up to about 11 MJ. A procedure for making
preliminary design calculations and safety appraisals is outlined, and it
is concluded that a working "Super-Bubbler" need not be very comple" or
expensive.

93
 -;f:-_d®-:--iCe ----.,+
m

Fi5.1. Calculating scheme

+ :5=dcx +
a. SM m=5t0,6g a. SM
O.S 0=50101101 0.5

0.4

m~/5Ig

~
0.3
D=J2.~

0.2
m=28.2
0.1 ".- _____0= t$MM
,.,,/.. . . . . -:.---
~:...:.--
v.,MIs

1.0 2.0 J.O 4.0 5.0 100 JOO JOO m. gU)

Pi c .2.Ball penetration depth 10 20 JO 1,0 50 o.MM(2)
ver ~ us the ice velocity Fig. 3.Ball penetration
depth versus the mass (1)
and ball diamet er (2)
a.SM

0.5 'j Or.4'"

~,.

0.4 510•6 ~ .
(1lt
0.3

0.2

OJ

~ W ~M
F1g .4. Ball penetration depth versus the drop height
a.SM

0.5

0.2

0.1
mV2
III = -2-· NM
1.0 2.0 ],0 {O .0
Fig.5. Ball penetration depth versus the storage
of kinetic energy

91
p .191.
20. Schwartz J.lAHR -Hecomendations on testing methods
of ice propert1es.Univ.of Luleo,Sweden.~ullet1n series A,N24
1978.

90
 structures.Leningrau .D.T.S. thesis,thesis,Politecbnic Ins­
titute.
8.Khrapaty N.G .1,981.Dynamic ha.rdness of sea ice. Vladi­
vos toke (manuskript, In:rormation Centre of' All-Union Research
Institute on Hydrometeorology.February 2,D-81),p.10.
9.Khrapaty N.G.,1981.Investigations of rate effect on
sea ice strengr...l.Vladivostok. (manuscript, Inl'orma tion Centre
of ALl,-Union Research Institute of Hydrometeorology.April 14
D-81) •
10.Khrapaty N .G. ,1981.Failure Mechanism 01' ice sheet
in impact.Building and architecture.Novosibirsk,p. 10-13.
11.Kbrapaty N.G.,1981.'recbniques of dynamic ice hard­
ness.Vladivostok(manuscript,Information Centre OI All-Union
Hesearch Institute on Hydrometeorology.February 2;D-81),p.10
12.Kbrapaty N.G.,1982.S01id bOdy failure in impact.(ed
.) Proceedings of strength and reliability 01' structure .Kiev,
Nnuk:a ,p. 138-1 Lf4.
13.Khrapaty N.G.,1981.Ice forces on hydro technical
structure with a vertical face. (manuscript ,Information
Centre of All-Union Research Institute on hydrometeorology.
February 2;D-83).
14.Khrapaty N.G.,Tsuprik V.G.,1974.Loau impact on ice.
Hydrotechniques,V.60,p.30-37.
15.Khrapaty N.G.,Tsuprik V.G.,1976.~eriments of so­
lid body impact on ice.(ed.):Proceedings of Meetings on Hy­
droelectrotechniques,Leningrad,Energia,N 3,p.166-169.
16.Khrapaty N.G.,Tsuprik V.G.,1978 •.~alysis of imPact
force on a single pile.Politechnic Institute,Leningrad,N381,
p. 81-8 /••
17.Khrapaty N.G.,Tsuprik V.G.,1979.Semificld investi­
gations of dynamic ice forces on offshore piles.(ed).Procce­
~ings of Conferences of Hydrotechniques,Leningrad,Energia,

p.101-107.
18.Khrapaty N.G.,Bereezovsky A.A.,1980.Basic regula­
rities of solid body indentation into ice.l'uning journal,
N 2,p.5-8.
1,).Markovets M.P.,1970.Determination of mechanical

properties of metals in hardness.Moscow,r1achinostroenie,

89
del ice strength control by dynamic hardness method.
It should be stressed that the diameter of indentation
lune should exceed 20-30 times the diameter of model ice
crystals.In this case its strength in bending will be 10
t imes less than the uniaxial compression strength while ap­
plying dynamic force which is perpend icular to the surface
of freezin g .
Table 1.

Date Strength in bending,KPa acc ording to

techniques

H~VA authors

12.01.84 110+ 10 121,0

13.01. 84 30.! 10 36 ,0
16.01. 84 90.! 5 ,0 78,0
19.01.84 39 36
20.01.84 53 ,0 55,0
o 2.02.84 89 ,0 92,0

References
1.Belyev N. M. ,1957. Investigation on the elastic and
plastic theories.Moscow,Gostechisdat, p . 3-51.
2.Davidenkov N.M.1936.Dynamic tests of materials.Mos­
cow, ONTE,p. 394 .
3 .Filin A.P.,19 57.Applied mechanics of solid deformed
body.Moscow,Nauka,vol.2,p.520-604 .
4.l!'rederking R.,Schwarz J.A model investigation of ice
forc es on fixed and oscillating cones.Intermaritec'-80.
Hamburg.1980,476-483 •
5 .Fridman L.B.,1974.The . mechanic a l properties of me­
tals.Moscow,Machinostroenie,p.54 •
6.KhraPaty N.G.,1977.Analysis of solid body indentati­
on depth at ice sheet impac t.
7.Khrapaty N.G., 1981.Dynamic ice action on offshore

88
Lc chniques IAH:1 ( 21).
'i'est re s ul t s.
The relationships bet'!le 2n conl;oct :: tres3 in the i mpa ct
point Gz u nt;. thc fallin::; boll ener:-.:y vms c ive n i n l" i C. 2 . As
it is 5e,;n from thi s fi£:;ure contact C3tres ses for both model
ice and field sheet depend non-linearly on enerGY . "'I:ey s i ~:­

nificantly !:row at small values of kirletic enerc:y of the

ball-The latter case can b e a t ributed 1;0 c;rc :J~. lo sse~, of
energy which acco mp any resilience of the ball after the im­
pact and may be accounte d for by the effect of dIe reLl,tion-,
ship between the in (~ entation lun c an", ice crystal diameter,
ball drop height and kinetic energy store.The indentation
lune size " increase non-linearly vlith the increase in mass,
ball radius at the same velocity of its dropping.At the same
time the relationship between lune sizes and drop heiGht is
linear. As a ball mas!'; and radius are dccre a sin [~ Il,nd kinetic
energJ' is increasing, the velocity of indentation lune form :: ­
tion,consequently contact stresses is increaSing (Fi G .5).
Conclusion.
As the preliminary analysis of test results showed the
contact stresses are assumed to be similar to the value of
the field ice s trength at the uniaxial compres s ion of its
samples and their brittle failure .'.'/ hen the diameter of the
inClentation lune is equal t01 ,3 -1 '~ mm(about 10 diameters of
model ice crystals) and kinetic enerGY st ore of 0,5 Nm. C'his
rec;ularity was observed in all tests concluc(;ed before ice
warming.
I~inimum contact stress values are observcG both before
ice warming and after it havin g diameter in _entation of 25­
30 mm.In this case before warming contact stresses 61: were
2,4-2,5 times less than field ice strength and 10 times more
than moael ice streng th in bending .
'l'his agreed with test results of beams in Lhe form of
keys,sawn from the mo a el ice layer of c,Ox7,5x6 cm ('f a ble 1)
The same ratio strength/compression,uetermined from the
hardoe 6 s between bending/strength was established in beam
testing after model ice warming.
'_hus tests carried out confirmed the pos !" ibility of mo­

87
 breaking lorce to the area on vlhich It imprintea.
A similar technique vias useu in the t;echnique suggest­
ed 30 is conQi~ionally called ay namic ice bar~ness ac­
cording to brinelle.At the same time, indicates maximum
value of dynamic ice hardness under distributing contact
pressure according to Herz law.Besides,test results were
compared vl ith the initial comnressive strength of natural
ice under its britl',le failure.
Conditi on s and Experimenta l 'l'echniques .
The Hamburg Ice I:~odel Basin(HSlTA) was established in
1971 with financial support from the German Ministry for
science and Technology.it consists of a three-part basin i.e
thin tank(models of 6,7x1,2 m),freezing or actual ice test­
inc tankOOx6x1,2 m) and melting tank/22/.
The 'f2 kw cooling system was established in the basin­
house for ice growth the t emperature of which can be set at
any temperature between 0° to-17°C and is kept constant wi­
thin1°C.As air forceo circulation is eliminated in the ba sin
house the ice growth is uniform over the entire tank area
(vlithin.:t 1 mm).
Air-water mixture spray within-10°C provides the forma­
t ion of fine-grained colulTUlar ice which is Similar in its
structure to natural sea ic e .
..'he ratio fiG =1700-2000 is obtained by ice warming
technique ::teel piI)en of a diameter of 46,8 and balls oi'3,4
mrn with a mass of 500 ;151; 23 ;70, 5 ;20,4 gr were used in tests
for determining dynamic hardness of model ice,re s pectively.
These balls v,'ere dropped from the different fixed heights
H =0,1-1,1 m) not les s than 3-5 Li mes (Fig .1) .Then the
diameLers 01' inc!entation lunes were measured with the calli­
pers in two perpendicular directions and the calculation ac­
coriing Lo relation3hips(1)an J ~2) H N 6K/J' G~
8' MtIJI •
Vias made on the basiS of these mesurements.
The temperature relative to ice thickness and air tem­
perature were contro lled together with testing on the colli­
Sion 01' ball s with the ice sheet .lce strength tests in Den­
(:ing wer~ Carrl el! out alone; side according to the accepted

86
the surface 01' ice sheet and dynamic indentation of the ball
with a giving radius and mass,its initial velocity being 1,0
+5, 0 m/s(7-19).
~heoretical solution of the problem of sphere indenta­
tion at its impact against the ice and test date analysis
enabled to find(14,17-19)that the dynamic ice hardnes s ac­
cordinG to Brinelle H, and its maximum value HfII(I¥ [Jay be
calculated from the following equation:

H- Mr.'
~ il
J H
~ 2J:Ro<l ",ax- T B
(1)
where M, V, , R -spherc mass ,ve:!.ocity and ra t ius respecti­
vely, at - the depth of residual lune.ln its turn Brinelle
dynamic ice hardness and ~ts maximum v alue are associated
with uniaxial compressive ice st rength in the case of brit­
tle 1ailure and yield strenc;th 6, VIEh relationShips
6xp .. 0,"3H, ; G, = O}JJHf1I(Lf ;
O",AI =0,6666,; 0, c: o.SH8 ; G....p .. Q,22H",ax
(2)
Above mentioned relationships v;ere proved by field ice
she e t ( 7,19) •
It should be taken into consideration that the main dif­
ficulty for ice-resistent structures moc:el tests in a labo­
ratory is determininG structure-modelled ice sLrenr;th.Some
tests in the Hamburg Ice l.!odel r,asin (ESVA) have been carri­
ed out by the authors 01' this paper. ie t est values of
H, . HmlU ' 6xp' GIJ were calculated and compared vli ti'! ice
bending strength, measured according to ac cep t eQ techniques
HfU(21) : 6Pf
Gu• ~hl. '
where P is breaking force, e
i.3 beam l cngth(us ually 0 ,1
m) and h is ice thickness.
It; is 01 comrQon knol'lledge t;~at Brinelle technique IClide­
ly used in engineering was aeve loped :{Ol' uetcrmining hard ­
ness under the conditions of plastic de1ormation 01' ~he ma­
terial tested,i.e.in the case 01 s tatic invrusion,hardness
acc~rding ~o brinelle be ing determined by the ratios 01

85
 I , :'I' RO:)l;C,'IO,:
At pr '::-; l'nL there is observed a tendency for developing
the theory of the s trength of solid bodies reflectin5 them
different nature of behaviour namely plastic or brittle
under di i erent working conditions determinec. by a loading
rate,temperature,type of stres sed state,degree of non-homo­
genuity(1).Lioreover it i s a relationship betwee n the mecha­
nical properties of materials determined by various loading
s t<ltes / Lension, compr",c;sion, rotation, bending etc. P .Ludwick
presented this relationship in the form 01 so-called genera­
stra in curve \'Ihic,l was also con:tirmed in the works by N .j~.
Jav idenkov(2),L. ~ .~ridrn a n()) et al.The significance of gene­
ralized strain curve consi s ts in the facG that it's not ne­
ces ~ary to evaluate material behaviour ·in the same type o:t

l oading in which i t acts.U. : r . ~{abotnov(4), ! .r';; .Belyev(')) et al

have maue the same conclusion in their investigatios where
it was shown that; the creep re sistance at complex stressed
state GJay De l·ounu basin g on creep characteristics determin­
eci. in the resulL of tests l'or uniaxial s tressed state.'.L'he
same idea may be found in the strength theories grounded on
the i'act tha ~ material behaviour in complex stressed state/
tWO-dimentional or volume triC / is preuicted from the behavi­
our ot the mat;erial in uniaxial stressed scate.
lt' s of common knowleage that the formation of stress/
strain generalized relationships is found under simple tens­
ion or rotation . However, becausc at' ice non-homoz;enui ty as a
material and insUI1'ic iency 01 scientil'ically-grounded test­
ing teChniques l'or strain paccerns mentioned above such re­
lationships are practically unknown.hlOreover, beC3use these
tests are very difficult to carry out the se relationships
are v ~ ry problematic.
'rl1eoretical and experimental tests made by one of the
a uthors of' this article for [!)a ny years(7-19) have shown that
for grounding any strength theory io ice interaction analy­
sis particularly for determining ice furces on offshore
structure s t he technique 01' decerminiog ice hardness may be
used.Both s tatistical intrusion of different indentors in

84
 lAHR Ice Symposium 1984
'ili~
•
Hamburg

A_ :~'l TESTING 'l'ECHNIQUE O!-' E~;~ !Gr: ' H

Pi CCMP.'{ESSIC;) fu'ID BE'TING.

N. l:hrapa ty Dr .r]. Sc Far-E aste~ nPolitechnical

Institute U ~S R

3.Wessels Research ~ hip-building

Institute Hamburg

One of the important Lasks of an ice inter­

action is the problem of laboratory te st s of ice-resistent
models of offshore structures,where the techniques for deter­
mining model ice strength is of primarily importance.
The results of laboratory tests made io t he
l-iamburg Ice iJodel basin(HSVA)for evaluating of model ice
strength with the help of so-called Brinelle pro~e are given
in this paper.

83
 --
Cow, A.J., Ueda, H.T. and Ricard, J.A., 1978, Flexural strength of ice on
temperate lakes. U.S.A. Cold Regions Res earch and Engineering
Laboratory, CRREL Report 78-9, 14 p.
La vrov, V.V., 1971, Deformati on and strength of ice . Tr ans lated from

Russian for the National Science Foundation by th e Israel Program for

Scientific Translations, Jerusale~, 164 p.

Timco, C.W. and FrrderkinR, R.M.W., 1982, Comparative strength of

freshwater ice. Cold llegions Science and Technology, vol. 6 , p. 21-27.

82
 28r--------r-------,,-------,-------~

0
Cl. 24
.>0::

~
.­
CI
c SI-8
Q)

.­ 20
L..

(/)

0
L..
SI-T
::J
><
Q) S2-8
l1. 16

12

o -10 -20
T emperature ( oC)
Figur e 8. Fle x ral si: r e ogth of isothermal s imply supported beams vs
temperature and ice type. Symbo ls same as for Figw'e 6.

In tests of macrocrystalline SI ice, beams tested in parallel with

cantilevers showed much less difference in strength than was the case with
S2 ice. Strengths varied from 1600 to about 1300 kPa and srowed no
systematic variation with temperatue. Isothermal beams also displayed
similar strengths with respect to top- and hottom-in-tension tests, with
averaged values of between 1600 kPa at -1°C and 2000 kPa at -19 °C falling
more or less midway between those obtained with S2 ice. The fact that
very coarse grained ice at the bottom of SI ice sheets was appreciably
stronger than much finer grained ice at the hot tom of S2 ice sheets would
indicate that crystal orientation is also exerting an effect on tre
flexural strength of the ice.
Overall the strength of isother~al beams ~easured in the current
series of tests are found to be in reasonable agr e e~ent with the data of
both Timco and Frederking (1982) and Lavrov (1971).

Reference s

Gow, A.J., 1984, Quiet freezing of lakes ann the conc~pt of orientation
textures in lake ice sheets. Proceedings of IAHR 7th Symposium on Ice,
August 27-31, 1984, HamburF', West Germany.

81
 20
c
0..
x

-
~

C>
c:
16

-
Q)
....
( f)

E
::J 12
><
Q)

iL

8
0 -10 - 20
Temperctu. re (oC)

Figur e 7. Variati on with t emperatur e of t he flexura l strength of simply

s u pported beams t e s ted in con junc tion with c a ntilever beams. Symbols
s ame as f or Figur e 6.

that the flexural strength of many of the modified beams began to approach
those of simply supported beams, tested in parallel with the cantilevers,
confirms evidence from field studies that sizeable stress concentrations
exist at the corners of square-butted cantilever beams.

2. Sim.E ll Supported Beams. Results obtained with beams tested in

parallel with the cantilevers are presented in Figure 7, and data from
isothermal beam tests are presented in Figure 8. With regard to S2 ice,
all series of tests showed a very substantial dependence of strength on
grain size, and in the case of isothermal beam tests, significant
increases in strength with decreasing temperature were also observed,
especially in the range -I" to -IO"C. Isothermal beams tested with the
top in tension increased in strength from nearly 1600 kPa at -I"C to
nearly 2600 kPa at -19"C. In the bottom in tension tests, flexural
strength of S2 ice increased from about IISO kPa at -I"C to 1600 kPa at
-19"C. This approximate I.S:I ratio in strength between top- and
bottom-in-tension tests for isothermal beams also held for simply
supported beams tested in parallel with cantilever beams of S2 ice. These
latter tests showed no systematic variation with temperature, except for a
slight increase in strength with decreasing temperature for top-in-tension
tests, and overall the strength of these beams was much reduced in
relation to the isothermal beam tests, varying from 1200 to 1600 kPa for
beams with top in tension and averaging less than 1000 kPa for beams
tested with their bottoms in tension. Fracture patterns in the parallel
beam tests also indicated that differences in temperature between the tops
and bottoms of beams exercise a significant effect on the mechanics of
failure and ultimate strength attained.

80
 16 I I
,..... I
0
a.. - -
.l<:
---.s:::.
-0>
C
12 ­ ..... 51-8
-
.,..

-
8::::::= ::
OJ
L.
51-T ­
en
-0
...
::J
><
52 T
-~-
OJ 52-8
iL r- ­

4 1 I 1
0 -10 - 20
Temperatu re ( °C)
Figure 6. Fle ~al s t r ength of cantilever beams of S1 and 2 type i c e
vs temperatur e . Symbols T a nd B refer t o top and bottom in tension tes"ts
respectively .

at the lower temperatures probably reflects th e ef fpct of smal l er grain

sizes in the tops of S2 ice sheets. In SI ice e xhihiting macrocrystalline
texture, beams tested with their tops in ten s ion sho wed no roe asurahle
change in strength with changing temperature, wh e re a s he ar' s t es tecl v;ith
bottoms in tension increased in strength with de c r e a sing te mpe rature.
This is the reverse of the situation observed with S2 ice s hee ts, ann it
probahly reflects both the effect of near-perfect verti cal c-axis
orientation and the single crystal condition of the bottom ice, despite
the fact that the bottom is always at O"C durinR these tests. Also, SI
ice tested stronger overall than S2 ice, with values for bottom in tension
ranging from just over 1000 kPa at -l"C to ahout 1200 kPa at -19"C; for
beams tested with top in tension, flexural str e ng ths avera ge d around 950
kPa. The single outstanding feature of the cantilever be a m tes ts per se
is the virtual nondependence of the flexural stre ng t h on the t em perature
of the ice.
Timco and Frederking (1982) measured an average of 770 ± 150 kPa for
S2 ice beams tested at -IO"C with the top in tension, which compares very
closely with data obtained here. Lavrov (1971) reports sOTl'clolhat higher
values for S2 ice, of the order 1000-1100 kPa for beams tested at _4" to
-5"C.
Experiments were also performed in which the normally sharp corners
of cantilever beam butts were rounded out by drilling 20-cm-diameter
holes. This procedure invariably resulted in suhstantial increases in
flexural strength. These tests in effect repeated an exp e ri ment by Lavrov
(1971), but unlike Lavrov's results the current tests showed that the
modified beam generally failed some distance hack into the region of
curvature and at forces up to two times those needed to c~use failure of
unmodified heams. This behavior applied to both Sl and S2 ice. The fact

79
Figur e 5. Ver tical and hor i zontal thin s ection o f unseeded,

macroc r ystalline Sl type ice grown i n CRREL test tank . Symbo l s V and H

refer to c ~y st ~ with vertical and h ri zontal - axes respectively.

(198 2) . Lavrov te sted both 51 and 52 ice . All of his can tilev er tests
were conducted i n the pu s h-down (ten s ion in top ) mode, but he did not
distin guish between push-down and pull-up (bottom in t ens ion test s) in
reporting results on small s imply s upp orted beams. Tim co and Frederkin g
confined thems elves to testing only S2 ice, and the y also restr i cted their
te s ting to one temperature, -1 0°C . Cantilevers were tested only in the
push-down mode; simple suppo rt beams were tested isothermally at -10°C in
both the push-down ·and pull-up modes, but they did not perfo rm simple
support test s in parallel with their cantilever beam s .

Results and Dis cussion

I. Cantilever Beams. Re s ults obtained with 52 ice are pre se nted in

Figure 6. The data (al l average values) show on ly a weak dependence on
temperature for beams te s t ed with the t op in tension, with flexural
strength increasin g from abo u t 700 kPa at -1°C to about 900 kPa at -19°C.
For beams tested with their hottoms in t ens ion, fle xural strength remained
remarkably con s tant at ar ou nd 750 kPa over the en tire temperature range .
Part of the incre as ed strength shown by beams tested with top in tension

78
 8.2 eM

Figur e 4. Verti cal and hori zonta l

t hi n s ection photographs or S2 t y pe
ice gr own in CRREL test tank . Top
of t his i ce sheet is much f ine r
grained t han ice sheet f eatured
in Figur e 3.

Force was applied to the center of the beam by means of a hand-operated

screw jack attached to a load cell and loading bar. Center deflections
were measured simultaneously, and these data together with the force data
were transmitted to the strip chart recorder. Times needed to load the
beams to failure did not exceed 8 seconds. Calculated flexural strengths
are estimated to be accurate to ± 5%. Tre l eng tr to width to thickness
ratios of beams were maintained at 9: 1:1.
2. Ice Structure. Both SI and S2 ice were tested in the cur rent
series of small beam tests. Typical examples of S2 crystal structure are
presented in Figures 3 and 4. Roth feature the columnar textured nature
of c rystals that characterizes this kind of ice. Additionally, both
sheets display a very substantial increase in grain size from the top to
the hottom of the sheet. In Figure 4 tre finer-grained condition of the
ice at the top of tre sheet can be attributed to more int ense seeding of
the water in the tank immediately prior to freezing. A typical example of
macrocrystalline SI ice is shown in Figure 5.

Previous Investigations

Results of small heam testing of freshwater ~odel ice include those

reported by Lavrov (1971) and more recentl y by Timco and Frederking

n
Pi~ures 2A and 2B, respectively. The ca ntilev er beam hreakers consisted
of a threaded rod inside a steel tune that was clamped firmly to an I- bea~
spanning the tank. The power end of the threaded rod was fitted with a
load cell to which a yoke-type device was attached and loosely damped to
the free end of the cantilever beam. Force was applied either by screwing
up or down on the threaded rod in order to test heams in both the pull-up
(bottom in tension) or push-down (top in tension) modes. An LVDT arrange­
ment was used to measure beam tip deflections as the force was applied at
the free end of the heam. Signals from the load cell and LVDT were
transmitted to a strip chart recorder, where incoming data were recorded
in t~rms of time/load and time/deflection curves. With this technique
heams could be loaded to failure in less than 3 seconds. Beam lengths
averaged 105-110 cm, and the rati o of length to wi~th to trickness was
maintained at 10:1:1. Measurements in which the ratio was changed to
7:1:1 in one battery of tests and to 10: 1.6:1 in another yielded no
significant cranges in calculated flexural streng ths, which are esti mated
to he accurate to ± 4% in this whole series of t ests on simulate~ lake
ic~.
The simple suppor t heam hreaker, which was also clampe0 firmly to the
I-beam, consisted of a loa~ing frame fitted with cylindrical en~ supports
that could be adjusted to accommodate heams between 102 and 71 cm long.

ll.~ eM
Figure 3. Verti cal and ho r1~ ontal t hi n s ecti ons of columnar S2 type ice
phot o graphed between cros sed polar oids . An exampl e o f a s eeded i ce sheet
grown i n t he est t a nk at CRREL . Scal e s ubd ivisi ons i n photographs of
horizonta l sections measure lmm .
Pi e 1 . Tec hnique . ed to prepare cantilever beams for in s i tu testi ng
of flexural str en ~h .

Appo.ratus for measuring flexura l strengths and

beams te~ted 1n the cant i leve (Al and simply .
modes (B) .

75
Introduction

Previous investigations by Cow and others (1978) of the flexural

strength of large heams of lake ice have inrlicated an appreciable
dependence of the strength of the ice on its crystalline composition.
This work, performerl mainly on Sl ice composed of macrocrystalline ice
overlain by fine-grained snow ice, showed that (1) simply supported heams
yielded much higher flexural strengths than the same heam tested in the
cantilever mode (this behavior was attributed to the existence of sizeable
stress concentrations at the sharp corners of cantilever beams; only in
isothermal, structurally degraded ice, did this effect disappear) and (2)
fine-grained ice reacted more strongly in tension tban coarse-grained
ice. Tbe ratio of strength for the top in tension to that for the bottom
, in tension occasionally exceeded 2.0 but averaged between 1.2 and 1.6,
ctepending on the temperature of the ice sheet. This work on large beams
of lake ice has now been extended to studies on freshwater model ice using
a combination of cantilever and simply supported beams to ascertain the
dependence of the flexural strength of the ice on its structure and
temperature. Tests were conducted in a refrigerated tank under controlled
ambient air temperatures ranging from -1° to -19°c on ice sheets (10-12 cm
tbick) in lake ice Covers. Sl ice was formed by allowing water to cool
uniformly to +loC and freeze by spontaneous nucleation at -20°C awhient
air temperature. This produces macrocrystalline ice with predominantly
vertical c-axis orientations. S2 ice, by contrast, consists of
columnar-textureo crystals exhibiting horizontal c-axis orientations and
is produced by spray-seeding water at -20°C to initiate freezing. Full
details of the fabrication of these ice sheets and the consistency with
which bubble-free S2 ano Sl ice sheets could be produced by the simple
expedient of seeding or not seeding the tank water immediately prior to
freezing are given in Cow (1984).

Nature of Testing Program

Testing entaileo measurements, initially, on cantilever beams, which

were then tested in the simple support mode. Simply-supported beaMS were
divided into two groups: tbose tested in parallel with the cantilever
heams (such measurements were performed immediately following the canti­
lever tests to ensure that temperatures in the ice remained the same for
both kinds of heam test) ano those that were allowed to equilibrate
overnight at tbe amhient air temperature to facilitate testing of
isotbermal beams. Beam deflections were measured simultaneously with
failure forces, and these data, in conjunction with measurements of tre
dimensions of the beams, were then used to calculate the flexural strength
ano strain modulus of the ice. ~easurements were conducted at iempera­
tures of -1°, _5°, -10° and -19°C on a total of 700 beams (300 cantilever
and 400 simple support). A total of eight ice sheets (five seeded and
three unseeded) were grown in tbe tank, including two ice sheets dedicated
to investigations of stress concentration effects in cantilever beams.

Experimental Techniques

I. Beam Testing. A small circular saw capable of cutting through

ice 12 cm thick was used to prepare beams witb parallel and vertical sides
(Fig. 1). Apparatus for measuring flexural strengths and deflections of
heams in both the cantilever and simply supported modes are shown in
 lAHR Ice Symposium 1984
A
•
Hamburg

FLEXURAL STRENGTHS OF FRESHWATER MODEL ICE

An thon y J. Cow u.S. Army Cold Regions

Research Geologist Research and Eng i neering
Laboratory, Hanover, New
Hampshire USA

Abstract

In this paper we present results of small he am tests perforwed on

simulated lake ice correspondin~ in structure to the two major i ce t ypes ,
SI and S2, encountered in lake ice cove rs. In these tests a combination
of cantilever and s impl y supported heams was used to ascertain the
dependence of flexural strength of the ice on its structure and
temperature. It wa s found that macrocrystalline (SI) ice and columnar
(52) ice exhibit si~n1ficant differences in heQding strenRth an" that
substantial st res s concentrations exist at the fixed corners of cantilever
beams. Differences in response of SI and S2 ice to bendin~ forces clearly
reflect variations in grain size, crystal orientation, tewperature, and
temperature gradient in the siwulatec ice, and these factors must he
carefully considered when interpreting results of tests of the flexural
strength of natural ice covers.

73
4 Sanders, J.L. & ~4cComb, H.G. & Schlecte, F. R. A varitional
theorem for creep with applications to plates and columns.
NASA TN 4003, Washington 1957.

5 Vagliente, V.N. & Mayer, J. & Hoff, N.J. Application of the

Reissner principle to the post-buckling of plates exposed
to creep. Int. conf. .on Engn. Aspects of Creep.
Vol. II, University of Sheffield, MEP London · 1980.

72
 em
12

10

? 5 10 12 " 16

Fig. 5 Maximufu deflection w as a function of time.

The results from calculations of viscoelastic beams on elastic

foundation show that it can be difficult to find the deforma­
tion mode which gives the critical buckling time. In many
structures is the most usual way a viscoelastic imperfect
(real) structure can loose its stability by reaching a limit­
point on the equilibrium path or by mode jumping. It is there­
fore very important to use solution methods by which it is
possible to take account of these kinds of phenomena.

6. References

Hoff, N.J., A survey of the theories of creep buckl ing.

Pro c. 0 f the t hi rd U. S. Nat. Con gr. 0 f Ap pl. ~1e c h . ,
Providence 1958.

2 Lev i, I. & H.o f f, N. J ., The po s t c r i tic alb e h a v i 0 u r 0 f com­

pressed plates that creep, Ingr. - Arch.,
Vol. 38, No 4/5 (1969).

3 Samuelsson, A., Creep deformation and buckling of a column

with an arbitrary cross section. FFA meddelande 107,
Stockholm 1967.

71
 vi
I
Y

~~--~----~--------~ x z

0 , 4m A, 7.[]32E - 1~
L , 33 ­ "F ,90686 Jlmol
H'.2 . R , 8.314 )lmollJ(
v. , .250 emls n --2.96
v, __ .375 ­ E , 700 KN/crrl
r, 263-K , ,.3
e ' ,. E-5 KN/cm

Fig. 3 Ice sheet moving with constant velocity v = 0,375 cm/s

against a cylindical pile £ = A· e-LlF/RTom-l S ..
ij e lJ

20

10

2 10 12 " 15 em

Fig. 4 Total force F exerted on the structure as a function

of maximum def le ction w

70
Fig. 3-5 show results from an application of the discribed
method to the analysis of an ice sheet moving with constant
velocity v past a cylindrical structure. Initial deformations
are of the same form as the lowest elastic buckling mode with
a maximum

L,1220cm
B, 50 ..
H, 20 -'
w.' ,5"
p ,150KN
E,70CKNcr!.
},,1<;61
n,3
e ,.oO<;IKUe m

em
100

10

O~~====5~O~0====='O;0~O========'~500~====~20~O~O--5'
Fig. 2 Bu c k 1 in g 0 f a vis co e l·a s tic be a m 0 nan e 1a s tic
foundation P = 150 kN.

amplitude Wo = 0,3 cm. The boundary at the cylindrical struc­

ture is fixed, the radial boundary is free and the outer bound­
ary of the ice sheet is moving with constant velocity v =
0,375 cm/s.

69
4. Applications

The solution method described above has been applied to the

analysis of some simple structures. Fig. 1 and fig. 2 show re­
sults from applications to a simply supported nonlinear visco­
elastic beam resting on an elastic foundation.

L , 1220 ern
8, 50 '

~"""'-.>-. , -,, '-'0 ~~ '''8 ,,0 ~P

H, 2J "
W.' .5'
p ,Joe '<N

KJ C
E ; 7:' '"',rf/ en?
",'4 bl
n,J
c =.oO ~ IK.\'crn'

w
em
100

m:3
10

m=I

o 25 50 75 lOa s

Fig. 1 Buckling of a viscoelastic beam on an elastic

foundation P = 300 kN.

In figures 1 and 2 are m = number of halfwaves in the buckling

modes and A = a n- 1S. ·/E .. The resultsin figures 1 and 2 show,
e 1J 1J .
that the buckling mode in which the amplitude increase fastets
is dependent on the force P. For small values of P (fig. 2)
are buckling modes of low order stable (m = 1,m = 2) and their
amplitudes cannot increase but converge to constant values.
Amplitudes in higher modes (m = 3,m, m = 4) increase with time
to very large values. For a somewhat larger loading P (fig. 1)
is only the first mode (m 1) stable.

68
 T
[K t (6)l f (fBl + [B (6) ] T)[El([B] + (B (6)]) dV
n
(6)
v n

( S() ) ] f [N 1] T()]( N ] dV ( 7)
V ,1

f [N]T[cJ[N] d, (3)
c
c
T
f (lBl + (8 (c)]T)[E ]( £c ) dV
n (g)
v

f (NlT(bJ dV (10)
v

f [N]T { T) d r (11 )
0
r'1

and the vector (f} is a residual force (rate) vector.

In Haisler~ first order selfcorrecting method a weighted sum

of the vectors (f } and If} is el iminated

{OJ (12)

where Z is a scalar weight-factor. Substitution of eq. (5) and

the time integrated eq. (5) into eq. (12), rearrangement of
terms in the resulting equation by placing all nonlinear terms
on the right hand side of the equation gives an equation of
the following form

l/Z[K ll + I KlL':' J i O ( b '~" -' ) 1 (13)

where the "load vector" (Q(6,6, u )} contains physical and geo­

metrical nonlinearities and the matrix Ikl contains the linear
part of Iktl and matrix Ikel. Eq. (13) is of the same form as
the dynamic equilibrium equation for a linear dynamic system,
with proportional damping (damping coefficients S = 1/Z, Ci = 0)
and a time and deformation history dependent load vector (Q).
Time integration of this equation can be done in the same way
as for any dynamic system eq. by using Wilsons a-method.

67
 f (oij Eij + 0· . Uk, i
1J
uk ,J / 2 [C ijk 1 °kl/ 2 +
v
+ E:~j (0 ij ) lOi j - bm Um) dV - f Tm Ii m dr ­
r
a °
f (U
m
- i'im) Tm dru + f c um um/2 drc (1 )
ru rc

where u are displacement components, 0 ij Piola-kirchhoff's

i
second or der st ress tensor, Eij Lagrangian strain components,
fm su rface tractions on the surface f cr ' urn displace ment s on
the s urface r u and c the foundation modul us on the surface r c;
which is in co ntact with the ela s tic foundation. Time differen­
tiated quantities in eq. (1) are denoted with dot s. By forming
the first variation of eq. (1) with recpe ct to a. and 6 . . and
1 1J
assuming that the constitutive re lati on s are pointwise satis­
tied, we get the following rate equilibrium equation

.c ) •
f ( E ijkl (i:ij - € i j O£ij + o ..
lJ
oU k . Uk ./ 2 + 0
,1 ,J ij uk, i oUk ,J./2 ­
V

bm oum)dV f Tm eu dr; + f c Um
oUm drc 0 (2)
ra m
';;

The displacement rate field in eq. (2) can be approximated

and discretized according to the finite element method

u( x) ". W( x) 1 (3 )

where the rna tri x [N (x) J conta ins el ement shape funct ions and
the vect or {~} nodal displacement rate components. If we write
the s train rate comp on ents as vectors

"
i :..1
(4)

~/her ethe matricies [B.) and [on(il)] contain derivatives of

s hape funktions and the matrix 18 n
( il)] contains nonlinear dis­
placement dependent terms, and str ess components as a matrix

[01 the equilibrium rate equ 1; tion can be written

66
2. Solution methods

The solution methods that has been used for viscoelastic buck­
ling problems are most often based on some simplifying assump­
tions about the behaviour of the structure. In m.,~y cases are
elastic deformations neglected as sma ll compared to creep de­
formations /2,5/. The time dependent deformation process usually
starts from an assumed or measured initial deformation wo(x ,to).
In most approximate sol ution methods are the time dependent de­
formation mode assumed ~o remain the same as the initial defor­
mati ons . To avoid integrations thr oug h the thickness is the
cross section so metimes idealized to a numbe r of flanges or
layers connected together with a s hear-rigid material /2,3/ .

IJhen varitional formulationsare applied / 4,5/ the most usual

assumption i s linear s tr ess distribution through the thickness
of the structure. In many cases ar e also linearized curvature
equations used even in cases where deformations are very large.

By applying above mentioned types of simpliflying assumtions

can the governing equations for the buckling problem sometimes
be lin ear ized so that it i s possible to use analytical methods
for its solution. In other cases ey. when the resulting equa­
tion s remain nonlinear only numerical methods can be applied.

Creep bu ckli ng problems has also been solved by reducing the

problem to an eigenvalue problem by using isocronous stress­
strain curves as ordinary elastic stress-strain curves. The se
method s has not given satisfactory results in general cases
and they are devoid of physical meaning. The methods has been
applied primarilyJecause there is no need for se lecting or ap­
proximating initial def or mations.

3. The F.E.M. and Ha i sler's selfcorrecting method

Quasistatic nonlinear viscoelastic behaviour of structures,

res ting on elastic foundation for which the viscous constitu­
tive prop ert ie s of the material can be described with Norton's
or Odqvist s cre ep law, can be analys ed by ap plying the varia­
tional formulation by Sanders / 4/.

65
 Ifltroduction

Viscoelastic buckling of beams and plates on elastic founda­

tion occur occasionally in ice sheets moving past rigid struc­
til res. i f the asp e c t rat i 0 (r a t i 0 0 f s t r u c t u r e wid t h to ice
thickness) is large is buckllng a possible mode of fai lure:or
the ice sheet.

For smal l strain !'ates i s ice a viscoelastic material and its

vis cous const ituti ve properties during the secondary creep
period are described by Nor ton' s creep law. In three dimen­
sional stress states the generalized creep law indroduced by
Odqvist is often used.

The prob lem of analysing the buckling behaviour of an ice

sheet can be idealized to an analysis of nonlinear viscoelas­
tic beams and plates with different initial and boundary con­
ditions resting on elastic foundations.

In viscoelastic stabi lit y analyses there are se veral defini­

tions of stab ility and instability. Most often the definition
introduced by Hoff i s used. According to this definition a
structure looses its stabil ity when the strain rate (orstr'ain)
in the quasistatic viscoelastic stability problem becomes
infinite.

II hen a p ply i n g H0 f f 's de fin i t ion ton 0 nlin ear vis c 0 e I as tic
structures, the str ucture can become unstable only by reac~
ing a limit point on the equilibrium pa:h of the struc ture.
In a limit point the struct ure loo se its stabi l ity by snap­
though buckl ing or by mode jumping. In a stati cally determined
struct ure the viscoelastic buckling problem can be compared
with buckling of an ejastic structure with time dependent
imperfe ctions . In statica lly indermined stru ctures the situa­
tion is more comp licated because the'stress distribution in
the structure is de pent on deformation history. For such
struct ure s can the stability of the structure be analysed only
by following the load-deflection path from a known or an as­
sumed initial state.

64
 wm Ice Symposium 1984
IUt~

•
Hamburg

VISCOELASTIC BUCKLING OF BEAMS AND

PLATES ON ELA STIC FOUNDATI ON

Stig-Goran Sjolind Universit y of Oulu Finlilnd

Abstract

The paper presents some aspects of the analysis of nonl inear

vis co e 1 a s tic b uc k1 i n 9 0 f b e a msan d p1 ate so n e 1 a s tic f ( ') n d a ­
tion. A brief account of frequently used simplifications in
analytical and numerical analyses of the corresponding initial
boundary va lue problem is given.

A finite element formulation using Sander's functional i s in­

troduced in which Haisler' s fir st order se lf correct ing so lu­
tion method and time integration accordirg to Wilsons a-met h­
od i s used. Results from applications to so me simple struc­
tures are presented.

63
!l.EFE'1.ENCES
Cox, G.F. and 'Jeeks, 'LF., 1974. Salinity var iation in sea ice. Journal
of Glaciolo~y, Vol. 13, No. 67, p. 109-120.
Dieter, G.B., 1976. ~!echanical metallurgy.
~1cGra1,o]-Hi 11, New-York.
Frederkin,?;, R.M.'L and Timco, G.")., 1981) . N.'tC ice ~>roperties measurements
during the Canmar Ki goriak trials in the Beaufort sea, winter 1979-80.
DSR paper No. 947, NRC 13722.
Gow, A.J., Ackley, S.F., ueeks, l,/.F. and Govo ni, J.H., 1982. Physical and
structural characteristics of Antarctic sea ice. Annals of Glaciology
Vol . 3, p. 111-117.
Homer, D.R . and Glen, J.4., 1978. The creep activation ener gies of ice.
Journal of Glaciology, Vol. 21, No. 85, p. 429-444.
Hooke, Le B. and others, 1979. I~chani c al properties of polycr ystalline
ice: an ass essment of current knowledge and ?riorities for research.
ICSI/NSF qorkin~ Group on Ice 'lechanics, 16 o.
Kr umbein, H.C., 1935. Thin section nec hanical analysis of indurated
sediments. Journal of Geology, Vol. 43, No.5, p. 482-497.
Lliboutry , L., 1964. Trai ti de ~la ciolo gie . ~a 5 son et Cie idit e urs,
Tome 1, 427 p.
Mellor, H. and Cole, D.II., 19 82 . Deforoation and failure of ice under
constant stress or constant strain-rate. Cold Regions Science and
Technology, Vol. 5, No . 3, ~p. 201-219.
'Jell or, '1. and Cole, D.M., 1983. Stress/strain/ time relations for i ce
under uniaxial compression. Cold ~egions Scie nce and Technolo BY,
Vol. 6, No.3, pp. 207-230.
Mellor, 11. and Testa, '1.., 1969. Effect of temperature on the creep of
ice. Journal of Claciology, Vol. 8, No . 52, p. 131-145 .
Michel, B., 1978. Ice mechanic s . Les Presses de l'Universite Laval,
499 p.
11ichel, B. and ~anseie r, R., 1971. Classification of river an d lake ice.
Canadian Geotech . Journal, Vol. 8, No.1, p. 38-45.
Nadreau, J.-P., 1976. Struct ural analys is of the ice encountered in ridge
camp 1975. ArOA Report 91-2.
Nadreau, J.-P. and Hichel, B., 1984. lee proper ties in relation to ice
forces. IAH'l !-Jorking Group on Ice Forces. Second state-of-the-art,
53 p. (in press).
Pickering, F.B., 1976. The basis of quantitative metallo gr ao hy. '-ihetstone
'1etals and Metallurgy Trust for the Ins titute of ~!etallur g ical Tec~.
Richter, J.A. and Cox, G.F.N., 1933. A preliminar y examination of the
effect of s tructure on the compressive stren gth of ice samoles from
multi-year pressure rid ge s. O'lAE , Ne,. Orleans, proceedinp,s Vol. 3,
p. 140-149.
Rigsby , G.P., 1960. Cr ys tal orientation in glacier and in experimentally
deformed ice. Journal of Glac io logy, Vol. 3, p. 589-606.
Ting, J.M., 1983. On the nature of the mininum creep rate-time correlation
for soil, ice, and frozen soil . Can. Ge otech. Journal, Vo l. 20,
ll. 176-182.
Und erwood, E.E., 1968. Particle size distribution. in Quantitati ve
Microscop y , McGraw-Hill, New-York, 149 p .
~eeks, H.F. and Ackley, S.F., 1983. Recent advances in understanding the
structure, llroperties and behavior of sea ice in the coa stal zones of
the polar oceans.
~eeks, V.F. and Assur, A., 1967. The mec ha nical properties of sea ice .
. USA C~REL Nonograph II C3 Hanover, N. H.
lVilson, C.J.L. and Russell-Hea d, D.S., 1932. Stl'ady-state preferred ori­
entation of i ce deformed in plane strain at -l " C. Journal of Glaciology
Vol. 28, No. 93 , p. 145-160.
61
 recrystallization when the load is removed and the sample is annealed at

temperature close to melting temperature (Lliboutry, 1964).

As far as our samples are concerned, two types of mechanisms were

observed. The first one can be called "granulation" (Rip, sby, 1960):
recrystall i zation takes place along the most stressed regions which are
the grain bo undaries. The nucleation of small new equi-axed grains around
large grains has already been noticed C"lil s on and P.ussell-l!ead, 1982).
No measurement of the rotation of the old ~ rain, if any, can be done but
this "belt" of small grains apoears as a "ball bearing" which could help
the grain to adapt to the applied stress.
The other mechanism which has been noticed is the devel opment of
irregular boundaries. This leads to an interlocking grain structure which
could in some instances become as intermixed as frazil ice.
We mu s t point out that the first me chanism was essentially no ticed

with fresh water ice whereas the s e cond one occured mainly, but not

e xclusively, with saline ice.

Probably because deformation of the samples was limfted to 15 % for

the mos t deformed ones, we did not no tice any new grain growth, nor any

boundary migrati on.

Migration of the boundaries and growing of the grain which are char­
acteristics of the recrystallization at large strain and stress e s do not
se em to be present in the tested s <ll'1ples. \'! hen analysing thin sections,
there is usually nothing to tell uS how the crystal was before deformation.
In our case, since the makin g o f the ice involved some air entrapment
during the flo oding and the fr e ezing o f the crush e d ice, the "original
crystals" can be reconstituated from the bubble contours. Even if we are
conscious that an ori~inal crushed ice grain can some times be composed of
several crystals, the traces of the bubbles clearly show that there has
been no boundary migration in the observed thin sections (phot os 9 and l~.
\~e can clearly see that old boundaries are bordered by new small grains.

CO~CVJSION

f rom these uniaxial compression tests we realize that the general

behavior of granular ice is quite similar to the creep of other types of

ice.
Low salinity Tlb ice does not exhibit a particularly different flow

law that TI fresh water ice.

~\~at ma kes these e x periments really worthwhile is the observation of

the evolution of th e g rains durin g the creep. The type of thin sections
obtained when the sample is deformed by a few percent leads us to be very
cautious when a nalyzing thin sections from 'lin situ" ice. One must real­
ize that pressure ridge s bein g , by de finition, elements which have been
exposed to large pressures, th e ice we collect fr om them has been deformed
enough that what could be looked at as snow ice, mi ght be highly deformed
granular ice.
Lately, some frazil ice has been identified in Arctic and Antarctic
ice cores (Cow et al., 1982; Neeks and Ackley, 1983). The authors a g ree
that the presence of frazil ice in this environment is quite unexpected
since conditions to produce frazil are not usually met. This leads uS to
think that what is observed could actually be deformed granular ice.
l!m,ever, we are aware that further experiments are needed to completely
understand crystal and grain-size evolution.

60
 saline ice

1;= 1;=

0,0 % 0,0 %

1,6 %

• 3,3 % 2,0 %

14,0 % 9,2 %

59
(.J1 18
CO 18
o mean diamerer

o me an diamet er db "densir y ~ disfribUTton

16
"de nsiry" disTriburion
16 dJJ surfoce" distribution

"Surface" dt4) lr;oution

Sample C3-2­ '

14 14
Sample C3-0-12

12 12

Sample C3-2-5

;;e /0 ~ 10
c
.~
~ Semple C3-0- 2

0
~ 8 ~
8
f0­

G 6

2·

0 o h.J!"""J ~' 0 ~ J:""'o=d r--+ to

4 G 8 10 2 6 8
Chord lenOhl or equivalent diomerer, mm Chor d lengTh or equivalent dlometer I mm

Fig. /I - Evo/uti on of the size of the qrains as Fi'l.l2 - Evolution of the si ze of the 'Ira ins os
a fonctlon of the deformation of the a foncflon of the deformation of the
samples - TI Ic e. samples - Tlb ice.
area of th e thin secti on and by a ss umin g th a t. th e ora ins arc sph e ri cal aod
cut alo ng a rn3xi mum c ir cl~.

This technique is th e one whi c h has always been used in our laborato­
r y and which se ems to rcpr eseo c fai rly well the visual estimatioo of a
thin section, a t l e ast fo r S2 ice.
Once th e samp le tested, an oth e r thin section was t ake n usuall y near
the middle of th e defo rmed s a~p l e . A first c ea sure of th e mea n diameter d
is made using t h is surfac e evaluation. Sinc n the grain siz e was not as
homogenous as be fore t es ting, anoth r tec hnique was needed to represent
this heterogeneit y .
'...' hen review i ng the l :it e rature on g ranulometry t ec hnique s, it appears
c lea rl y that th e r e i s no method a cc ep t e d by eve rybody . Eve r yone uses his
O'Nn references (Krumb e in, 193 5 ; Di wt e r, 1976; Pick e ring, 1976 ; Under­
wood, 19 69) , which l ead to re s ul ts varyi ng in a ratio up to 1:1, 75 depe n­
ding on the te c hn ia ue.
The t ec hni que which has be e n used here, is derived from the m.l.i.
(mean linear interc e p t) me thod. Along a linear travers e of l e n gth L, the
grains "hich interc ep t the tra ver. se are divid ed into cla ss es depending on
the ler.gth o f the chord created by the trave rse bet"een the boundaries of
the grain. The maximum chord is taken as 10 mrn long and the chords are
di s tributed into twe nt y 0,5 mm clas ses . All t he r es ults are then con­
verted to percent ages. A fir st t ype of hist og r am is built using the num­
ber of c hords per class; this histogram i s sha de d in fig ures 11 and 12 and
is call e d "density" distribution. Anothe r histo gram is built with the
surfaces ca l c ulated from the above dens I ty distr i b uti on as if eat: h cho rd
was the d ial'leter of a cir c ular grain. Thi s is ca lle d "surf ace " distribu­
ti on and should be fRi rly clo s e to th e visual re presentation of a thin
section.
Figures 11 and 12 sho" the evolution of mea n di ~m e t er of the samples
as deformation incr ",ases. Reading o f the di ffe r e nt distributions "as done
for each samp le but a fe w e xamp l es only have be en chosen in order to illu~
trat e the e volu tion of grain distribution.
The first c omment concerns the evolution of mean g rain diameter as
deformation inc r ea ses. From an a verage di ame ter of 3 mm be f or e t es tin g ,
the grain size decr eases to 1,5 mm at the l a r ges t deformation encou ntered
durin ~ our tests. Both figures show that gr ai n siz e s tart s to decrease
around 1,5% of d e for ~n tion and seems to st a bilize at 1,5 l'lm for T] ice and
1, 3 for T]b ice. From the histo gram s o f grain size distribution "e can
see that new g rains recry,staili ze directl y to the sma ll e st grain size.
From the thin sections analysis it seems that most of the grains "granu­
late" firstl y alons the bounda ri e s and continue on to"ards th e core of the
grain (p hotos 9 and 10).
A few samples were a nalysed at 4 di f f e rent levels in order to see if
the distribution "as deoendent on the situation fro m the crosshead. No
general conclu s i on can be drawn ex ce p t tha t the homoge ne ity seems to
i mp rove along t he height of the samp l e as d formation incr e ases.
'fu en a s a mpl e is deformed, ea c h cryst al is forced to adapt to the
appli e d stress. One of the ways the cr ys ta l can a djust its e lf to the
situa t i on i s by reorientin g a part of th e cry sta l or the wh ole crystal
itself .
This evolution of grain si ze is called dynamic or paracinetic recr ys ­
tallization when the sample is under stress, and static or postcinetic

57
When this set of data is taken out of the regression, the values for acti­
vation ener gies drop as expected to 79,0 kJ/mol for Tlb ice and 74,3kJ/mm
for TI ice. It can be noticed that these activation energies are of the
same ord e r than that of frazil ice.
From the data shown on figures 9 and 10 we can imagine idealized
creep curves which could help uS to predict ice behavior and see hOI, the
ice would react to different loading histories. Since several of our
tests have been done with successive loadings and unloadings it is inter­
esting to see what kind of ",emory the ice has. It seems from the curves
that previous loadin gs do not affect the evolution of the strain rate with
respect to E or t, as long as the mini",um strain rate is not reached. This
means that when the stress is modified, the ice respond s rapidly to the
elastic and anelastic sollicitation due to load increase and then strain
rate stabilize s along the path evolution which woul~ have taken place with
no previous loading. This can also be verified when temperature changes
are involved.

10'

, ". I l ",J "j

10' 6
.'~. '::c.o.~
'1 '-:--r~ '~", '~t
J

. .. ,
J '" ''', '. I
'. :1 : L-­ ~~'~'
"~t:. =-::::::::
~
······~~r-
~
c 10'
.~

Vi
' f----T-

r
f­

.
" .... -.~
10' •
I

1-
••• Dara

W
pOints

Idealized· creep cur.... es

II i " ,~

"-
10' 9
I
10 10'
Slrain,% Time I S

Fiq. 9 8 10 -Idealized creep curves -Ioqarithmic plot of strain rate as a function

of straIn and time.

Once Em is reached, the behavior of E with respect to E is not affec~

ed, and depending On the loadings and the unloadings, the creep curve mo ves
from an "idealized" curve to a new one corresponding to the new stress
state. On the other hand, since the time tm to reach the minimum strain
rate is inversely related to Emin' the "id~alized" curve s are meaningful
only when the time tm ~orresponding to the new state is not exceeded.
Beyond that, the line Em a t;1 is shifted towards larger times.

CRYSTAL ANALYSIS Ai'm FAB'l.IC DEVELOPtffiNT

Prior to testing, a thin section is taken at one end of each of the
samples. From these thin sections we can measure the mean diameter of the
grain for the considered sample. Since we used in this series of tests
the same sieve sizes and the same technique to make the ice, the me an dia~
eter is fairly constant fro", one sample to the other, d being taken equal
to (3,5 ± 0,4) mm for TI ice and (2,7 ± 0,4) mrn for Tlb ice. This value,
that we call ct, is obtained by counting the number of grains in a resolved

56
 - -
~ '"
.~
u u u '-"­
;., '"
0
~ ~ "
:.::::

·
°• • 0 ~
()

'"
'­
.:?
1-
t--t--­ • "
t-­ f-­ ''""
" • '"
Ie t--~t.
t-­ .~
I-----­ • ~
l:::
'"
t-r-f.....
0 t-­ ::I; ~
• • l-I­ •
~
"'"
~
~ ••I 0 cii 1)
° r-.
'~"
c­
.-.... ""~
~
.!:;
()
l:::
'"I
<l:l

&'
~ ~ 0
Q Q 0

,. C '9IDJ U)DJU: wnUJlu J~

o
-r '"
.~

'­
l-
f---­ ~:\
u u u 1- -<::
;., 0
~ 1- .:::''""
.° • •"
0 I­ '­
.:?
'"
, ''""
•
. ."I
1-
r--. t-;­ " t­ r­ l:::
•~ '"
I­ •
--. r--..__
·X
4­ • -<::
<£
o~
t----.~
~

• • • <><l0.
::I; ~
f--~.D.
D'p
o -1 <l <I <3
1

·· "" l.>

-­
Vi
:b-0--t
~
__WID
0 0
• "'"
0-.... 0 0 0 I­ '"
;;-;; ""'"
I""
- C

, ~

o 0

55
 Both fa~ilies see~ to corroborate values found elsewhere (Mellor and
Cole, 19~2; Ting, 1983). Strain rates plotted ap,ainst strain show clearly
that for this type of ice the Mini~um se c ondary creep occurs when the de­
formation reaches 1% or so of the initial length.
~·~en ~ is plotted against t on a logarithmic scale, we ca n see that
the ~ ini~u~ points of the strain rate cu,ves lie on both sides of the
drawn line the slope of which is -1.
From the curves which exhibit a mini~u~ strain rate at a first load­
ing, the ti~e to reach this ~inimu~ strain rate was related to the strain
rate itself. The relation which has bee n computed leads to a power of -1
for strain rates ',ithin th e range 1,5 x l!r 8 ~-I to 1 x 11)-6 s-).
The ti~e tm to reach this minimum strain rate can be expressed, for~
our curves, as:
t~ = 5,1 x 11)-3 E~in
Emin being related to the stress by Glen's law, the time can be expressed
for each t ype of ice as a fun ct i on of the stress.
The main difference between these results and those obtained by
~ellor and Cole (1982, 1983) lies essentially in the ve r y ~rimary creep of
the sam9les. They ac tually observed that the strain rate was not continu­
ously decreasing during primary creep. Probably because of the sa~pling
tiMe (31) seconds) and the "manually-controlled" loading rate used at the
beginning of the test, we could not notice any peculiar behavior at the
early sta ge s of the creep such as 1),1%. 'Ioreover, an inflexion point
which they found to be between 0,3 and 0,6% for E i s completely absent in
our saline creep curves and barely noticeable in our fresh i ce samples.
!·-/hen creeo tests are analysed, Glen's law Emin = A an exp (-Q/gT) is
used to relate the strain rate to the stress applied to the sa~ple. ge­
gress ion anal ys iS was done on the data presented in figures 7 and 8. The
dark dots repr esen t the values of th e Minimum Strain rates whe re inflexion
on the creep curve can be clearly identified, while the white dots stand
for strain rate '"hich could be visually considered as permane nt but I-Ihich
corresponds to strains different froM 1% deformation. The results pre­
sented in Table 1 were COMpiled from the mini~um strain rates only (dark
dots). .

T) i ce T)b ice
A 2,2 x 10 10 5,9 x 10 9
n 3,24 3,13
Q 88,8 kJ/~ol 33,S kJ/~ol
Table 1 - Computed values of the parameters of Glen's equation

As far as the exponent n i s concerned, the regression analysis gives

va lues very close to the theor y-accepted, n = 3. Saline ice exhibits a
slightly lower n than fresh water ice . The difference does not seeM sig­
nificant enough to find fundamental reasons to explain it.
Since the tests were perforMed at different temperatures the activa­
tion energy was computed from the data by a re.'Sression analysis between
log £. and log (J.
The values obtained for the actuation energies are so~ewhat higher
that those reported by Michel (1978) or Honer and Gle n (1978) for similar
types of ice. This can be easily explained (Mellor and Testa, 1969) by
the fact that the computation involved results for tests performed at -3 0 e

54
 '0 , - - - - - - - - , - - - - - - , - - - - - - - ,

10"11 16'

a· - 3 ·C a· ­ 3·C
10·~_2 10'·
@
SI,oil'l. , '"
'0° '0'
16
9

'0
.
00 '0'
@
T/tTI., I
'0
. 00' '0'

'0 -. '0
,.

Io"~
\,
-
16!i
~
'.
':10- 6 "\\\-\~:~tt:~
"" \ 1.'//
\ \\
-"- \-,,-,:,~,,

::;?-:"­
~ ~- .: 16'
~~,~
. . :---:...... ~ / ,I
~~::F~;;:~~~jtl- ~
~ ;:"''''

.~ 10. 1
- -'" !e- :;;.:J ~~ ~ 10"1
- 0,69
- - 0 ,96
---
_.- .,23
" ''::''"i~"--;
,""'---,
I
~
- LT _. ..
.,37
~.

10- 11 ",-'

8. - 10·C 8. -,o·c
© @
1 0'~'2 16
9
I
10' ·
'0° '0' '0 ",' ",' '0'
51roin • ,,..
'" '0
TitTle • •

. '0
.
-

, J \ I '0 "r---,\
\

ru
"
'"~~J ~,
,
~ --" ,-= .~ 10
-. . 1-'--­
~""
/
H
'

~r i~
/'
\ -
-
- -;;:'
7 _1," ~.
_ . " r,rl
'.
7~ _ _ r,78
- ­ 2,0'

.
- - 2:,OS

. 8" ·20"C

'0'
®
5'roil'l 4:, ".
'0
, '0
,,
'0
8" -20"C

ro '0
, ([)
Tlml,s
.
10
,
ro .
'0

Fig. 6 - Logorilllmic pial of slraln r ole as a funclJ{ln of slrain and lime for saline Ice.

53
 10 -. 10 -.
.eo --
0,''''
-0,28
-=0,82
= 0,%
--
--
----
_._-
0,1"
O,Zd
0,42
O. ~ '!I
10'5 --0,"2 1,10 0,6')
---- 0,'5'5
-·-0,69
-- 1,23
I,J1
10'5
0, 8l
0,%
1,10
1,2)
,
",10'6 '. 6
,"
r6

'§ 10 -7 ~
v; 10"1
v;

16" 10--'

8. - 3 ·C a.- "e
10. 9
@
10
-, , ®
10. 2 10"' 10° 10' JO' 10'
10
Siroil'lf:,"I. Tlm.,1

10 -. 10 -. ....o,n,
--0,28
-
--0,<12
-"-1,", """
1,2)
----­ O,'!I '5 .. ····· 1,31
--0,"'2 _0,69 I, '!II

10'5
.----
_ _ 0,69
o,~
10
-, ,=no_0,92
0 .96
_ . - 1,6)
- - " ,ge
_ _ 0,82 \
.--'" '­ ~ ~ .;
-. ":.10'6 --- 1,23
·········',l1
_.-
N''''", I ,'!II
.. 10' ~-~~-----
-':: ....
",>:,",~,
-,,~
____,
',""
"J,ge ~'-"';:-- ~~:-:--.
........... /
I
'~
'~~-~~:-~,.- -
-7
~ )0 v; 10"7

I! "'"~,--,-"
10,e

a. - 10·C
10­ '

8. ­ ro·c
,-­
IO'~_2 to'~ I
0
6
16' 10 10' 10 10 10' 10
Sr,ai" f: .~. Tlm.,1

10 -. '0
-.
10'5 ~6 "
"
'\,
, I "
.~ 10
6
.~ 10"
....

~
, ' ,
"'.-;;­

\~~Z\_..
- · · - 0 ,69

.... 0,4Z

-­-- ­
0,69
- - - 0,96
.~
'2 10
-7
- - 1,2l
--.--- \
v; 10"'
0,9&
1,2)
v;
--- 2,0'!l
J,'!II ~
-­---
--.-
I ,T'
\\, "
\ -.'" \
"
_... I,'!II
,,711
,;0,
10' "- ).,'" 10-'
"

8. -20·C 8. -20·C
-, ' ® -, , ([)
10 10
10
2 10" 10° 10' 10 10 10' 10' 10' 10'
Slr(lIl'lt",,". TI",., ,

Fiq, 5 - Loqarilhmic plOI of slrain rOle as a funclion of slrain and lime for fresh waler ice.

52
 1 0rl----r----r----.----r----~--~----T_--_.----~--_,

!I
4' - - - \-- j- -I- ' f--I----+- - .­ +- -

LJ
0

H- 000 0
6f----t--- +--.-­
1---1 -t- I
2 1- ! - -f----t- - t - - . ­

I I I I I I I I I
J OO
o 10 20
°T----.I
...........

30 40 !iO 60
-I-

70 80 9C
I
100
l
2! - -' - ­

0 - 1"---'
o 20 40
-( ' I60
j-/l
80 100 12 0 14 0
- -'- - 1

16 0 180 zoo
Tim. , I'IOUfi T,m e , " OUIl

F ir; / - C,~tfP c(Jr ~tf-$ omp/~ C3'O'3 Fir; 3 - Cr ~~p cu' ~~ - $ omp /~ CJ '2 -9

10
10'
'1 1 1 f ]
~ -
J-' ,.,.1 . IT]
. ....
- -l--J- ­
10" r,----,----r----. ---. .----.---. .----,---~----,_--_,

.o' i-­ - -

10' -L -t­ 10 '0' ~ I -I- 1- -+---1- -/--1 -

I \.....-_/

I
"
10 • - , ~ . , -,"-
---I Jj 10 ' '" ':---="=-0'-:0 --1---1 -+ - --t- ~ -I
o~

10. - I - I -I -~ '0' I - I -I - f­

L
40 ~v

T'rllf', h 'r'"' '

60 70 80 90 100
lO ~ 0
eo
11m. ,
Fir; 4 - Strain 'al~ 81'o/uflon wi!/! li m e -
'00 .20 1' 0

$omp/~
.GO

C3 - 2- 9
'00 200

FIr;. 2 - St,om 'Ol~ ~voJu'Jon wl1/! Ilmtf - $omp/~ CJ- o- J

~
 The ice grains countained between two sieves with desired mesh sizes are
refrozen in a cylindrical c e ll with water drawn into the cell by a vacuum
pump. The water filling being done from the bottom and under low pressure
conditions, air bubble entrapment is minimized such that the air content
in the samples after machinin g varies around 17. in volume.
As far as the ~rain size is concerned, this parameter has been kept a
I
constant and the mean diameter of the grain before testing averaged (3,5 ±
0,4) I'lI1I for T) ice and (2,7 ± 0,4) mm for TI~' ice.
Since the ice encountered in pres s ure ridges (Yeeks and Assur, 1967;
Cox and (·Ieeks, 1974) exhibits low, or even null, salinities, the samples
considered in this study have been taken from a fresh water ice batch and
a saline ice batch at (2 ± 0,5)0/00 .
The density of both types of ice averaged (0,89 ~ 0,01) Hg / m3 .

THE SAMPLES, THE RIG AND THE TESTING CONDITIONS

The samples were machined from the laboratory grown ice into 7 mm­
diameter and 200 mm-long cylinders. Thin sections of one end of the sam­
ples were taken before the final facing.
During the test, the samples were covered with a thin rubber membrane
in order to avoid sublimation.
The samples were loaded with a constant dead charge through a simple
lever arrangement. The ap i) lied stress was varied from 0,2 I1Pa up to
2,1 !fPa. The pIa tens "ere kept parallel durin g creep by h,e ans of guides.
The displacemen t of these !>latens was follo\,ed by the reading of three
LV9T's and recorded direc tly through the data acquisition system, along
with time and tem!>erature. The scanning was set up between 30 seconds and
30 minutes depending on the !>hase of creep .
The tests were performed at three nominal temperatures which were
-3 0 e, -lOoC and -20 0 C. Some of the tests were affected by temoerature but
the majority of the tests were performed in an environment in which the
temperature "as allowed to fluctuate within 0,5 0 C.

THE RESULTS
Figures 1 to 4 represent the evolution of the deformation £ as a
function of time t and the evolution of the strain rate £ at the same mo­
ment. This conventional representation is only used here for two of the
tested samples to shOl' that creep follows the we ll-known primary, secon­
dary and tertiary phases to which we are accustomed.
In order to be coherent with the ICSI re~ommendations (Le B. Hooke et
al., 1979), all the creep results were plotted in terms of log £ vs log
and log E vs log £ as can be seen in figures . 5a to Sf and 6a to 6f.
Some of the samples were loaded with the same weight during the whole
experiment. In these cases the minimum rate is clearly identified by a
cross. cor the other samples the load was modified by increments of
(),27 MPa.
From a qualitative analysis of these figures the first thing which
can be pointed out is that the overall behavior of fresh water ice and
that of saline ice are almost identical. Had we !>lotted both fresh and
saline ice curves on a same figure, we would not have been able to distin­
guish one kind from the other.

50
 WlR Ice Symposium 1984

'A
•
Hamburg

C~EE P OF 5I~ATED P~SSURE

~IDGE G~NULA~ ICE

Jean-Paul Hadreau, M.Sc. Eng. Lw al Un iver si ty Canada

-Ste-Foy, fJuebec
3ernard ~ichel, Dr. En8. Laval !Ini ve rsity Canada
Ste-Foy, fJuebec

ABSTRACT

Uniaxi a l comoressive c reep te sts were performed on fresh water

and saline Inb- ~ro wn ice. The grain size 'vas kept around] mm in diameter,
the loads varied from 0,2 11Pa up to 2 ,1 MPa a nd the tenperature was set at
-J oC , -19°C or -20 °C . ~e~ression analysis was done to determine the pa­
rameters in Glen's equation for ~inimum s train rates. Grain size e volu­
tion '-las followed as a function of the total deformation of the s,mpl e .
Granulati on was identified as a me chanism of re c rystallization relevant to
the tyo e of stress and strain invo lved in this ex oe ri~ent .

I ~ TROD U CTI O I
Oil explor a tion in the Arctic leads to a systematic study of the ice
encountered in this part of the slobe. UD to now, a f a irly large amount
of documentation is available on fresh ice, and its behavior as a material
is rather well handled by en o, in ee rs. '"That makes Ar c tic ice different is
ess e ntially the brine content which leads to di f ferent crystallization
patterns and from there to different characteristics and behavior.
A classification of the saline ice derived- from the well acceDted
classification of lake ice by Hichel and '<al%eier (1971) has been !,roposed
(Na dreau and I-liche l, 1934) and su g~e sts usinc; the subscriat b (which stands
for "brine") to differentiate the saline ice. I-Ie will use this notation
through out this paper to identify the different types of ice.

Sa line i c e encountered in the Arctic can be divided into two main

fabrics : the largest Dortion is S2b ty!' e ice-and is essentially found in
first-year ice covers (Frederking and Timco, 1?73). The other im!,ortant
type of ice is the T1b or T1 granular ice whi c h compounds the bulk of
pressure ridges (Nadreau, 1976; ~ichter and Cox, 198J).
In t r, is study, we tri e d to compare creep behavior of laboratory grown
g ranular ice for both saline and fr es h water ice.

THE ICE
The simulated T] t ype of ice i s obtained fro~ Sl or 52 ice gr own in
tanks in the laborator y . The upper la yer of the cover where the columns
are too thin is discarded and the rest of the c over is crunched and sieved.

49
Sinha, N. K. and Frederking, R.M. W., 1979. Effect of Test System sti ff­
ness on Strength of Ice. Proc. POAC 79, vol. I, p. 708-717,
Trondheim, Norway.

Traetteberg, A., Gold, L.W. and Frederking, R.M.W., 1975. The Strain
Rate and Temperature Dependence of Young' s Modulus of Ice. proc.
3rd IAHR Symp. on Ice, p. 479-486, Hanover, N.H., U.S.A.

Vaudrey, K. D., 1977. Determination of Mechanical Sea Ice Properties by

Large-Scale Field Beam Experiments. Proc. POAC 77, VOL I, p.
529-543, St. John's, canada.

Wang, Y.S., 1979. crystallographic Studies and Strength Tests of Field

Ice in the Alaskan Beaufort Sea. Proc. POAC 79, VOl. I, p.
651-665, Trondheim, Norway.

47
 (Vb) determined for sea ice by vaudrey (1977), E = 5.32 - 13/Uj;" GPa.
Using these values and equation (4), the results of the tests by

Frederking and Timco were re-analysed and are presented in Figure 4b.
The corrected values compare well with those of Wang.

SUMMARY

The method outlined in this note, based on a knowledge of the

test system stiffness and specimen modulus, appears to provide a
reasonable first approximation for correcting strain rates in strength
tests. The technique can be applied to interpreting data already in the
literature i f the test machine stiffness is known. It also provides a
rationale for using conventional test machines in field testing.

REFERENCES

Frederking, R.M.W. and Timco, G.W., 1983. Uni-axial Compressive

Strength and Deformation of Beaufort Sea Ice. Proc. POAC 83,
VOl. I, p. 89-98, Helsinki, Finland.

Frederking, R.M.W. and Timco, G.W., 1984. Compressive Behaviour of

Beaufort Sea Ice Under ~rtical and Horizontal Loading. Proc. 3rd
Int. Symp. on Offshore Mech. and Arctic Technology, VOl. III, p.
145-149, New Orleans, U.S.A.

Haynes, F.D., 1979. Temperature Effect on the Uni-axial Strength of

Ice. Proc. POAC 79, VOl. I, p. 667-681, Trondheim, Norway.

Sinha, N.K., 1981a. Comparative Study of Ice Strength Data. Proc. IAHR
Symp. on Ice, VOl. II, p. 581-595, Quebec City, canada.

Sinha, N.K., 1981b. Rate Sensitivity of Compressive Strength of

Columnar-Grained Ice. Exp. Mech. 21, No.6, p. 209-218.

Sinha, N.K., 1982. Constant Strain-and Stress-Rate Compressive Strength

of Columnar-Grained Ice. J. Mat. Sci. 17, p. 785-802.

46
 steel platens (F(ederking and Timeo, 1983; 1984) were compared to the
results of tests made by Wang (1979) on the same type of sea ice under
laboratory conditions using a closed-loop test machine. In all cases,
the test temperature was approximately -10·C, and the ice was of com­
parative salinity. The results for these tests are presented in Figure
4a. Similar to the results for the freshwater ice tests, the as measur­
ed strength of the ice is less than those for comparable strain rates
obtai~ed with the closed-loop machine. Since the elastic modulus of the
ice was not measured in these tests, an estimate of it was made by using
the relationship between the elastic modulus (E) and the br ine volume

II II II I II I
GRANULAR SEA ICE T" -100 C
o FREDERKING AND TIMCO (1983a)-COMPLIANT PLATENS-SOIL TEST PRESS
10

GJ FREDERKING AND TIM CO (1983a)-STEEL PLATENS-SOIL TEST PRESS

• FREDERKING AND TlMCO (1984)-COMPLIANT

I WANG (1979)
>­ .0
CLOSED-LOOP
'z" o
w

'">­
U)
\ CONVENTIONAL
(UNCORRECTED)
(al
10

I WANG (1979)'
>­
o CLOSED-LOOP
z
w
CONVENTIONAL
I
'">­
U) (CORRECTED)

L(_b_l~__~.~_I~lwl.~L
I I __~__~~I~I~L-
1 __~~~~LWWW

STRAIN RATE (S·,)

FIGURE 4 STRENGTH-STRAIN RATE RELATIONSHIP FOR GRANULAR SEA ICE

SHOWING WANG'S LABORATORY RESULTS OBTAINED USING CLOSED
LOOP MACHINE AND FREDERKING AND TIMCO'S FIELD RESULTS
OBTAINED USING CONVENTIONAL MACHINES (a) UNCORRECTED, (b)
CORRECTED FOR MACHINE STIFFNESS USING THE PROPOSED MODEL

45
 analysis, the results of his tests using the conventional Instron test
machine are compared to his closed-loop test results. These results
were presented in the form of a best-fit regression line through his
data and they are shown in Figure 3. In order to apply equation (4) to
his results, the loading system stiffness and elastic modulus of the ice
must be known. The former is shown in Figure 2. An appropr iate value
for the elastic modulus of the ice for a given strain rate was taken
fran the results of Traetteberg et al. (1975) which gives the strain
rate dependence of the modulus for beth granular and columnar S2 fresh­
water ice. Using these values, the test results of Sinha were re-analy­
sed using equation (4), and the result is shown in Figure 3. There is
excellent agreement between the strength obtained using the conventional
and the closed-loop machine.

10

S2 FRESHWATER ICE CLOSED-LOOP,SINHA (1981a) --=: ~

CONVENTIONAL~ .--:;...-:; _.
LABORATORY TESTS
(CORRECTED) )., --- ___ .
STEEL PLATENS

r
f­
CJ
Z
~~;~-"r
--- ---"
a: CONVENTIONAL
,...
if)

---"
(UNCORRECTED)
SINHA (1981a)

10 "'
STRAIN RATE (s"')

FIGURE 3 STRENGTH-STRAIN RATE RELATIONSHIP FOR S2 FRESHWATER ICE

SHOWING SINHA' S RESULTS OBTAINED USING BOTH A CONVENTIONAL
AND CLOSED-LOOP TEST MACHINE. THE DASHED LINE IS THE
CONVENTIONAL MACHINE TEST RESULTS CORRECTED FOR MACHINE
STIFFNESS USING THE PROPOSED MODEL

SEA ICE

For this type of ice, the results of compression tests per­

formed by the authors in the field on granular sea ice using two differ­
ent test machines (Soiltest CT-405; Tri-Test 50) with beth compliant and

44
dependence will not be taken into account in a rigorous fashion; in­
stead, the ice stiffness is approximated as the average of the ice
stiffness during the test (assuming a linear decrease with load to
yield; i.e. ifi = FA/2£ where E is the elastic modulus of the ice for
low loads). It should be noted that with increasing load, the stiffness
of the test machine increases whereas the stiffness of the ice specimen
decrea s es. Thus, the present approach greatly simplifies a complex
interaction problem by using average values in a linear system to
represent the situation. With this approximation, the reader is
cautioned not to interpret
the corrected strain rate
".
.­, €s as the true strain rate
z ." of the test. TO ver i fy the
!
.... .. /'"
TAI - lE IP

OIf. , PO N
( S Tff\. PlATEI\IS )

~'$ T EEl. PL AT E N S) applicability of equation

0
(4), it was used to cor rect
- " '0" "" 'co.""., " " ••.,
~
,
.. TAl - TES T ( COMP L IANr PL A TEN S ) strength measurements for two

V
different cases. First, for
0
z ,. measurements on columnar S2
~ freshwater ice which were
made using a conventional
machine with steel platens
under carefully controlled
FIGURE 2 laboratory conditions; and
LOADING SYSTEM STIFFNESS second, On granular sea ice
VERSUS LOAD FOR THREE made in the field using two
COMPRESSION TEST MACHINES different test machines with
both steel and compliant
platens. The corrected
values were compared to the laboratory measurements on the same type of
ice using a closed-loop test machine. In both cases, the test data was
taken from previously published test results.

FRESHWATER ICE

The information on freshwater ice was taken from the published

work of Sinha (1981a) who compared the results of compression tests by
several investigators using a number of test machines. For this

43
 (2)

where E is the elastic modulus of the specimen, £ is the length and A

its cross-sectional area. Combining these equations and setting the
sample stiffness Ks = EA/£, yields (per unit time)

(3)

This eKpression relates the displacement rate of the sample (6 s ) to

the displacement rate of the cross-head of the machine (6 j ). Since
the results of compression tests are usually discussed in terms of the
strain rate (E) of the sample and E 6/£, equation (3) yields a rela­
tionship between the strain rate in the sample (Es) and the nominal
strain rate of the test (En) as

(4)

This equation shows that the sample strain rate is less than the nominal

. .
strain rate, and that as the loading system stiffness becomes very large
compared to the ice stiffness, Es approaches En' as expected. To use
this equation, both the loading system stiffness and the ice stiffness
must be known. The former is obtained by loading a specimen of known
constant elasticity and measuring the load, movement of the screw jack,
and load frame deflection (Frederking and Timco, 1983). The results for
three different test machines which the authors have used (Instron,
TTDM-L, 0.1 MN capacity; Tri-test 50, 0.06 MN capacity; Soiltest CT-405,
0.05 MN capacity) are shown in Figure 2. Note that the machine stiff­
ness is not a constant, but a function of load at low loads, and for a
given test machine, the stiffness is greater for steel platens than for
compliant platens. For the analysis in this paper, the load dependence
of the machine stiffness will not be taken into account in a rigorous
fashion; instead, it is approximated as the average value of the machine
stiffness up to the load level at which the ice yields. With regard to
the ice stiffness, this is also not a constant for these tests since the
specimen is loaded to its yield point. For low loads, the ice stiffness
is given by EA/£ where E is the elastic modulus of the ice. With in­
creasing load, the ice stiffness decreases such that, by definition, it
is zero at the yield point. Similar to the machine stiffness, this load

42
easily deployable test machines IoOuld still give results which could be
interpreted in terms of strain rate.
In this note, a simple model is presented for the stiffness of
a conventional test machine. This yields a cor rection formula which
accounts for the machine stiffness. The model is checked by campar ing
strength values which were obtained for both columnar freshwater ice and
granular sea ice using three different test machines and corrected using
this formula, with those measured using a high capacity closed-loop
machine.

DEFINING EQUATIONS

The model for the s ystem of an ice sample in a test machine is

shown in Figure 1. It consists of a series combination of tloO individu­
al elements which represent the machine stiffness and the ice stiffness.

I n

LOA D I ~IG
,A C I
PHlEtIlO"

I
,I lO'~ I. G ,,. " ,kE til rt ~t S YSIB~

FIGURE 1 SCHEMATIC OF (a) CXJMPRESSION LOADING MACHINE AND (bl

EQUIVALENT STIFFNESS ELEMENTS

It has previously been discussed by Frederking and Timco (198 3) • In

brief, the loading system stiffness K£s is defined as
uP
KR. s = - - - ­ (1)
OJ - Os

where UP is a load increment, OJ is the corresponding displacement

increment of the screw jack, and Os is th e resulting deformation
increment of the sample. Os i s defined as

41
 I NTRODUCT ION

In recent glaciological literature, there has been discussion

on the influence of the test machine stiffness on the uni-axial compres­
si ve strength of ice which has been measured using constant cross-head
rate test machines (Haynes, 1979; Sinha and Frederking, 1979; Sinha
1981a, 1981b, 1982; Frederking and Timeo, 1983, 1984). Basically this
problem ar ises because these conventional test machines are not consi­
derably more rigid than the ice specimen being tested. Because of this,
the test machine itself can deform elastically a signi ficant amount
dur ing the test. This deformation of the test machine results in a
lower applied strain rate on the sample than the nominal strain rate.
Since the test results are usually interpreted in terms of the strain
rate, and the compressive strength of ice is strain-rate dependent, this
leads to an inaccurate interpretation of the test. Thus, a test of ice
strength made on a machine which is not signi ficantly more rigid than
the ice sample will result in a lower strength than ,"",uld occur for a
true strain rate equal to the nominal rate. It has been shown, in fact,
that for the same nominal strain rate, the apparent strength of ice
increases with increasing test system stiffness (Sinha, 1981a).
To overcome this problem, recent tests of ice strength have
been performed on "closed-loop" test machines. In these tests, the rate
of deformation of the sample is measured and instantaneously fed back to
the control system. This, in turn, adjusts the cross-head rate so as to
maintain a true constant strain rate of the sample during the test.
Using a test machine of this type, it is possible to investigate the
strength of ice as a function of true constant strain rate; i.e. the
influence of the test machine stiffness is eliminated. In any study
investigating the physics or mechanisms of ice failure, a machine of
this type should be used, if at all possible. Closed-loop machines,
however, have several drawbacks since they are quite expensive, very
large and not easily deployable for use in the field. For many engi­
neer ing applications, therefore, a conventional test machine is used.
Most of the information in the literature on the strength of ice has
been obtained using such test machines. It ,"",uld be highly desirable,
therefore, to find a technique which would allow all this information to
be compared by eliminating the influence of the machine stiffness. This
technique would also facilitate field testing since lighter and more

40
 [AIm lee Symposium 1984

•
'A Hamburg

A PROCEDURE TO ACCOUNT FOR MACHINE STIFFNESS

IN UNI-AXtAL COMPRESSION TESTS

G. W. Timco and R. Frederking National Research Council Canada '

Research Officers

ABSTRACT

It is well established that test machine stiffness can influ­

ence the results in uni-axial compression tests on ice. This =mes
about because the conventional compression machines ace nat substantial­
ly sti ffer than the piece of ice under test; hence the test becomes a
complicated ice-structure interaction process. In this note, a simple
model of this process is outlined and the defining equations are estab­
lished. This yields a correction formula which accounts for the stiff­
ness of the test machine. The model is checked for both =lumnar fresh­
water ice and granular sea ice by comparing the corrected strength
values for three different test machines with those measured using a
high-capacity closed-loop test machine.

39
 Currier, J.H., Schulson, E.M. and St. Lawrence, W.F., 1983.
A Study on the Tensile Strength of Ice as A Function of
Grain Size. CRREL Report 83-14. U.S. A=y's Cold Regions
Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, NH.

Hawkes, I. and Mellor, M., 1972. Deformation and Fracture

of Ice Under Uniaxial Stress. Journal of Glaciology,
Vol. II, pp. 103-131.

Jones, S.J. and Chew, H.A.M., 1983. Effect of Sample and

Grain Size on the Compressive Strength of Ice. Annals
of Glaciology, Vol. 4, pp. 129-132.

11ellor, M. and Cole, D.M., 1982. Deformation and Failure

of Ice Under Constant Stress or Constant Strain Rate.
Cold Regions Science and Technology, Vol. 5, pp. 201-219.

Kichel, B., 1978. Ice Mechanics. Les Presses De

L'universite Laval, Quebec, p. 167.

Muguruma, J., 1969. Effects of Surface Condition on the

Mechanical Properties of Ice Crystals. British Journal
of Applied Physics (J. Phys. D.), Vol. 2, pp. 1517-1525

Schulson, E.~., Lim, P.M. and Lee, R.W., 1984. A Brittle to

Ductile Transition in Ice Under Tension. Philosophical
Magazine, Vol. 49, pp. 353-363.

38
dislocation multiplication. The reak strensth should then
decrease with increasins grain size, as observed.
Conclusions
From compression experiments at -lOoC at 10-6 s -1 to
10-3 s -1 it is concluded that:
i) The strength of equiaxed and randoITl y oriented
aggregates o f Ih fresh-water ice decreases with increasing
grain s ize, at least over the range of grain sizes cOmITconly
observed (lmm to 8mm). This effect is independent of strain
rate, at least over the range investigated.
ii) The strain to reak stress decreases with increasinC"
grain size.
iii) At high strain rates (10-3 s -1) a britt le to duct ile
transition occurs upon decreasing the grain size to approxi­
mately Imm.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge R.W. Lee for exrerimental
assistance and D.M. Cole for advice about techni~ues.
The exp erimen ts were performed at the U.S. Army's Cold
Regions Research an d Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, NH.
The work was s upported by the ARCO Oil and Gas Company,
EXXON Froduction Research Company, MOBIL Corporation, and
SOHIO Petroleum Company.
References
Cole, D.M., 1979. Preparation of Polycrystalline Ice
Specimens for Laboratory Experiments. Cold Regions
Science and Technology, Vol. 1, pr. 153-159.

Cole, D.M., 1984. The Effect of Grain Size on the Internal

Fracturing of Polycrystalline Ice. Master of Science
Thesis, Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College,
(June 1984) .

Currier, J.H. and Schulson, E.r.1., 1922. The Tensile Strer.gth

of Ice as A Function of Grain Size. Acta Metallurgica,
Vol . 30, pp. 1511-1514.

37
 the magnitude (approximately ± 1 MPa) closely reflects the
variation in strength to be expected upon extrapolating the
present data (using a serarate plot of peak strength vs.
d-~) to their range of grain size; and the scatter appears to
be greater for their finer-grained specimens than for their
coarser-grained aggregates.
Concerning the origin of the grain size effect, it is
necessary first to consider the origin of the peak in the
stress-strain curve. A detailed discussion is beyond the
scope of this paper. One possibility, however, is that the
hardening which occurs prior to the peak may be a reflection
of the ranse in orientation of the slip (i.e. basal) planes,
owing to the random orientation of the aggregate. During
this stage, slip may occur fi~st within those grains which
are favorably oriented and later within the less favorably
oriented grains. Eventually, enough grains may slip SO that
neighboring grains can forrr. a continuous path of plasticity
through the aggregate. At this point, the peak is reached.
(Cracks which are produced at the yield point and throughout
the hardening stage of compression lower the peak stress
owing to localized stress concentrations.) Subsequently,
nislocation multiplication may occur in all of the
plastically deforming grains. The dislocation veiocity,
v, which is required to maintain the applied strain rate,
£, may then be reduced since the product pv is constant
(i.e., £ = pbv where p and b, respectively, are the density
and the burgers vector of the mobile dislocations). The
applied stress necessary to continue plastic flow faals
accordingly.
Grain size influences this process by controlling the
crack size and/or the length of the dislocation sources.
The larqer the grains, the larger are the cracks (Cole, 108<1)
and so the higher is the stress concentration within the
vicinity of the crack tip. Consequently, the lower is the
applied stress to effect plastic flow in grains around the
crack. Similarly, the larger the grains, the larger is the
spacing between pinning points on a dislocation source and
so the lower is the applied stress required to cause

36
et a1 1984) and corres~ond to the nucleation o f cracks
visible to the unaided eye.
Finally, it should be noted that while grain size has a
significant effect on the peak compressive strength, the
ma g nitude of this effect over the range of sizes investigated
is smaller than the effect of strain-rate over the range
in ves tigated. This point is clearly evident frcm the
st ress -strain curves.
Discussion
Owing to the smallness of the number of experimental
points at each strain rate, the functional relationship
between the compressive strength (i.e., the p eak stress) and
the grain size cannot be specified with certainty , e ven
though the data shm.! relatively little scatter . What ca n be
specified, h oweve r, is the trend: the larger the grain size ,
the lower is the strength, independent of strain rate. The
p resent experiments thus c o rroborate the earlier work by
~luguruma(1969) and by Currier et al (1983).
Why Jones and Chew (1983) did not observe an effect
cannot be attributed to the relatively high rate (5 x lO-~s-l)
at which they performed their tests, to the apparent range o f
grain sizes in vestigated, or to their method o f molding test
specimens: the present results were obtained at rates
bracketing their rate; the ratio of largest to s~allest grain
size in the present experiments , although larger than that
explored by Jones and Chew, is apparently larger only by a
factor of about two; and the method used here to mold the
aggregates is similar to the one employed by Jones and Chew.
Nor can the difference be attributed to a difference in
s~ecimen size , for under some of the same conditions as
investigated here Cole (1984) obtained strengths almost
identical to those reported in this paper for cylind~ical

specimens (prepared as described herein and tested on the

same aPFaratus) but smaller in diameter (Scm vs. 9.1cm ).
Rather, the difference in behavior may be attributed to
uncertainty in the grain size of Jones ' and Chew's specimens,
as tested, owing to variations in grain growth durinq storag~

In keeping with this suggestion is their experimental scatter:

35
w
-"" ca.. 13
-enen
::E
12 \0 0- E=IO 5- 11
0- E=10-4 5-
1.2
UJ
0::
II 0\ l:!.'P- E=10-5S- 1 1.1
I­
en 10 0\ .-E= 10"iiS-1 1.0
UJ
0:: 9 \ C\J
.9
:::::>
I-
u
8 '0, 0
-; .8
<t :z
0::
u..
d:S
7
6
..... 0
""""-- 0
"
- "­
"­
0
<t
~ .6
.7
•
::.::
~~ en
<t
UJ
a..
UJ
5
4 _l:!.
::.:: .5
<t
~.4
\••
>
en
en
UJ
0::
3
2
•--.:. ••.--- .-.
-:~l:!._ l:!. _­ "V
.3
.2 0 ___ 0 °
'--...........

--.­
a..
~
::E

0
.1 --0­
u
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
GRAIN SIZE lmm) GRAIN SIZE lmm)
Figure 2: Strength versus grain size Fic;:ure 3: Total strain to peak
taken from Fig. 1. (Data de-­ stress taken from
noted by triangles, 6, taken Fig. l .
from Currier et aI, 1983.)
other curves were terminated by removing the load once it
had reached a peak. Several points are noteworthy:
i) For each strain rate, the peak stress decreases with
increasin~ grain size.
ii) The fracture stress (i.e. of all but the finely
grained ice strained at 10-3 s -1) also appears to decrease
with increasing grain size.
iii) The plastic strain corresponding to the peak stress
decreases with increasing grain size.
iv) The strain rate at which the "ductile to brittle"
transition occurs under uniaxial compressive loading arpears
to decrease with increasing grain size.
Figure 2 shows the peak stress and the fracture stress
versus grain size and thus illustrates the first two points
explici tly. Included are data from Currier et a] (1983)
on ice prepared as describec here and tested at 0 10-5 s -1.
At the lower strain rates (10-6 s -1 to 10-4 s -1) where the ice
is ductile, the strength decreases by approximately 1.5 ~Pa
as the grain size increases from Imm to 8mm. At 10-3 s -1,
the strength decreases by approximately 6 MPa over the same
range of grain size. Figure 2 also shows that the peak
stren~th increases .,ith increasing strain rate, a point well
established from studies by Hawkes and Mellor (1972) and by
~lichel (1978).
Figure 3 shows the total strain to peak stress versus
grain size, for strain rates of 10-6 s -1 anc 10-4 s -1. In
addition to showing that this strain decreases with increas~

grain size, Figure 3 indicates that the magnitude of this

effect increases with cecreasing strain rate.
Another point is noteworthy. The stress-strain curves
for the finer-grained ice exhibit a "yield point" before the
peak. This feature is evident for the aggregates of 1.3 and
1.4mm grains strained at 10-6 s -1, is just detectable ~y the
inflection for the l.lmm ice deformed at 10-5 s -1 and is seen
for the 0.8mm ice at 10-3 s -1. Yield points in the stress­
strain curves for fine-grained ice have been noted earlier
for material deformed under compression (~'ellor and Cole,
1982) and for aggregates strained under tension (Schul son

33
 12
10
8
-a.... 6
c
:2:
(f)
4
(f)
w 2
0::
r-­
(f)
0
w
> 6
(f)
(f)
w 4
0::
a....
:2:
0 2
<....>
0

2
0
2

0
0 .005 .01 .015
STRAIN
Fiqure 1: Stress-strain curves versus grain size and stram
rate for equiaxed and randomly oriented aqgregates
of Ih fresh-water ice deformed under uniaxial
compression at -lOoe.

32
Procedure
Randomly oriented equiaxr d polycrystals of essentially
bubble-free fresh-water Ih ice were produced according to
the meth'od of Cole (1979). Po. cylindrical (9.1cm dia. x
23.1cm) one-piece lucite mold was charged with presieved seed
grains, closed on both ends with synthane end-caps, evacuated
and then flooded with degassed and deionized water. A
cooling coil effected freezing radially inward while an open
flow of water flushed the system of impurities and prevented
the build-up of freezing stresses due to expansion. Seeds
larger than 1.7mm in diameter were produced by crushing ice
sheets; finer seeds were obtained from snow. Samples
were removed from the mold by warming with a heat gun, and
then stored at -12 0 C for not more than ten aays.
Before testing each sample was measured with a compar­
ator. Any variation in end-cap parallelism greater than
.0025cm was corrected by metal shims. Samples were fitted
with aluminum rings placed on the synthane as close to the
ice as j:ossitle. Strain was measured from the rings by two
diametrically opposed extensometers. A "stiff" four-post
MTS machine of 2.2~lli capacity was used to arply the compres­
sive load. All tests were performed under strain rate control
at -10 ± 0.2 0 C. Prior to testing all samples were hand
polished to yield a very smooth surface.
Immediately after testing, a thin section was prepared
and the grain size was measured using the linear intercept
method. Except for samples tested at 1 x 10-3 s -1, thin
sections were taken from the central third of the sample.
Samples tested at 1 x 10-3 s -1 were so badly crushed that
grain size had to be measured from the ice that remained
attached to the end-caps. In this paper, grain size, d,
refers to the average spacins between grain boundaries as
seen on a planar section; it varies from lmm to Bmm.
Resul ts
Figure 1 shows the stress-strain curves obtained from
experiments performed at strain-rates from 10-6 s -1 to 10-3 s -1.
The curves at 10-3 s -1 for all but the finely grained
material terminated in compressive fracture, whereas all

31
 Introduction
The purpose of this paper is to consider the effects of
grain size on the unconfined compressive strength of equiaxed
and randomly oriented aggregates of Ih fresh-water ice.
The work is part of a broader study on the effects of grain
size on the mechanical properties of ice, and is aimed at
elucidating the physical processes which underlie the behavior
of this material. Related studies by Currier and Schul son
(1982) and by Schulson, Lim and Lee (1984) on the tensile
properties of ice have established that grain refinement
(from 10mm to Imm) increases the tensile strength roughly by
a factor of two at -20 o C to -SoC at 1 x 10-6 s -1. In addition,
grain refinement leads to a brittle to ductile transition
under tension for aggregates of grains finer than approxi­
mately 1 .. Smm. The question here is whether similar effects
occur under compression.
Before describing the experiments, it is noted that
other workers have considered this question. Muguruma (1969)
and Currier, Schulson and St. Lawrence (1983) concluded that
grain refinement does increase the compressive strength of
ice, frorr experiments at -lOoC at 10-Ss-1 on S2-colu~nar ice
loaded normal to the columns (d = 6mm to 2mm) and on equiaxed
ice (d = 10mm to Imm), respectively: few though the data are,
both sets suggest an increase in strength of approximately
2MPa upon reducing the grain size from 10mm to Imm. Jones
and Chew (1983), on the other hand, performed 62 tests on
equiaxed ice at -lOoC at S x 10-4 s -1 (d = 2mm to 0.6mm) and
concluded that grain size does not affect the compressive
strength.
This paper attempts to resolve this discrepancy. Four
sets of data are presented for strain rates ranging over
three orders of magnitude (i.e., from the ductile to the
brittle regime of compressive flow) and each set leads to
the same conclusion.

30
 IAHR lee Symposium 1984
IA Hamburg

V THE EFFECT OF GRAIN SIZE

ON THE Cm'PRESSIVE STRENGTH OF ICE

E.M. Schulson Thayer School of Engineering USA

Professor of Engineering Dartmouth College
Hanover, NH 03755

N.P. Cannon Thayer School of Engineering USA

Graduate Research Dartmouth College
Assistant Hanover, NH 03755

Abstract
Experiments on equiaxed and randomly oriented Ih fresh­
water ice have confirmed that the unconfined compressive
peak strength decreases with increasing grain size. At
-lOoC and over a range of controlled strain rates from
10- 6 to 10-4 s -1, the strength decreases by approximately
1.5 MPa as the grain size increases from 1 to 8mm; at 10-3 s -1
the effect is greater. A model is proposed.

29
 Cd) A large Increase In the kinetic friction factor between Ice and materials of

sta I n I ess steel or a I um I nurn Is observed when the roughness average of the mater I al Is

Increased slightly from 0.3 to 1.5 lJ."l. Further Increase In roughness up to 10 lJn RA has

only minor effects on the friction factor.

(e) The friction factor between Ice and Inerta 160 coated steel with an Intermediate

roughness of 1.6 lJm RA was lower than that for the srooothest uncoated stainless steel and

aluminum <0.3 IJ.m RA). These results Indicate that the friction coefficient Is not only

affected by the ma!=lnltude of the surface roughness but also by surface and material

properties such as roughness morphology and thermal conductivity,

Ref erences

Committee on Ships in lce-<overed Waters, 1981. Report to 16th Internetlonal Towing Tank

Conference, Proceedings 16th ITTC, Vol, I, Len Ingrad, USSR, Aug, 31-Sept. 9, 1981.

forland, K.A, and J.C. Tatlnclaux. Experimental Investigation of the Kinetic friction

Coefficient of Ice. CRREL Report In press.

Frankenstein, G, (ed.), 1975, Report of Task-COrmllttee on Standardizing Methods for

Ice. Proceedings Third International Symposium on Ice Properties, Hanover, NH, USA,

August 18-21. 1975.

Hirayama, K., 1983. Properties of Urea-Doped Ice In the CRREL Test Bas In. CRREL Report

83-8. March 1983.

Michel, B., K. Davar, R. Frederklng, R, Gerard, R, Hausser, R. Kry, J. MIchel (eds,>,

1981, IAHR-Recommendatlons On Testing Methods of Ice, Third Report of Working Group

on Testing Methods In Ice, Proceedings IAI-R International Symposium on Ice, Vol, II,

Quebec, Canada, July 27-31, 1981,

Oksanen, p., 1980. Coeff Iclent of Friction Between Ice and Some Construction Materials,

PlastIcs and Coetlngs. Laboratory of Structural EngIneering, 'Report 7, TechnIcal

Research Centre of FInland, Espoo, April 1980.

Oksanen. P., 1983, Friction and AdhesIon of Ice. Laboratory of Structural Engineering,

PUblication 10, Technical Research Centre of Flnlzlnd, Espoo, M~rch 1983,

Rablnowlcz, E" 1965, Friction and Wear of Materials. John Wiley and Sons, New York,

Schwarz, J, (ed,l, 1979, IAH'R.-Recorml8ndatlons on Testing Methods of Ice Properties,

Second Report from I AI-R Work I ng Group on Standard I zed Test I n9 Methods I n lee.

Bulletin Series A, No, 24, Division of Water Resources En~lneerlng, University of

Lulea, Sweden, March 1979,

Tlmco, G,W" 1979. The Mechanical and Morphological Properties of Doped Ice: Search

for a Better Structurally Simulated Ice for Model Test Basins, Proceedings POAC 79,

Vol. 1, Trondhelm, Nor ... ay, August 13-18, 1979,

Tlmco, G,W .. 1981, On the Test Methods for Model Ice, Cold ReQlons Science and

Technol09Y, 4, P. 269-274,

28
friction fector with verylng velocity Is expected for stlmples of smooth meterlel sliding

over Ice (as discussed In sections 2 and 3a). The friction factors of the aluminum end

sta I n I ess steel samp I es did not vary qreet I y f rom one tlnother, but I nerta 160, en

abres lon-res Istant, low frIctIon hul I coatln!=l designed for Icebreakers, had the lowest

kinetic friction coeff Iclent of approxlmetely 0.03 In spite of hevlng the lergest RA. The

Inerte 160 coating has a lower coefficient of thermal conductivity than the metal

samples. Therefore, less frictional heat Is conducted awey from the slldln~ surface Into

the bulk solid. The addltionel heet at the contact surface ctluses Increased melting of

Ice, \IIhlch In turn may result In 9retlter lubrication and tess frIctIon. The low friction

coeff Iclent between lnerta 160 end Ice might elso be attributed to the morphology of the

coet Ing surface.

Concl us Ions

This Investlgetlon of the Influence of various parameters on the kinetIc frictIon

coeff 'clent between urea-doped, columnar Ice end vtlrlous materials, conducted at emblent

temperatures of -1.5°C ± 1°C, yielded the follo\lling results:

(e l The frictional sheer stress, T, of Ice slidIng over smooth stelnless steel Is e

Iineer funct Ion of the normal pressure, P, applied to the Ice sempl e, I.e.

T=OP+T
o

\IIhere both Cl end To \IIere found to be decreeslng functions of the Ice hardness Index,

Hr. When HI exceeded e critical value, the Cldheslon stress, To, beceme practlcelly

zero and Cl became consttlnt. It Is Judged premature to quantify thIs crltictll htlrdness

since I t may depend not on I y on I ts measurement method but til so on the mtlter I a I sud ace

charecterlstlcs and type of Ice. These results Imply that for Ice hardness below Its

critIcal vtllue, the kinetic friction coefficIent defined as Jlk '; TIP Is a decretlslng

function of both P and HI. for HI> (HI)crltlcal' l1k Is Independent of both P

and HI_

(b) The basic test configuration of the friction experiment (configuration (e) vs (b)

of Fig. I) slgnlflctlntly Influences the behevlor of the kinetIc friction ftlctor with

verylng relative velocity between Ice and smooth stainless steel.

(b 1) The k' net Ic f r I ct Ion f ector between loaded Ice sarnp I as and e smooth ste I n less

steel sheet Increeses as velocity Is Increased from 5 to 25 cm/s.

(b2) There Is no significant Influence of velocity from 5 to 25 cm/s on the kinetic

friction coefficient between a loaded smooth sttllnless steel semple end an Ice Sheet.

(c) The kinetic friction coefficient between a sample of rough stainless steel (1.5

)Jm RA) and an Ice sheet decreases slgnlt Icantly as velocity Is Incretlsed trom 5 to 25

cm/s, as opposed to the negligible effect obserVed with a smooth stelnless steel sample.

27
 0 12 0 10
(~) S tainle ss S!e-e-I ,.) 510llilenSleei (O. :Y~I-' m RAJ
0.10 (o J Aluminum Ie) Alum,"um(O~0f'm RAJ
008 «.) (neflo 160 Cooled Sleel (1.6~m RA)
ija
008
!'-. 0.06
006

0.04
g
9
!'-.
00 ' ,• ".
. ...
"
002
002

110 10 15 20 25 :lO
R I""m RAJ V(cm!s)

Figure B. Effects of material s and r ough Figure 9. Effects of materials on variation

ness on ~k. (te s t con fi gu ra t i on b) . of ~k with velocity (te s t configuration b).

10 em/5, and a normal pressure of 10 kPa 'Was applied to the samples. A plot of kinetic

friction factor versus mater-Ial roughness Is shown on Figure 8.

As the RA values of both material s Increase slightly trom 0.3 to approximately 1.5

~m, there I s a sharp Increase In t h e kInetic friction coeff relents. When peak heights, or

valley depths, of B material surface are Introduced to a previously relativel y sroooth

sur face, a marked rise I n the t r 1ct Ion factor resu I ts t,-om the I ncrea se d sur face

Interaction and Ice deformation.

Figure a shows that a maximum ;n the kinetic friction factor occu rred for both metals

'When RA values 'Were approximately 1.5 lJm. As surface roughness Increased further, 8n

apparent decrease In the fricti o n coeff Iclent occurred. It Is possible that cohesion or

surface t e nsion between the Ice a nd material contact surfaces contributed to the p8llk

values of Pk, but vary ing rou qh ness morphologies ma y also have contr ibuted t o this

trend. It should be expected thet es rou ~ hne ss fUrther Increases, lJk also sterts to

Increase as the results with aluminum samples appear to Indicate. It 'Would be useful In

1"19ure I'j also Indicates that the kinetic friction coefficients of aluminum are

sllphtly 10'Wer than those o f s tainless steel 'WIth similar RA values. However, In most

c ases the d [ f f erence 'S Ins 1gn I f I cant, and very I ng roughness morphol og I es may aga I n

contribute to the behavI or of the friction factors, cau si ng slight difference In the

values of Ilk for the t'Wo metals with similar RA values.

c. Effects of various materials and vel oc ity

The kInetic fricti on coefficIents be~een Ice (hardness Index of 2800 kPa) and

samples of stainless steel, aluminum and steel coated 'WIth Inerta 160 were co ~ared at

different velocit ies . A normal pressure o f 10 kPa W8S epplled t o the samples, and RA

\/8lue s o f 0.33, 0.30 and 1.6 ]Jm 'Were measured for the samples o f stainless st eel, aluminum

and Inerta 160 respectively.

As shown In Figure 9 there Is no significant var-Iatlon of IJk 'WIth Incr-easlng

velocity for any of the material samples tested. This Independence of the kinetic

26

i
velocity Incr8lllses. When a sample of Ice slides over the steel sheet, more time Is

ellowed for- en Ice esperlty to melt, end the water- leyer Is likely to be thicker than In

the reverse conflguretlon, resulting In e greeter contribution of viscous shear to the

frlctlon~1 resistance.

3. Effect s of various perMleters end test configuration (b): loeded materl.el semple
slid Ing over Ice

e. Effects of roughness and velocity

The effect of roughness on the variation of iJk with velocity Is significant es

shown on figure 7. Two stainless steel sM'lples with RA values of 0.33 and 1.5 ).JT'l were

towed over the seme Ice sheet with hardness Inde)( of 2800 kPe. The normel pressure used

dur I n9 these f r"I ct Ion tests wes 10 kPa.

As observed previously, the kinetic friction fector between the smooth stainless

steel semple and Ice did not vary significantly es velocity Increesea. On the other hand,

the friction fector of the rouqher steel sample (1.5 }.Ill RA), which Is consistently laqler

than that of the smooth sample, shows a marked decrease with Increasing velocity.

0.16

<f RA(p. I'I'Io)

01'
(0 11 -'0
0. 12 kd O lJ

0 .10
"..
0 08 " Figure 7. Effects of roughness on variation
0. 06
'" 0 0 of lik wi th velocity (test configuration b).
'l. e
00'

002

10 !O 20 '0
V (cm / s)

At 5 cm/s the kinetiC friction factor of the rougher steel setr'lple wes almost three

times greater than thet of the smooth sample. This marked Increase In the friction factor

with Increased roughness 15 likely due to the Cou I orrb Interaction of the asperities. The

meltwater layer Is not of sufficient thickness to fill the voids of the rough meterlal

surface, and the asperities penetrate the weter leyer, ceuslnq greeter deformation of the

(c.e sudece end greater friction. As the velocity of the rougher sample Is Increased from

5 cm/s, the higher sliding speeds will res ult In less time then Is allowed et lower

velocities for the sliding surfeces to Interect. ConseQuently the esperltles do not

penetrete deeply Into the voids of the Ice sheet, end the surfece deformation during

Sliding Is deereesed, resulting In e reduced kinetic friction factor.

b. Effects of materiels end roughness

Stelnless steel and elum'num samples of various roughnesses were pulled over e test

basin Ice sheet with hardness Inde)( of 2800 kPa. The sliding velocity wes appro)(lmetely

25
To/P can significantly affect the friction factor. Consequently, the Influence of

adhesion on the kinetic friction fllctor Is significant lit I~ normal pressures CP < 10

kPa) and low Ice hardness.

2. Effects of test conf Iguratlon and velocity

ExperIments were conducted In the test bllsin In order to compare directly the

Influence of test configuration (a) versus (b) (Fig. I) on the variation of 11k with

velocity. Friction measurements were first made for a "smooth" stlliniess steel sllmple

(0.33 Um RA) sl !dlng over the top of an Ice sheet at varying velocities. Friction tests

of the reverse configuration of t~Ing a top Ice sample over the stainless steel sheet

(0.36 Um RA) were then IlTIfTIedlately performed to Insure that the environmental conditions

of the tests were Identical and the Ice was the same for both conflquratlons (HI = 2800

kPa). ·A normal pressure of 10 kPa was applied to both the Ice and stainless steel samples

wh Ich had surface areas of 196 cm 2 •

The resu I ts of these exper Iments, shown on F I gu re 6, revea I a marked d If ference In

the variation of the kinetic friction factor with Increasing velocity depending on the

test configuration. The friction factor between a loaded Ice sample and stainless steel

sheet Increased as velocity Increased from 5 to 25 cm/s. On the other hllnd, the results

of tests with a loaded stainless steel sample of the same roughness <0.33 ].JT1 RA) Sliding

over the Ice sheet (configuration (b) of Fig. 1) sh~ no significant variation of the

kinetic friction factor with velocity.

No fully satisfactory explanation can yet be offered for this difference In the

variation of Uk with velocity between the two test configurations. Oksanen (1980, 1983)

showed analytically that for Ice friction tests conducted at temperatures close to the Ice

melting point, as In the present case, most of the additional frictional hellt produced at

high velocities Is dissipated by Ice melting. This results In a thicker Illyer of

meltwater, and the friction coefficient, l1k, should then vary as a function of v l/2

due to the viscous shellr of the meltwllter layer. However, his final forrruia contained

symmetr I cal terms for the I ce and the test mater I a I and, hence, did not d I ff erent I ate

whether It Is the Ice sample or the material sM1ple which was loaded. For the type of Ice

tested In the present study. when the loaded Ice sample Is sliding over an Impervious

m.!Iterlal such as steel, the water layer Is replenished not only by frictional melting but

also by "brine" drainage from the Ice sample. On the other hand, when the loaded steel

sample Is Sliding on top of an Ice sheet, no upward drainage from the Ice occurs, but on

the contrary, the water layer may be depleted by absorption of water by the underlying

Ice. In addition, limited time Is all~ed for an Ice asperity to melt when a steel sample

slides over It, with the period of time dependent on the velocity of the sample. The

short contact period of high velocities Is compensated by the Increased frictional

melting, and the thickness of the water layer, therefore, remllins reilltively constant as

24
 006 0'0

0
0 .04

L~ 020

T,
Figure 4. Ratio of frictional shear
stress to nonna 1 pressure and stress

~
(k Po)
due to adhes i on YS. ice hardness index.
002 0 '0

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
H,(kPo)

deereese Initially very QuIckly as the hardness Index Increases, and that a tends to

become constant for HI> 1000 kPa while To Is pr1!Jctlcally zero for Hi> 1400-1500

kPa, as shown In Figure 4.

These deta Indicate that the kinetic fri ction between I ce and stainless steel foll ows

the behavior as theorized by Amontons, Coulomb and Morin (Rablnowlcl, 1965" where 1a Is

I nterpreted as the at f ect of adhes Ion between the contact sur f aces. The rap I d I nc reese o f

adhesion with decreasing hardness Is ettr Ibuted to the laqJer area of actual contact

between soft Ice and steel. Adhesion Is also 9reeter tor a material wIth a low elastIc
modulus (Rablnowlc2, 1965). It has been observed that a decrease in Ice hardness Is

re I ated to ~ decrease In f I exu ra I strength. Th I s decrease In crf Is accomp ~n I ed by a

decrease In the el6stlc modulus, depending on temperature 6nd ice thIckness (Tlmco, 1979;

Hlrayam6, 1983), whI ch results In an Increase In ~dheslon. The Increase of a wIth

decreasing values of hardness Index may be explained In a simi lar m~nner. As hardness

decreases the ~rea of ~ctual contact between the surfaces Increases, resultrn~ In 9reeter

Interaction of asper Itles and gre~ter fr Ictlon.

The corresponding varl~tlon of the kinetic fri ct ion f6ctor, Ilk = TIP = a + To/P,
with normal pressure, P, Is shown on Figure 5. If To Is small with respect to the

normal pressure, I.e. for relatively hard Ice, the kinetic friction coefficient Is

practically 9Clual to a. On the other hand, If 6dheslon Is rel~tlvely large (soft I ce)

::~
014
HI (kPo) (0) Tes1 ConhQ\,HOI II!3f'1 ~a ·
I • 375 0.12 (0) Tesl Con fIOilurollon "'b·
• 500
.. 1525 010
0.12
0 .08
iL.
1",
0.06 • 0 .06
o
004
'"
0.04
0.Q2

a '0 20
PlkPoi
30 40 0 .0 .,
v (e m / s)
20

Figure 5. Kinetic friction factor vs. normal Figure 6. Effects of test configuration on
pressure ( test configuration aJ. variation of ~k with velocity.

23
 wnere d was tne d I ctneter of tne I ndentor end N I was tne I oad ~pp I I ed on tne Ice du ring

tne Indentation tests,

Furtner slqnlf Ic~nce of tne nardness Index, HI, for tne top surface of Ice 15 given

In Figure 2 wnere It Is plotted wltn respect to flexural strengtn, Of, determined from

In situ cantilever be~m tests by tne method dIscussed by Tlmco (1981), It can be seen

tn~t Hi varies approxlm~tely I Ineerly with tne flexural strength of Ice.

It snould be empneslzed th~t the nardness values given herein ere Intended for

comparison only within this study, since results of Indentation tests wltn slmll~r Ice m~y

d Iff er f rom one oper~tor to another end f rom one apparatus to ~nother.

2000 H, (kPo)
• :n5

• 500

1>00 ... 1525

H, T
(kPo ) ( " Po )

1000

40 60 80
!7 tkPo)
30 40
r P(k?o)
Figure 2. Ice hardness vs . flexural Figure 3. Frictional shear stress vs. nonnal
strength. pressure (test configuration 'aT:
Resu I ts

The kinetIc friction f~ctor, ).1k, Is defined as the ratio of T/N where T Is the

~verage me~sured drag force ~t steady-stete pur I velocIty .!!nd N Is the norm.!! I load cpplled

on the I ce or mater I a I spec I men.

'. Ef fects of norma I pressure ~nd 1ce hZ!lrdness

In order to determIne the v<!lrlctlon of kInetIc frIction wIth varying norm~1

pressures, samples of top Ice were pul led over a stainless steel sheet <0.36 l.Jn RA) ~t .!!

velocity of approximately 10 cm/s, and the normal pressure was varIed between 1 ~nd 40

kPa, Although these tests were performed with Ice of only three different v~lues of HI,

namely 375, 500 and 1525 kPa, bn effect of Ice hardness on Ice/material friction w~s

observed.

FIgure 3 shows th~t the frictional shear stress, T, Increases linearly with

Increasing normal pressure, P, th~t Is

T=a.P+T (2)
a

where T = T/As, T Is the frictional force and As 15 the surface are~ of the Ice

sample's plane of cont~ct. Comparison of the results IndJc~tes th~t ~ decrease In Ice

hardness leads to en Increase In both the slope, a., ~nd the y-Intercept, To, of frlc­

tlon~1 she~r stress versus normal pressure. It should be noted that both a ~nd To

22
materiel continuously encounters new Ice (Fig. Ib). The fundamental difference between e

loaded semple of Ice moy ·l ng (Fig_ la) O'r held stationary (Fig. Ie) cn 8 sheet O'f mllterlal

was also briefly Investigated, lind nO' difference was observed.

b:per [mental ApPllretu5 and Procedures

The mlIJorlty of the tests under configurations (a) end (el (Fig. I) were mllde cn a

0.6 m x 3 m test table with 8 maxImum travsl distance O'f 2 m at constant speed. The

converse configuration O'f towing 8 loaded material specimen (Fig. lb) was tested In the

CRREl Ice test basIn where the travel distance was limited to' 4 m by the towing

apparatus. Some tests under configuration (e) were lIlso performed In the test basin to'

Insure thet the chllnge In eny r ronment did not aff ect the resu I ts.

1. Ice lind meterlal specimens

For the tests with loeded Ice sMlples sl Idlnq on a test surface (conf '9uratlon (lll of

Fig. Il, the Ice specimens were cut from an Ice sheet grown from an aqueous urea solution

with a concentration of lJ by weight.

In the tests 'nvest'~atlng the Influence of normlll pressure on friction coefficient,

four Ice spec Imens sizes were used. namely 20 cm x 20 em, 14 em x 14 cm, 8 cm x 8 cm, and
4 cm x 4 cm. In lIll other tests, the Ice specimen size WliS 14 cm x 14 em for convenience

only since tests conducted by forlllnd ~nd Tetlncleux (1984) showed thet speCimen sIze did

not Influence the kinetic f,-Ictlon coeffiCient.

In all the tests under conflgurlltlon (a), the test surface WliS a .304-stalnless steel

sheet (2.75 m x 0 • .3 m) with an Initial roughness lIverage (RA) of 0.36 vn. It was Jater

Increased to 1.11 urn RA by sanding and to 7.07 Urn RA by sandblasting. All surfece

roughnesses were measured by e Tay lor-Hobson Surtron I c-3 prof II omate,-.

The material sMlples used In the tests under conflquretlon (b) had curved leading

edges to prevent 90u9 log the I ce sheet, and Mch had a 5 I I ding surface area of 14 cm x 14

cm. four stainless steel specimens were used with RA values of 0.25 ~, 0 • .35 J.l'", 1.50 ll",

and 3.42 \..1m, respectl"ely. Six aluminum samples were tested and had RA "elues of 0.07 )JII,

0.30 ).lm, 1• .34 ).lm, .3.03 um, 5.a6 ).lm, and 9.a3 \..1m, respectl"ely. The Inertll 160 coated

steel, RA of 1.61 ).lm, recel"ed no surface treatment beyond the manufacturer's coatln9

process, end only one sample was tested.

2. Hlirdness meesurement

Information on the relatl"e hardness of the Ice surface was obtained during this

study by a speclllily designed Indentor. The herdness Index of en Ice sample, HI, Is

based on the average penetrat Ion depth, x, of the Indentor obtelned from three or more

Indentlltlon tests. The hardness Index of the Ice Is defined (Forl8nd lind Tatlnclaux,

1984) by

(1)

21
 Introduct Ion

The IAHR-Workln~ Group on Standardizing Testing Methods In tce made recorrrnendations

for Ice friction measurement procedures, and the ITTC Committee on Ships In Ice Covered

Waters specified the conditions o f Ice friction measurements In conjunction with the

International Model Test Program of an Icebreaker. However, among the parameters which

significantly affect Ice forces on structures, the friction coefficient between Ice and

the structure's surface Is possibly the most elusive to quantIfy, a difficulty made

obvious by the vast disagreement among results from past Investl!=jatlons of Ice friction

(Forland and Tatlnclaux, 1984). The study reported herein was undertZ!Jken as an attempt to

clarIfy some, If not all, of the discrepancies among results of previous Investigations by

Identifying more cQq)letely those parameters whiCh affect the kinetic friction of Ice.

Scope and limitations of the Study

Because of time and resource constraints, research efforts concentrated on the

effects of normal pressure, vel oc Ity, surface roughness, Ice hardness and test

configuration. The materials tested were uncoated stainless steel, uncoated aluminum, and

I nerta 160 coated steel. The Ice type was restr Icted to the urea-doped, col umnar Ice used

In model studies at the U.S. Army Cold Region s Research and Engineering laboratory. The

major Ity of the tests were conducted between the top surface of the Ice and mater lal s.

Only a few tests were made using the bottom surface of the Ice, resulting In no noticeable

effect of Ice orientation on the kinetic friction factor. Finally, the air temperature In

all the tests was maintained at -1.5 ± 1°C.

DurIng the tests on normal pressure effects, the pressure on the test speCimens was

varIed over the range of 1 kPa to 40 kPa by ChangIng either the samPle size or the normal

load, or both. The effects of velocIty on the Ice/material kinetic friction coefficient

were Investlf:jated by performing experiments at vel oc ities ranging from 5 cm/s to 25 em/s.

The variation of the kinetIc friction coefficient with surface roughness was studied for

both stainless steel and alumln~, and the comb i ned effects of varying velocity and

sur face roughness were a Iso stud I ed.

In order to determine the Influence of the testln!=! technique on the kinetic friction

factor, various test confIgurations (Fig. 1) were Investigated, In particular whether the

moving Ice sample continuously encounters new material (Fig. la) or the moving sample of

~
,=;;:IIIIIIIIIIIII~V
Figure 1. Test configurations: a) loaded
ice sample moving on stationary surface;
b) loaded material specimen moving on sta­
Marenol
tionary ice sheet; c) stationary. loaded
ice sample on moving surface.

20
 WlR Ice Symposium 1984

-
A Hamburg

LABORATOR Y INVE STIGATION OF THE K INETIC

FRICTION COEFFICIENT OF ICE

K~thryn A. for I ~nd * Thayer School of Engl neer Ing

Graduate Student Dartmouth College

Hanover, NH USA

Jean-CI aude Tat Incl aU)( u.s. Army Cold Region s Research

Research Hydraul Ie Engineer and En91neerln g Laboratory

Ha nover, NH USA

Abstract

In the growing field of Ice engineering there Is a need to establish standardized

model tests of structures for use In Ice environment s . This study was des1flned to

Investigate the relative Influence of various parameters on the kinetic friction

coeff Iclent, Uk' baNeen Ice and different surfaces and determine which of those

\lC!lrlables would need future, In-depth InvestIgation, ~rlctlon tests we re performed with

urea-doped, columnar Ice, and the parameters of normal pressure, velOCity, type of

m~terlal, materl~1 roughness, Ice hardness and test confl~uratlon were studIed. Tests

were conducted by pu I I I ng " loaded samp I e of I ce over a sheet of mater I al 8nd by pu I I I ng a

loaded sample of material over an Ice sheet. An ambient temperature of _1.5°C ± 1°C was

maintained throughout the testing process, ~nd the Ice surface hardness was measured using

a specially designed apparatus. The experimental resul ts of the friction tests revealed

that the beh~v'or of llk with varying velocity was Significantly Influenced by the test

configuration and material roughness. The magnitude of the kinetic frictIon coefficient

was al so af fected by vary lng normal pressure, Ice hardness, surface roughness and type of

material.

*Presently employed as Research CIvil Engineer by the U.S. Arrr'r{ Cold Regions Research and
Engineering LaborZ!ltory, Hanover, NH, USA.

19
J
 14

12
.....

E
z 10
::I!

.. 8
5i"
..""
:;:
6

10- 6 10- 4

Sirain Rat. (k N I min)

FIG . 5 . THEORETICAL PREDICTION OF THE STRENGTH OF ICE UNDER

CONSTANT STRAIN RATE CONDITIO N .

16

14

.
~
12

z
10
!
...
" 8
in
..
""
>'
6

10~

Sir... Rat. (kN/min)

FIG . 6 . THEORETICAL PREDICTION OF THE STRENGTH OF ICE UNDER

CONSTANT STRESS RATE CONDITION .

17
 30

"..:
E

~
20
~

.,c~
..,'"
~
2 T=-IO·C
'" 0
10
--­ Ext,apolatod Data
~

104 10~

Applied St,e•• Rate (kN/min)

FIG. 3. THE EFFECT STRESS RATE UPON THE CRITICAL TOTAL

STRAIN ENERGY.

16

14

N 12
E
....
z
2;
10

·..,·

Vi
8

:! 6
>­

C'OIS - Head Speed (m/sec)

FIG. 4. THEORETICAL PREDICTION OF THE STRENGTH OF ICE UNDER

CONSTANT CROSS - HEAD SPEED CONDITION.

16
 80

70
.;;
E
"- 60
E
z

...
~

!>o
~
c 40

.
UJ

:; 30
;;,
0
20
;§
10

10- 6 10- 5

Applied Cross - Head Spe.d (m I •• c)

FIG . I. THE EFFECT OF CROSS - HEAD SPEED UPON THE CRITICAL

TOTAL STRAIN ENERGY .

20

'"E I!>
E
~
..
~
"
UJ 10

.
."

:;
;;,
0
;§ !>

Applied Sirain Rat. (..c- I )

FIG . 2 THE EFFECT OF STRAIN RATE UPON THE CRITICAL TOTAL

STRAIN ENERGY .

15
 McClintock, F.A., Argon, A.S., 1966, "Mechanical Behavior of
Materials", Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.

Michel, B. an Toussaint, N., 1977, "Mechanics and Theory of Indentation

of Ice Plates", J. of Glaciology, Vol. 19, pp. 285-300.

Nadai, A., 1969, "Theory of Flow and Fracture of Solids", Vol. I and
II, McGraw-Hill Book Company.

Orowan, E., 1950, "Fatigue and Fracture of Metals", Proc.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology Symp., p. 139.

Sandhu, R.S., 1972, "A Survey of Failure Theories of Isotropic and

Anisotropic Materials", Air Force Flight Dynamics Lab., Air Force
Systems Command, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, Tech. Rept.,
AFFDL-TR-72-71.

Stowell, E.Z. and Liu, T.S., 1961, "On the Mechanical Behavior of
Fiber-Reinforced Crystalline Materials", J. Hech. Phys. Solids, Vol.
9.

Timoshenko, S.P., 1953, "History of Strength of Materials", McGraw-Hill

Book Company.

Timoshenko, S.P., 1956, "Strength of Materials", Part II, D. Van

Nostrand Company, Inc.

Waddoups, M.E., 1967, "Advanced Composite Material Mechanics for the

Design and Stress Analyst", General Dynamics, Ft. Worth Division,
Report FZM-4763.

Wang, Y.S., 1979, "Sea Ice Properties", In E)()(on Technical Seminar on

Alaskan Beaufort Sea Gravel Island Design.

Wasti, S.T., 1970, "The Plastic Bending of Transversely Anisotropic

Circular Plates", Inst. J. Mech. Science, Vol. 12.

14
Galileo, G.A., 1638, Two New Science; English Translation by Henry Crew
and Alfonso de Salvio, The Macmillan Company, New York, 1933.

Griffith, A.A., 1921, "The Phenomena of Rupture and Flow in Solids",

Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., London, Ser. A221, pp. 163-198.

Griffith, A.A., 1924, ·'The Theory of Rupture", Proc. of the 1st Int.
Congress of Applied Mechanics, Delf, pp. 55-63.

Griffith, J.E. and Baldwin, W.M., 1962, "Failure Theories for Generally
Orthotropic Materials", Developments in Theoretical and Applied
Mechanics, Vol. 1.

Hamza, H., 1984, "A Numerical Algorithm to Predict the Apparent Visco­
Elastic Strength of Ice Under Different Loading Conditions", to be
published.

Hill, R., 1948, "A Theory of the Yielding and Plastic Flow of
Anisotropic Metals", Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series A, Vol.
193.

Hill, R., 1950, "The Mathematical Theory of Plasticity", Oxford

University Press, London.

Hu, L.W., 1958, "Modified Tresca's Yield Condition and Associated Flow
Rules for Anisotropic Materials and Application", Journal of the
Franklin Institute.

Irwin, G.R., 1948, "Fracture of Metal", ASM, Cleveland.

Irwin, G.R., 1960, "Fracutre Mechanics in Structure Mechanics",

Pergamon Press, London.

Jaeger, J .C., 1962, "Elasticity, Fracture and Flow", Methuen and Co.
Ltd., London.

Jenkins, C.F., 1920, "Report on Materials of Construction Used in

Aircraft and Aircraft Engines", Great Britain Aeronautical Research
Committee.

Kelly, A. and Davies, G.J., 1965, Metall. Rev. 10, 1.

Lance, R.H., Robinson, D.N., 1971, "A Maximum Shear Stress Theory of
Plastic Failure of Fiber-reinforced Materials " , J. Mech. Phys. Solids,
Vol. 19.

Liebowitz, H., 1968, "Frachure", Vol. II, Academic . Press.

Liebowitz, H. and Eftis, J., 1971, "On Nonlinear Effects in Fracture

Mechanics", Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Vol. 3, pp. 267-281.

Liebowitz, H. and Eftis, J., 1972, "Correcting for Nonlinear Effects in

Fracture Toughness Testing", Nuclear Engineering and Design, Vol. 18,
pp. 457-467.

Marin, J., 1957, "Theories of Strength for Combined Stresses and Non­
Isotropic Materials", Journal Aeronautical Sciences, Vol. 24, April.

13
 cross-head speed, and using the calculated values (according to the
assumption no. 5) under higher rates of loading. Under lower rates of
loading, due to the lack of enough experimental data, the curve was
qualitatively extrapolated.
The numerical prediction of the yield or failure stresses of ice
according to the proposed failure criterion under constant cross-head
speed, constant strain rate, and constant stress rate loading
conditions are shown in Figs. 4, 5 and 6 respectively. The reader will
notice that the numerical results agree with the reported experimental
data in literature (e.g. Michel and Toussaint, 1977; and Wang, 1979).
The reader should notice that the numerical prediction for the yield
stress under constant stress rate loading condition are based upon Fig.
3 which part of it was qualitatively extrapolated by the author.

CONCLUSION
1. The critical strain energy is suggested as a failure and crsck
propagation criterion for ice and other visco-elastic materials
under wide range of rates of loading.
2. The predicted numerical results for the yield stress of ice

according to the proposed failure criterion agree with the

available experimental data in litersture.

3. The effect of test temperature, rate of loading, type of loading

and test specimen dimensions can be predicted using the proposed
criterion.
4 . To avoid the possibility of measuring an apparent strength for ice
specially under lower rates of constant cross-head speed and/or
constant strain rate loading, it is suggested to test ice samples
under constant stress rate loading conditions which always develop
actual fsilure in the ice.
5. More experimental data is needed about the visco-elastic ice

behaviour under variable and multi-axial loading.

REFERENCES

Bert, C.W., 1963, "Biaxial Properties of Metals for Aerospace

Structures " , AlAA Launch and Space Vehicle Shell Structures Conference,
Palm Springs, California, April 1-3.

Coulomb, C.A. , 1973, "Sur Une Application des Regles de Maximis et

Minimis a' Quelques Problemes de Statique Relatifs a' L'architechure,
Mem' Acad. Sci. Savants e'trangers, Vol. II, Paris, 1976.

12
start developing actual failure (cracking) after the yieldin g point.
The yield point of the test specimen under constant stress rate loading
condition is usual ly associated with the initiation of mostly unstable
failure process, therefore it be considered as an actual yielding
point. In the following discussion, we will look at the failure of ice
under constant cross-head speed, constant strain rate, and constant
stress rate loading conditions. The numerical results presented here
are calculated using the algorithm developed in another paper (Hamza,
1984).
In Figs. 1-3 the total stored energy in the ice test specimen and
associated with the yield or failure point is plotted against the
cross-head speed, strain and stress rate. In these figures it is
assumed that ice will start behaving as an elastic material at strain
rate of 10- 3 sec- 1 (or the equivalent stress rate of 4 x 10 5 kN/min).
Under cross-head speed loading condition, the critical transition value
is dependent upon the test specimen length. For simplicity this
critical speed was assumed to be 10- 3 m/sec.
For rates of loading higher than the critical transition value,
the elastic component of the critical total stored energy will remain
constant (according to assumption no. 5) while the creep component will
continue to decrease. This will lead to a decreasing critical total
stored energy as the rate of loading increasing, till it reaches a
minimum value equal to the critical elastic energy component at
relatively very high rates of loading. Under much higher rates of
loading, the critical total stored energy is assumed to remain almost
constant.
Under lower rates of loading than the critical value, the ice will
progressively respond as a visco-elastic material as the rate of
loading continues to decrease. Under constant cross-head speed and/or
constant strain rate, the yielding point on the stress-strain diagram
is more like an apparent point which is developed due to reaching
and/or exceeding an equilibrium condition. In this case, both the
total stored energy and its elastic component will decrease as the rate
of loading decreases. Lower test temperatures will lead to higher
critical total stored energy.
Numerical predictions of the failure stress under constant stress
rate loading condition, Fig. 3, was plotted using a transition critical
total stored and energy equals to the value obtained under constant

11
 4. The percentage of the non-linear component of the critical
total stored energy is non-linearly proportional to the
inverse of the rate of loading applied upon the material.
5. The maximum value of the elastic component of the critical
total stored energy in the material is associated with the
rate of loading under which the material starts behaving
mainly elastic. The material can not absorb higher elastic
component at higher rates of loading.
The above assumptions shall be considered the main ingredients of
the critical strain energy failure criterion for visco-elastic
materials (e.g. ice). The above assumptions are based on some
available literature in the fracture mechanics, avail:able failure
criteria, and may represent an extension to the maximum distortion
energy failure criterion to incorporate the effect of the rate of
loading upon the measured yield or failure stress. In the following
section a quantitative numerical analysis will be presented to the
suggested failure criterion.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Since the rate and type of loading condition applied upon the ice
can have considerable effect on the type of response, ice can be tested
under one of the following types of loading conditions:
1. constant cross-head speed,
2. constant strain rate,
3. constant stress rate,
4. constant frequency cyclic loading, and
5. random loading.
In the field, ice is mostly subjected to a random type loading,
therefore it is important to test ice in the laboratory under a type of
loading which accurately simulate the field conditions. In another
paper, the author (Hamza, 1984) has presented an algorithm to predict
the visco-elastic ice response under anyone of the first three loading
condi.tions. It was concluded that under lower constant cross-.head
speeds and/or constant strain rates, the ice test specimen will show an
apparent yield point on the stress-strain diagram which is actually
due to the internal total deformation rate has reached or exceeded the
applied rate of deformation. This agrees with the available laboratory
data which indicate under lower rate of loading the test specimen will

10
more plastic deformation developed, the higher the constant C.
Since any progressively stsble or unstable failure process of any
material mostly constitutes the development micro or macro-cracks,
which usually means the development of new surface within the material.
The rate of developing this new surface will be proportional to the
rate of the failure process. The scale of the new surface will depend,
also, upon whether the failure process is microscopic or macroscopic.
In order for the failure process to initiate and then continues in
a stable or unstable manner, the material should have enough stored
internal energy from which it will provide the required energy to
create the new surface developed during the failure process at the
required stable or unstable rate. Therefore, it is logical to assume
that the more energy required to initiate and continue the failure
process, the more energy the material should initially have.
It is a common knowledge that ice can response as brittle or
visco-elastic material depending on the rate of loading, out-side
temperature and other factors. It is, also, known that the lower the
rate of loading and the higher the outside temperature, the more visco­
elastic response the ice will have.
In general, visco-elastic deformation have two common
characteristics with plastic deformation, which are:
1. Both are non-linearly proportional to the applied stress
level, and,
2. Both are considered, from the thermodynamic point of view, to
be irreversible deformations.
Based on the previous discussion, the following assumptions could be
made about the failure process of visco-elastic materials (e.g. ice):
1. The critical energy required to propagate a crack or initiate
failure can be always divided into elastic and non-linear
components.
2. The critical energy release rate required to propagate a crack
or failure surface in ice is non-linearly proportional to the
amount of visco-elastic deformation developed in the ice and
more particularly in the cracking or failure zone.
3. The total energy which can be released to initiate failure or
propagate a crack is non-linearly proportional to the total
stored energy in the material and more particularly in the
failure or cracking zone.

9
 They assumed that yielding or failure occurs when the dis torsion
energy reaches the value obtained from uniaxial test with known
orientation of the material axes of anisotropy.
Theoretical Considerations
The specific energy release rate was first suggested by Griffith
(1921,1924) as a fracture criterion for brittle materials. This
criterion can be expressed in the following from:
dF I d(W-U)
da crit = ~ crit
I )2 r (20)

where
dF is the net energy change during da,
da is an infinitesimal change in the crack length,
dW is the work done by the external forces during da,
dU is the change in the strain energy during da, and
r is the specific surface energy of the material.
Experimental work by many investigators have shown good agreement
with the above proposed criterion. It was also noticed that for
ductile materials or test specimens which develop more plastic
deformation at the crack tip, the above criterion should be modified to
the following form (Orowan, 1950; and Irwin, 1948,1960):

dF I ~ d(W-U) I ) (2r + P) (21)

da crit da crit
where P is the energy associated with the plastic deformation.
The above non-linear energy method was furtherly developed
(Liebowitz and Eftis, 1971,1972) and applied to bend and tensile test
specimens. Methods were also developed to calculate the critical non­
linear energy release rate from the load-displacement diagram. The
criterion was then described in the following form:

,
G (1 + C) G (22)
= P e
where
G is the non-linear energy release rate,
p
G is the elastic energy release rate, and
e
C is a constant (C ) 1).
The value of the constant C is a measure of the amount of non­
linear deformation developed in the material. For a test specimen
which is behaving completely elastic or the amount of the plastic
deformation is neglected, t-he value of the constant C is unity; and the

8
 a a a
(--.!..!:.) 2 + (~)2 + (~)2 _ [(~+~-~) all 0
X Y z X2 y2 Z2 22

+ (~+ ~ -~) 0 + (~+ ~)

y2 z2 x2 22 033 z2 x2 - y2 all 033

'C
(~)2
'C
+ + (~)2 + (--.!l)2 ~ 1 (16)
s T R
where X, y, Z are the yield tensile stresses, S, T, R are the yield
shear stress alone the axes of anisotropy.
In the special case of isotropic materials, the above reduces to
Von M1ses' failure criterion.
Marin (1957) has presented a modified version of the dis torsion
energy failure criterion for anisotropic materials. He assumed that
the principal directions of the stress field coincide with material
anisotropy axes. His formula has the following form:

(all - a)2 + (0 22 - b)2 + (0 33 - c)2 + d[(oll - a)(022 - b)

2
+ (0 22 - b)(033 - c) + (0 33 - c) (all - a)) = of ( 17)

where a, b, c, d, are material constants which can be determined

experimentally.
Due to the assumption inhereted in the above formula, Marin's
criterion can not take into account the effect of shear stress which
may develop along the material axes.
Later, Griffith and Baldwin (1962) ~ presented a general
expression for the dis torsion energy per unit volume in anisotropic
materials. This expression is,
2 2
0 C + C O C + C
1 12 13 2 12 23
UD = -3- [C ll - 2 ) + -3- [C 22 - 2 )

2
03 C13 + C23 0 1 O2 Cll + C22 + C13 + C23
+ -3- [C 33 - 2 ) + - 3 - [2C 12 - 2 )

O2 0 3 C12+C22+C13+C33 01 0 3 Cll+C12+C23+C33
+ - 3 - [2C 23 - 2 ) + -3- [2C 13 - 2 )

2 2 2
+ C44 0 4 + C55 aS + C66 06 (18)

where
(19)

7
 or
(14)

where Ell' E , G are the elastic and bulk moduli of the material.
12 12
3. Application of Maximum Shear Stress Theory
Hu (1958) was the first to apply the maximum shear stress theory
to anisotropic materials in which he assumed that the material axes of
orthotropy coincide with the principal stress directions. Later, Wasti
(1970) presented an extension which takes into account the effect of
reinforcement. More general development was then presented by Lance
and Robinsion (1971) for composite materials which consist of stiff
parallel ductile fibers embedded in ductile matrix. Failure is assumed
to occur when the maximum shear stress on the planes parallel to the
fibers and acting in a perpendicular direction; or the planes parallel
to the fibers and acting in the same direction as the fibers; or
planes inclined at 45· to the fibers; reaches the failure stress
associated with the planes. The criterion can be described by the
following relations:
I(al l - a 22 ) sin 291 = 2 Ka
(IS-a)

2
I aU sin 9 + a 22 cos 2
91 2 K
t
(IS-b)

2
I all co/a + a22 sin al • 2 Ks (IS-c)

I(a - a ) cos 2el ­ 2Ks (IS-d)

ll 22
where Ka' K , Ks are the strength in the directions defined before

respectively.

II. Failure Theories Without Independent Modes

Many researchers have developed failure theories for anisotropic
materials which are extension or generalization to failure theories for
isotropic materials. Investigators have suggested also many criteria
which are based on experimental observations or material interaction
and failure scarnio. In this section we will limit ourself to the
failure theories which can be considered an extension to the available
failure criteria for isotropic materials. For a review to more failure
theories, the interested reader is referred to Sandhu (1972).
1. Extension of Von Mises' Criterion
Hill (1948, 1950) have suggested the following criterion for

anisotropic materials:

6
investigators assume gradual transition from one failure mode to
another. Therefore, these theories can be generally with or without
independent failure modes.
I. Failure Theories with Independent Modes
1. Applifation of Maximum Stress Theory
Jenkins (1920) na.e - suggested that failure of orthotropic
materials like wood could be predicted using the following condition:
(II-a)

(II-b)

~12 = S (II-c)

where 011' °
22 , ~12 are the stresses resolved along the material axes,
X, Y, S are the material tensile, compressive and shear strength
respectively.
Stowell and Liu (1961) have identified three different modes of
failure. These are; brittle failure of the fibers, tensil failure of
the matrix, and shear failure of the matrix. These modes can be
described using the following relations,
(12-a)

(12-b)

(12-c)

where X is the failure strength of the fiber, Y and Sm are the

f m
tensile and shear strength of the matrix respectively.
To take into account the interaction between the fibers, Kelly and
Davis (1965) have suggested multiplying Y and Sm by the factors 1.15
m
and 1.5 respectively.
2. Application of Maximum Strain Theory
In an attempt to apply the maximum strain failure theory to
anisotropic materials, Waddoups (1966) have suggested that failure will
happen when the deformation along the material axes reaches the
corresponding limiting value. This can be described by:

°22 = _1v___ (E
11
£
11 -
0)
11
(13-a)
12

E22
°22 - E22 £22 + v 12 ~ °Il (13-b)

5
 (6)

The theory does not agree with the available experimental data.
7. Maximum Distortional Energy Theory (Von Mises)
Many investigators have observed that hydrostatic state of stress
will cause only volumetric charges in the material, therefore it was
postulated that material fails when the distortion energy reaches a
critical value equals to the distortion energy of failure in simple
uni-axial tension test. The criterion has the following form:
1
-2 [(01 - °2 )2 - (03 - °2 )2 - (03 - °1 )2 J = 0f 2 (7)

Experimental data by many investigators have shown good agreement

with the theory.
8. Pressure Dependent Theory
Engineering materials (cast iron, granular materials) which do not
have equal tension and compression strength, can not be described
accurately by either Tresca's or Von Mises' failure criteria. In
general these materials do not have equi-axis failure surface. Some of
the failure surfaces suggested by researchers are:
i-circular cone which can be described with,

/ oct .3..[3
9
C
0
°oct - C]2
1

(8)

where 'oct and 00ct are the octahedral shear and normal stress

respectively, and Co ' C1

are materials constants.

ii - Paraboloidal surface which can be described with,

(01 + 02 + 03) - 8a 1 + 9a 2 [(01 - 02)2 + (02 - 0 3 )2 + 03 ­

where ° °
1 , 2 , 03 are the principle normal stresses, and aI' a 2 are
material constants.
iii - Prager and Drucker Criterion,
a J 1 + /12 - K (10)

where J is the first "invariant of the stress tenser, J is the second

1 2

invariant of the stress deviation, and a, K are material constants.

Failure Theories of Anisotropic Materials

In this section a summary to the most commonly used failure

theories for anistropic materials will be presented. Some of these

theories assume independent failure modes, while some other

4
 (2)
In the case of low cohesion soils, this theory gives reasonable
agreement with the experimental data.
3. Maximum Stress Theory (1858)
This theory postulates that an element of a body under multi-axial
stress condition will fail when the maximum principal stress reaches a
value equals to the uni-axial tensile strength of a test specimen.
This can be expressed in the following form:

(3)

where aI' O 0 are the principle stresses, and of is the uni-axial

2 3
failure or yield stress of the material.
In the special case of hydrostatic pressure (0 = 0 = 0 )
~ O
12 3 0
the theory suggests material failure which does not agree with the
available experimental data.
4. Maximum Strain Theory (Saint Venant, 1837)
This theory suggests that the material will reach a failure or
,
yield condition under complex state of loading when the maximum strain
reaches a value equals to the yield strain obtianed from the uni-axial
tensile test, i.e.
(4)
where v is the Poisson's ratio of the material.
Under hydrostatic stress condition, the theory predicts failure
stresses less than the available experimental data.
5. Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Tresca, 1864-1872)
In order to predict the failure of metals in extrusion processes,
Tresca has suggested that material will fail when the maximum shear
stress reaches the uni-axial tensile strength of the material. This
can be expressed as,
2
[(a· - a )2 - a 2] [(a - a )2 - Of ][(03 - a )2 - a 2] - 0 (5)
13 f 21 2 f

The theory gives good agreement with the experimental data of

ductile materials such as mild steel where the plane of maximum shear
stress coincide with the failure plane.
6. Maximum Strain Energy Theory (1885)
The theory suggests that failure occurs when the total strain
energy stored inside the material reaches the energy of failure in
uni-axial tensile test. This will have the following form:

3
 In the present paper, the critical strain energy which is a
function of the rate of loading, is suggested as a failure criterion
for visco-elastic materials, e.g. ice. The criterion assumes that the
critical energy required to initiate stable or unstable failure is
nonlinearly dependent on the rate of applied load.
In the following section, a summary will be presented to the most
commonly used failure criteria.

Failure Theories of Isotropic Materials

As early as Galileo (1638), engineers and scientists have
developed and proposed theories for the strength and failure of
different engineering materials. These theories have enabled design
engineers to determine the response of different structures under
general complex loading conditions from the results of simple tests in
the laboratory. For more information about these theories, the
interested reader is referred to Bert (1963); Jaeger (1962); Liebowitz
(1966); McClintock (1966); Nadai (1969); and Timoshenko, (1953, 1956).
1. Galileo (1638)
Galileo (1638) may be considered the first scientist who reported
some observations on the strength of some engineering materials.
During simple tensile tests on stones, he has observed that strength
depends on the cross sectionsl area of the specimen as an independent
parameter of the length. This has led him to the conclusion that
failure occurs when the critical absolute resistance to fracture is
reached.
2. Coulomb (1773)
Laboratory observations have shown that test specimens under
un i-axial compressive load will develop shear cracks which have
inclination different thsn 45°. This has made Coulomb to propose the
following failure criterion:
~ I=c - ~an (1)

where
c is the material cohesive strength,
~ is the material coefficient of friction, and
an is the normal tensile stress of the failure plane.

The above equation leads to the following inclination (~) of the

failure plane,

2
 WlR Ice Symposium 1984
18
•
Hamburg

THE CRITICAL STRAIN ENERGY AS A FAILURE

AND CRACK PROPAGATION CRITERION FOR ICE

H. Hamza Arctic and Offshore Consultsnt Canada

St. John's, Newfoundland

ABSTRACT
In this paper, we will present first a review to the availa~le

failure criteria in the literature for both isotropic and anisotropic

materials. The review shows that fsilure criteria for anisotropic
msterisls can be generally with or without distinct failure modes.
Secondly, the varisble critical energy relesse rate is suggested
as a failure and crack propagation criterion for ice. The criterion is
applicable over wide range of rates of loading in which ice will
respond as a brittle or visco-elastic mat~rial. The criterion leads to
a rate dependent critical strain energy curve which can be used to
predict the final failure of ice under wide range of rates of loading.
Finally, an attempt is made to theoretically predict some of the
available experimental ice atrength dsta using the suggested failure
criterion.
INTRODUCTION
In structural applications, material strength is usually of a
particular interest to design engineers. Over the years engineers and
scientists have developed many failure criteria which are applicable to
isotropic and anisotropic materisls. Some of these criteria have been
applied by several researchers to ice.
Failure criteria developed for homogeneous and isotropic materials
have served as a basis for the development of the failure theories for
anisotropic materials by introducing extra constants in the failure
criteria, or assuming a matrix of isotropic material which is
constrained by stiff fibers.
MECHANICAL PROPEKTIES OF ICE AND ICE COVERS

Drouin, M The loGrande River a full scale ice hydraulics

Hausser, R. laboratory 277

Petkovic, S. Concept and experience in controlling the ice

Puvlovic, R. regime on the Yugoslav reach ofthe Danube
Vwga, S. after the construction ofthe Iron Gate dam 291

Andersen, PE Ice management for Beaufort Sea production

Allyn, NEB harbours 303

MatoUSek, V. 1jJpes of ice run and conditions for their

formation 315

Frankenstein, GE. Methods of ice control for winter navigation

Wortley, CA. in inland waters 329·

Perham, RE. Ice sheet retention structures 339"

Davar, KS. Analysis of river ice resistance from measured

MacGougan, 1M velocity profiles 349

Ferrick, MG. Analysis of rapidly varying flow in ice-covered

rivers 359~

Yapa, PN.D.D. An unsteady flow model ofriver ice hydraulics

Shen, HT. 369

Chen, Z. Analysis of causes for floods during ice run on

Sun,z. the lower reaches of the Yellow River
Wang, W. 379

Alger, G.R. A procedure for calculating river flow rate

Santeford, HS. under an ice cover 389
 ICE FORMATION

Gow, A . Quiet freezing of lakes and the concept of

orientation textures in lake ice sheets 137·

Marcotte, N Anchor ice in Lachine Rapids, results of

observations and analysis 151

Daly, S.F. The dynamics offrazil ice formation

Stolzenbach, K.D. 161 >I'

Bengtsson, L. Forecasting snow and black ice growth from

temperature and precipitation 173

MatouSek, V. Regularity of the freezing-up of the water

surface and heat exchange between water body
and water surface 187

Marcotte, N Recent developments on mathematical

modelling of winter thermal regime of rivers 201

Votruba, L. Statistical time-series analysis and reliability

Patera, A. ofdata. describing the occurrence and intensity
ofice-phenomena in rivers and reservoirs 211

Pilarczyk, K.W. Prediction of ice formation for the

Eastern Scheidt in the Netherlands 223

ICE HYDRAULICS AND ICE CONTROL

Liu, G. Analysis of ice damformation and its

Xu, D. forecasting 233

Shen, HT. Field investigation ofSt..Lawrence River

Van DeValk, WA. hanging ice dams 241,

Kolodko, 1 Jamming tendency offloating ice in rivers and

Jackowski, R reservoirs 251

Majewski, W. Backwater profiles on hydroelectric reservoir

with ice cover 255

Billjalk, L. Strategic hydro power operation at freeze-up

reduces ice jamming 265
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Sponsors

Committees

Invited Lectures

Preface

MECHANICAL PROPEKTIES OF ICE AND ICE COVERS

Page
Hamza, H. The critical strain energy as a failure and crack
propagation criterion for ice 1
Forland, KA. Laboratory investigation of the kinetic friction
Tatine/awe, l-C coefficient of ice 19
Schulson, EM The effect ofgrain size on the compressive
Cannon, N.P. strength of ice 29

Timco, G.w. A procedure to account for machine stiffness

Frederking, R . in uni-axial compression tests 39
Nadreau, l-P' Creep ofsimulated pressure ridge granular ice
Miche~ R 49
Sjolind, S.-G. Viscoelastic buckling of beams and plates on
elastic foundation 63
Gow, A.l Flexural strengths offreshwater model ice 73 .
Khrapaty,N. A new testing technique of ice strength in
Wessels, E. compression and bending 83

Mellor, M Jcebreaking by gas blasting 93 •

Tinawi, RA. Behaviour ofsea ice plates under long term

Gagnon, L. loading 103

Palmer, A.C BehfIVi01;1r of8efl iee plata 1:tn6er I8Rg Wf:I:l­

Goodman, D.l I6adiI:zg
Ashby, M.F.
Evans, A.G. '''' t>~rA''' tO N ~"PALLl~ tlF ~))()E. - Lo~
Hutchinson, lW. C-<::.. 1!>t+-e.~\S ~
Ponter, A.R.S.
Williams, G. ~ 1l3
Selvadurai, A.P.S. Flexure of a non-homogeneous floating
ice sheet 123
(
 Preface
The present Symposium on Ice of the International Association for Hydraulic
Research is intended to follow up on the continuing tradition which began in
1970 in Reykjavik: the fair, non commercialized but scientjically oriented dis­
cussions on ice problems occuring in lakes, rivers and also Arctic waters.
Many ice scientists who attend the IAHR-Symposium on Ice have established
over the years close personal communication and even friendship, which
makes this symposium different. This good attitude should be kept but not
misused; our community is and should be always open for young scientists to
join in.
More than one hundred papers of high quality have been accepted by the
Scientific Committee. Even though we have two parallel sessions, not all
papers can be presented in front of the audience due to time constraints.
Therefore some colleagues will take advantage ofthe new technique in
presenting and discussing their paper at poster sessions.
I regret very much that some colleagues, who have prepared very good papers
are not able to attend the Symposium Cuts in travel expenses is in most cases
the reason. I reali</!, however, that organisations would allow their scientists to
attend, ifthe conference would be on their continent. This is a very unfor­
tunate development, because it could lead to regionalizing our discussions on
ice engineering instead ofpu.tting together the efforts ofexperts from all over
the world
The papers which have been submitted by July 1st, have been pu.blished in
Volumes 1 and 2. Late submitted papers, invited lectures and discussions
during the coriference will be printed in Volume 3, while the State of the Art
Report of the Working Group on Ice Forces on Structures will be published
in Volume 4.
The Organizing Committee, the Scientific Committee, colleagues of the Ice
Engineering Department of the Hamburgische Schifjbau-Versuchsanstalt and
also the authors have pu.t much effort into the job making this Symposium
successfull. I would like to express my gratitude to all these colleagues,
especially to Mr. F.U Hausler, the chairman ofthe Scientific Committee,
and to Ms. K Keating, the Secretary ofthe Conference, for their excellent
work. Thanks also to the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft and the City of
Hamburg for their financial support.
I hope that all ofyou, who came to Hamburg, will keep this
7th IAHR Symposium on Ice and your stay in Hamburg in good
remembrance.

Dr. Joachim Schwarz

Chairman ofthe Organizing Committee
 INVITED LECTURES

B Michel (Canada)

Ice Engineering in 1984

QH Loken (Canada)

Environmental Problems in the Arctic

V. Bogorodsky (USSR)

Radio Echo Sounding Techniques and their Application

to Ice Problems

1 Schwarz (F.R.Germany)
Advancements in Icebreaker Technology

S. Beltaos (Canada)

River Ice Breakup

R. Frederking (Canada)

Exploration and Production Concepts and Projects

for Arctic Offshore

A. Assur (USA)

Necessary Tasks in Ice Engineering

 IAHR COMMITTEE ON ICE PROBLEMS

T. Carstens (Norway), Chairman
l-C llJtinc/aux (USA), Secretary

L. Bengtsson (Sweden) EU. Hiiusler (FRG)

V. Degtyarev (USSR) V.E. Lyapin (USSR)

M Drouin (Canada) M Miiiittiinen (Finland)

G. Frankenstein (USA) H Saeld (Japan)

R. Gerard (Canada) E. Zsilak (Hungary)

ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
1 Schwarz Hamburgische Schiffbau-Versuchsanstalt GmbH
(Chairman)
K-U Evers Hamburgische Schiffbau-Versuchsanstalt GmbH
(Treasurer)
E. Wessels Hamburgische Schiffbau-Versuchsanstalt GmbH.
O.Krappinger UniversiUit Hamburg, Hamburgische Schiffbau­
Versuchsanstalt GmbH
F. Wilckens Bundesministerium fur Forschung und 7echnologie
H Kohnen Alfred Ui!gener Institut fUr Polarforschung
KKmppa Ilxhnische Universitiit Berlin
K Kokldnowrachos Technische Universitiit Hamburg-Harburg
p. Larsen Technische Universitiit Karlsmhe

SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE
EU. Hiiusler Hamburgische Schiffbau- Versuchsanstalt GmbH
(Chairman)
l-H Hellmann Hamburgische Schiffbau- Versuchsanstalt GmbH
L. Hoffmann Hamburgische Schiffbau- Versuchsanstalt GmbH
HL. Jessberger Ruhr-Universitiit Bochum
M Miiiittiinen University of Oulu
K Strobing Deutsches Hydrographisches Institut
l-C llJtinc/aux US. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering
Laboratory
P. Tryde Technical University ofDenmark

Conference Secretary: K Keating

 SPONSORED BY
International Association jor Hydraulic Research

CO-SPONSORED BY

UNESCO

WMO - World Meteorological Organization

DFG - Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschajt

Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg

International Glaciological Society

Bundesminesterium jur Forschung und Jechnologie

International Association for Hydraulic Research

~ Association Intemationale de Recherches Hydrauliques

7th International Symposium on Ice

Hamburg

August 27-31,1984

organized by

Hamburgische Schiffbau-Versuchsanstalt GmbH

Hamburg, RR. Gennany

 To order the proceedings. write to:

Dr. Joachim Schwarz

Ice Engineering Department

Hamburgische Schiffbau-Versuchsanstalt GmbH

P.O. Box 60 0929

D-2000 Hamburg 60

W-Germany

Telex: 2174 236

The copyright jor the individual papers is held by its authors. The authors are
responsible jor the content oj their papers.
~

IAHR

Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

August 27 - 31~ 1984

Proceedings Vol I

 Seventh POAC Conference, Helsinki, Finland, pp 119-127 .

Murat, J.R., 197 8 . "La Capacitg Portante de la Glace de Mer" . Ph.D .
Thesis. Research Report # EP78-R-49, Ecole Poly technique , Montr~al.

Tinawi, R. and Murat, J.R., 1978 . "Sea Ice - Fle xural Creep". Pr ocee­
dings of the IAJ-IR Sympo s ium on Ice Problems. Lulea, Sweden, pp 49-75.
Timo s henko, S. and Woinowsky -Kreiger, S ., 1959. "Theo r y of Plates and
Shells". McGraw-Hill Book Co.
Vaudrey, K. , 1977 . "Determination of Mechanical Sea Ice Properties by
Large Scale Field Beam Experiments". Proceedings of the Fourth POAC
Conference, St.John's, Newfoundland, pp 529-543.

Table 1 Short term experimental results and evaluation of

effective tran s verse modulu s G.

Temp. Thickne s s Load Effective E Wf we We Computed G

°c mm N MPa eq. 1 ex perimental wf eq. 3
mm mm MPa

_ 5°C 107 4 577 3 370 .44 3.8 8.6 7 .1

-10°C 98 5 239 4 000 .52 2 .3 4.4 16.4
_20°C 120 6 403 5 190 .29 .69 2.4 8 9.3
_30°C 105 6 11 0 5 500 .39 .31 .79 66.3*

* Computed at 2 436 s ecs a fter load appl ication.

ring
neoprene
I.

lank

o 500mm
I I 1 I

Fig . 1 : Experimental set-up for testing simply s upported circular

plates in the laboratory.

109
 -5°C ,h=107mm
o
-" /
(a)
..,~.. ~,,-:-:-:-~ ...
-..;;:,. ..~. ::-=.!!- ." ==---
\.
\ .I
\ /
2 \ .I
\ / Experiment
\ / Shear madel, E = ­
3 \\ I / Flexural model,G=oo
',,- I

"/
•

E =75 kPa.s-
1

E = 37 .5 kPa. 5. 1
4 mm

-IO O C,h=98mm
(b) 0

2mm

-20°C, h :: 120 mm
o
( c)
-- ..
~

.--

l 5mm
·~.=t.:=/'?'~--
.... "
......

-30°C, h=105mm
".--?
, " .

( d) o L:;<'~ h

l
.~ -, .
~---.-=--
~~~ ----~ .. '.-.-::;­

.5mm

Fig. 2: Comparison of theoretical and experimental deflections of

s imply supported circular plate s under short term loading.

110
 -failure

80

E
E
c:
0 60
U
-..,
~
Q)
)( _5°C
8 _10°C
h=107mm
h = 98 mm
~ a -20°C h = 120mm
C 40
Q)
u o - 30°C h = 105 mm

20

o
o 2 4 6 8 10 days

Fig. 3: Long term central deflection s for the temperature range

of -SoC to -30 o e at a constant load of S 000 N.

Fig. 4: Failure of the plate after 20 minutes of loading at

-SaC.

111
 .1

Fig. 5: Long term transverse shear modulus G matching

the central deflection of the plate based on
equation 3.

112
 WlR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

INDENTATION SPALLING OF EDGE-LOADED ICE SHEETS

Evans, A.G. University of California,

Berkeley
Palmer, A.C. R.J. Brown and Associates
Goodman, D.J. British Petroleum
Ashby, M.F. Cambridge University
Hutchinson, J.W. Harvard University
Ponter, A.R.S. University of Leicester
Williams, G.J. R.J. Brown and Associates

Introduction

Ice has an extremely low fracture toughness, smaller than

that of glass. A consequence is that fracture and the
formation of broken fragments are extremely important in
most situations where ice comes into contact with
structures. This is consistent with superficial observation
in polar regions, where we see ice landscapes made up of
fragments and fracture surfaces.

In an earlier paper (Palmer et aI, 1983) we have presented a

tentative deformation mode map, which identifies conditions
under which fracture appears to be the dominant phenomenon,
and classifies different kinds of fracture. The scale and
mode of fracture that occurs when ice moves against a
structure depend on the aspect ratio of the contact, on the
relative velocity, and on the shapes of the contacting faces
of the structure and the ice. In the simplest geometry
(Figure 1), ice of uniform thickness T moves at a velocity
U, in such a way that the contact width is D; D and U can
both change during the process.

Only at very low ice velocities is behaviour governed by

creep rather than fracture. Intermediate velocities and low
aspect ratios DIT promote local crushing deformation, in
which the ice breaks into small fragments, whose dimensions
are all small by comparison with D and T, in a crushed
region which does not extend far from the contact. Higher
ice velocities and larger aspect ratios both tend to
increase the distances over which cracks propagate, so that
fracture affects a much wider area and fragments have
dimensions of the same order as D and T. If U and D/T are
both large, most of the cracks are radial and perpendicular
to the plane of the ice. The earlier paper used elementary
fracture mechanics to make quantitative estimates of the
forces required to propagate radial cracks, and showed that
they are quite small: for example, a 3 MN (300 tonne) force
can propagate a radial crack 100 m in 2 mice.

113
 Figure I : Problem Definition

At intermediate velocities and aspect ratios, a different

mode of fracture occurs: we call this indentation spalling.
Instead of being vertical (normal to the plane of the ice
sheet), the fractures are horizontal (parallel to the plane
of the sheet). The fracture sets off parallel to the surface
of the sheet, and further out curves up until it intersects
the surface, so that a semi-circular spall fragment breaks
away.

This paper presents a simple theory of indentation spalling,

and the results of some experiments.

Descriptive theory

First consider an idealised geometry, in which the rounded

face of a structure comes into contact with the plane edge
of an advancing sheet of ice: to simplify the description,
suppose that the ice sheet is horizontal, as it is in
nature. In the immediate local contact area, there is strong
triaxial constraint, which may be enough to suppress
fracture altogether. If it does not, the local ice will
crush, and form many small fragments. Figure 2a shows
schematically the stress components on cube elements close
to the contact: arrows of different lengths indicate the
relative magnitudes of the forces exerted on the elements by
the surrounding ice, and are shown only on the visible faces
of the elements. The contact is narrow by comparison with
the sheet thickness, and conditions close to the mid-plane
approximate plane s~rain.

~
w

Figure 2a: g'51------cc~-

t ICE
Stress components
~ I PLANE

A
on elements close
to contact

~D Figure 2b : Force
across

~
horizontal
plane

114
In the centre of the contact (cube C), the ice is compressed
radially and tranversely, and there is an induced vertical
compressive stress, because the ice is not fre e to deform
vertically. At the upper surface (cube A), the vertical
direct stress must be zero, and the horizontal stress
components are smaller, because there is no triaxial
constraint and the yield (or fracture) condition limits the
maximum difference between principal stress components. At
an intermediate level (cube B), the direct stress components
have intermediate values, while equilibrium requires the
presence of a shear stress, to balance the vertical
variation of vertical direct stress from zero at the upper
surface through a maximum at the middle to zero at the lower
surface. At the surfaces, however, those shear stress must
be zero.

Consider next a vertical section perpendicular to the edge

of the sheet (Figure 2b), and the force across a horizontal
plane. Close to the contact with the structure, there is a
vertical compressive force across such a plane, associated
with the vertical direct stre s s components in Figure 2a, but
further into the ice sheet there are balancing tensile
stress across the plane. There is an upward force on the ice
above the plane, and a downward force on the ice below the
plane. Consequently, if a horizontal crack were to coincide
with the plane, these equal and opposite forces would tend
to open the crack. At the crack tip, there would be a stress
concentration, and an associated stress intensity factor,
which would depend on the extent of the crack, the thickness
of the ice above and below it, and the crack-opening force.
If the crack were to open up in response to this force,
however, the vertical compressive stresses close to the
contact would fall, and the crack-opening force would be
reduced.

The following section of this paper puts forward a

semi-quantitative model, related to a previous analysis of
indentation fracture produced by normal indentation on
brittle solids (Lawn et aI, 1980). The ice is idealised as
an elastic-perfectly plastic material, characterised by a
yield stress Y and an elastic modulus E. Idealisations of
ice as perfectly-plastic are open to objection (Ponter et
aI, 1983), but in this context it seems better to start with
a simple model and introduce creep later. The treatment
should be seen primarily as a dimensional analysis, intended
to discover the form of the interdependence between the
different parameters involved, and the equations will omit
multiplying factors later to be determined by calibration
experiments. These experiments should ideally be carried out
on rate-independent brittle solids with well-characterised
fracture properties.

The analysis considers the location of the cracks beneath

the surface as a variable, and attempts to identify the
plane along which cracks are most likely to form. The
behaviour of cracks along the plane is then determined in

115
 terms of the applied loads and the fracture toughness and
plastic flow stress of the ice. Finally, some remarks
concerning the final spallation are presented.

Quantitative theory

Figure 3a shows an elastic-plastic edge indentation of a

sheet by a-rigid indenter, without any cracking. The
indentation force induces localised plastic deformation in a
plastic zone of radius b, related to the indentation volume
V per unit thickness and the radius a of the equivalent
circular indenter by
2
V '" a (1)

b!a '" (E!Y) l.; (2)

from plane-strain cavity expansion theory (Hill, 1950).

ELASTIC"] ( PLASTIC

Figure 3a Figure 3b
Edge indentation of an elastic­ Edge indentation of an
plastic sheet, before initiation elastic-plastic sheet,
of a crack after initiation of a
crack

Figure 3b shows the same situation, but now with a

horizontal semi-circular crack of radius c, at a depth of z
below the upper surface. The plastic region within the
radius b exerts a crack-opening force F on the semi-annular
region outside the plastic zone and above the crack. The
compliance of this region, defined as the ratio between the
force F and the corresponding relative vertical displacement
u, is

(3)

assuming that c is large by comparison to both band z, that

z is small by comparison with the sheet thickness T, and
that the semi-annular region can be treated as part of an
annular plate deformed in bending.

Elastic fracture mechanics (Knott, 1973) tells us that the

stress intensity factor K is related to the change of
compliance with respect to crack area by

116
 F2 d
(u/F)
21fc dc (4 )

and so

(5)

Hence, if the cracking were force-controlled, K would be

independent of the crack length c. However, as noted above,
as the crack length is increased, the crack-opening force F
will relax because of elastic unloading within the plastic
zone, and so

(6 )

where F is the initial force at zero opening and u is

the dis~lacement when the force is fully relaxed. C8mbining
equations (3) (5) and (6)

K '" F 0/ z3/2 (1
2 2
+ c F 0/EU o Z ) (7)

The next step is to determine u and F . This is first

done for cracks located at a deBth z<boand then for the
region z>b, because the cracking characteristics are
appreciably different in these two regions. On the
cylindrical boundary of the plastic zone, the shear stress
is of order of Y and the area of order bz. The initial
crack-opening force at depth z (z<b) is thus

F o '" Ybz ( 8)

Since the semi-cylindrical element within the plastic zone

and above depth z is in equilibrium, the force across its
lo~er surface is also "'Ybz, and the area of that surface is
"'b , and so the mean vertical stress is "'Yz/b. If this
stress were to relax elastically to zero, the mean elastic
strain in the vertical direction would be "'Yz/bE over a
distance z, and so an order-of-magnitude estimate of Uo is
2
o '" yz /bE
u (9 )

putting the values for Fo and U into equation (7)

o
bY
K ( 10)

which for sufficiently large cracks reduces to

7 2
K '" YZ / /c 2 b (11)

For any fixed value of b there is a de~th z at which K is a

maximum. This maximum occurs at "'(bc) , and represents a
balance between the reduction in K with z for a specified
force (equation (5» and the increase associated with
enhanced stiffness of the annular region. However, if z has

117
 a fixed value, K decreases as b increases. Consequently,
since b increases with increasing load, it follows that
horizontal cracks of fixed depth are stabilised by the
external loading. This behaviour parallels that seen in
normal indentation tests on brittle materials.

The linear increase in the crack-opening force with depth z

predicted by equation (8) can only apply close to the
surface, since (in plane strain) the axial stress in the
plasti c zone is ~ Y, and so the maximum crack-opening for c e
is ~ b2y (as can be seen by considering the equilibrium of an
element extending to a depth at which the deformation is
essentially plane strain). It follows that the
through-thickness variation of crack-opening force is like
that shown in Figure 4. In the central region (z >b)

F ~ b 2y (12)
0

u ~ Yb/E (13 )
0
whereupon
K ~ b 2y / z 3/2 (l 2 3
+ c b/z ) (14 )

which for large c becomes

K ~ Ybz 3 / 2 /c 2 (15)

K now increases as the indenter penetration increases, and

so cracks at constant depth continue to grow.

DEPTH

Figure 4

A physical argument for locating the crack depth recognises

that there is a plane of maximum crack-initiation stress
immediately below the zone of interface tractions, at the
elastic-plastic boundary. This suggests that the crack depth
z should scale as the plastic zone diameter b. Hence, from
equation (14)

( 16)

which if c is large compared to b reduces to

K ~ Yb 5 / 2 /c 2 (17)

118
Further, if K is equated to the critical stress-intensity
factor K ' the length of a propagating crack becomes
Ic
c ~ b5/4(Y/KIC)~ (18)

Cracks with this length are presumed to form at a depth b.

The cracks that form at smaller penetrations are partially
engulfed by the advancing plastic zone, and may heal by
sintering mechanisms.

If Y is taken as 5 MN/m' (a reasonable value for an

elastic-plastic idealisation of i7e loaded fairly rapidly),
and ~ Kr 3
c is -1/4 0.115 MN/m " the parameter
(Y/K ) iS 6.6 m . Hence, if the plastic zone
radiU~ b is 1 m, the crack length c from equation (18) is
6.6 m; the corresponding horizontal load on a 2 m thick ice
sheet is about 30 MN (3000 tonnes). If the plastic zone
radius is 3 m, c is 26 m and the corresponding load about 70
MN.

These results confirm the earlier conclusion that moderate

loads can propagate long cracks, because of the small
fracture toughness of ice although the associated local
contact pressures are high. However, there is an obvious
need to compare these results with experiments.

The final spallation requires that the crack extend to the

upper or lower surface of the ice sheet. This may occur when
the region above the crack plane buckles (Evans and
Hutchinson, 1984). It is also noted that a crack motivated
by the vertical force discussed in our analysis would not
normally be expected to propagate parallel to the surface,
but instead the crack would extend to the surface. However,
it is believed that the horizontal compression stabilises
the crack path within the sheet, until buckling pricipitates
the spall.

Some preliminary experiments

In a series of preliminary experiments to look for

indentation spalling, ice plate 25 mm thick were prepared by
grinding distilled water ice in a coffee mill, placing the
ground ice in a mold, flooding with precooled water and
freezing in a cold room at -12°C. The grain size was
approximately 2 mm, and the c-axis directions appeared to be
random. The ice plates were then sawn to 400 mm square, and
held on three sides in a steel "picture frame" mounted in a
cold box, held at -10°C, in a testing machine. The fourth
side was loaded by a 50 rom radius steel indenter, in contact
with the full thickness of the plate, with the indenter
cylinder axis normal to the plane of the plate.

119
 I~ . ~

1n0

!
D
•9 1. ~

.......'"
...z
D
~. O

l!!
2.~

0
0 10 20 30 40
INDENTER OISP\..ACEWENT (mm'

Figure 5 Observed relation between indenter load and

displacement. Numerals on curves indicate

indenter speed in mm/min.

Figure 5 shows the results: indenter force is plotted

against indenter displacement (measured from first contact
with the ice) for different indenter speeds. At low speeds
(0.2 and 1 mm/min) a small crushing zone forms immediately
below the indenter contact, and the ice breaks into very
small fragments (with a snow-like appearance), displaces
laterally, and reforms on either side of the plate. The load
rises rapidly at first, but later remains approximately
constant. Short radial cracks form, but do not reach the ice
surface.

At higher speeds (5 and 20 mm/min) there is still a local

crushing zone, but cracks 10 to 30 mm long form outside the
zone. At the highest speed (50 mm/min) a dramatically
different behaviour occurs. Chips of ice shoot out from
below the indenter: this appears to be associated with the
small load fluctuations seen in the record. Much less
frequently, ice scales 20 to 60 mm in diameter fall from the
plate when the loads are greatest. Spall formation reduces
the plate thickness, and the remaining wedge of ice is
. crushed before the next spall occurs. The maximum load is

less than it is for larger velocities, and occurs at a

larger displacement.

An alternative model of spalling

A recent report by Wierzbicki (1984) takes a different

approach to spalling and splitting of an ice plate. He
adopts a Griffith criterion for the propagation of a crack
in the middle plane, and concludes that the splitting load
is proportional to Kr IT. His calculations again confirm
that the forces requlfed for splitting are small, and he
suggests that this may explain the low forces reportedly
observed in some field measurements. The full relationship
between Wierzbicki's theory and the one we present here
remains to be explored, but we agree on the importance of
these phenomena.

120
Conclusion

Indentation spalling is observed in laboratory tests as well

as in the field. A simple semi-quantitative theory confirms
that the forces required to propagate spalling cracks are
relatively small. Because ice is subject to creep and
recrystallization, it is not well suited to the experiments
required to calibrate the theory, and this should be done by
edge-indentation tests on well-characterised materials.

Acknowledgement

The authors wish to thank British petroleum, who supported

this work under a research contract with the University of
Manchester Institute of Science and Technology, and have
given permission for publication, and Dr. T. Sanderson for
helpful comments on an earlier version.

References

Evans, A.G. and Hutchinson, J.W. 1984. International Journal

of Solids and Structures. In press.

Hill, R. 1950. The mathematical theory of plasticity.

Clarendon Press, Oxford.

Knott, J.F., 1973. Fundamentals of fracture mechanics.

Butterworths, London.

Lawn, B.R., Evans, A.G. and Marshall, D.B. 1980.

Elastic/plastic damage in ceramics : the median/radial crack
system. American Ceramics Society Bulletin. Vol.63 (9-60),
p. 574-581.

Palmer, A.C., Goodman, D.J., Asbhy, M.F., Evans, A.G.,

Hutchinson, J.W. and Ponter,A.R.S., 1983. Fracture and its
role in determining ice forces on offshore structures.
Annals of Glaciology, vol. 4, p. 216-221.

Ponter, A.R.S., Palmer, A.C., Goodman, D.J., Evans, A.G. and

Hutchinson, J.W., 1983. The force exerted by a moving ice
sheet on an offshore structure: Part I, the creep mode.
Cold Regions Science and Technology, Vol. 8, p. 109-118.

Wierzbicki, T. 1984. Ice loads on structures with crushing

and spalling failure. Report to Sohio Petroleum.

1~
 lAHR Ice Symposium 1984
Hamburg

FLEXURE OF ,t!" NON-HOMOGENEOUS

FLOATING ICE SHEET

I\.P.S. Selvadurai, Carleton University, Canada

Professor and Chairman, Ottawa,

Department of Civil Ontario, K1S 5B6

Engineering.

The structure of a floating ice sheet can dis~lay non-homogeneous proper­

ties, consistent with its natural development. ,Such non-homogeneities

can be either of the stratified type where the mechanical properties of

the ice sheet vary across its thickness or they can be of the spatial

type where cracks, flaws, brine inclusions etc., lead to ice sheets with

random mechanical properties. The present paper deals with the elasto­

static stress analysis of an ice sheet which exhibits a laminated

structure. Such lamination effects can be conveniently accommodated via

a thin plate theory which incorporates effective stiffness properties.

The paper examines the effects of material non-homoReneity on the

deflections and flexural moments in a floating ice sheet which is sub­

jected to an axisymmetric circular load of uniform intensity.

123
 Introduction
The mathe~atical theory of ela st ically supported pla tes serv es as a use­
ful first arproximation for the stress analysis of floating ice s heets
of relatively uniform thickn ess. Results of such analyses are used
quite extensively in engineering calculations involving floating ice
sheets used for transportation and exploration endeavours in the northern
environment. In classical treatments, the floating ice sheet is modelled
as a homogeneou s i so tropic elastic plate which satisfies the Poi sso n­
Kirchhoff thin plate theory. The classical results of Hertz (18fA),
Schleicher (1926) and others have been extensively applied for the
analysis of deforGation and failure of variou s problems associated with
floating ice sheets (see e.g. Wyman, 1950; Meyerhof 1960; Assur and
Weeks, 1972; Hutter, 1975 ; Kerr, 1975; Frederking and Gold, 1976; Topham,
E77; Gold, 1978; McCutcheon, 1979; Michel, 1979; Selvadurai, 197C:).
Other problems involving buckling and instability of floating ice
sheets under quasistatic loading can also be approached via the theory
of elastically supported plates (Kerr, 1'178 , 1980 ,19 81; Nevel, 1980).
Recent re sea rches indicate that naturally occurring ice sheets can
possess complex mechanical properties consistent with their natural
development. These non-homogeneities can be either of the stratified
type or of the random type. In the stratified type the ice sheet
po ssesses a layered structure which can reflect freeze-thaw cycles and
ice crystal growth in a salt ~Iater environment. In the spatial-type
microfi ss ures, cracks, brine inclusions, etc., can lead to random
non-homogeneity in the plane of the ice sheet. In general these non­
homogeneous floating ice sheets possess mechanical properties which
encompass traits Of. elastic, plastic and viscoelastic responses. The
generalized stress analysis of floating ice sheets which exhibit such
time-dependent non-linear phenomena can be contemplated with currently
available non-linear numerical stress analysis codes (Bazant, 1977;
Desa i and Chri s ti an, 1977; Gudehu s , 1977 ; Se 1 vadura i, 1979, 1984;
Noor, 1981). The linear elastic modelling, however, provides a useful
fir st approximation for the behaviour of floating ice sheets. This
paper examines the response of floating elastic plates which exhibit a
laminated structure. The elastic properties (elastic modulus and
Poisson's ratio) of the ice sheet are assumed to vary acro ss its thick­
ness in a continuous or discontinuous fashion. The layered plate is
modelled as a composite plate in which a s tate of plane stress exists in

124
each discrete layer. This model can be adopted to determine effective
stiffness properties for the layered ice sheet. The paper examines the
manner in which variations of the elastic modulus along the thickness of
the ice sheet influence the flexural deflections and fle xural moments
(or stresses) in an ice sheet which is subjected to a uniform circular
load.
The Layered Plate Model
The subject of layered elastic plates ha s received considerable
attention in connection with the stress analysis of laminated composites.
Extensive accounts of developments in this area are given by Pister and
~ong (1959), Calcote (1969), Szilard (1974), Christensen (1979) and

Bert (1983). In the simplest layered plate theory each la~ination obeys
assumptions of the classical small deflection Poisson-Kirchhoff thin
plate theory. The shear deformation effects in each layer are neglected.
It is also assumed that the individual layers are isotropic and that
displacement continuity is maintained between the individual layers.
Using the assumption of the thin plate theory, the strain-displacement
relationship for the ith layer (Figure 1) can be written in the form
(i)
EXX
a2 w
-z,- (1)
1 ax 2
;)2 \<
-Z,- (2)
1 ;)y2

(i ) aw
-z,--
2
(3)
£xy
1aXdY

where E~~) is the strain tensor, w(x,y) i s the deflection of the layered
plate and zi is the location of the ith layer from the upper surface of
the plate. The state of stress in each layer is assumed to be one of
two-dimensional plane stress in the x-y plane. For the ith layer we have
(i ) _E_i_ [E ( i) + v' E( i )] (1\ )
°xx (1-v 2 ) XX 1 yy

(i) ~ [£(i) + v,£(i)] (5)

0yy (1- v 2 ) yy 1 XX

(i ) _E_i_ [£ (i) J . (6)

°XY (l+v ,) xy
1

The stress resultants and couples can now be defined as for a homogeneous
plate (see e.g. Timoshenko and Woinowsky-Krieger, 1959; Selvadurai, 1979)

125
 by integrating (4)-(6) over each layer and summing the resulting
exp ression s over the n layers. The internal moments are given by

"'x
My
)= 1=1 ~ ;i ! o~x )
h1 _ 1 0yy
z dz.
(7)

Mxy O~y
Performin~ the integrations and grouping the appropri ate terms we have
* a 2~1 * a­ 2w
M
x
-0 - - o (8)
ax 2 v ay2

My = -0 *
a'w 0* -a'~1 (9)
ay2 v ax 2

MXY = -(0 * -0 * )_O_w

", _ . (10)
v axay
The constants 0* and 0v* can be expressed in the following form s:

D* D - CK l - CvK
Z
(11 )
*
0v
0v - C}l CK 2
BC-B C _ BC v -B vC

K =~ K2 (12 )
1 (82_82) - (8 2_8 2 )
v v
N Ei
8 I
i=l
- - (h . -h. 1)
(l-v') 1 1­
1 ( 13)
II E. v.
1 1 1)
8
v L
i=l
--(h.-h.
(1-v 2) 1 1­
1

C "I
i =1
_E_i_
2(1-v 2)
(h2_h~ )

11-1

1
(14 )
II E.v.
C = L
1 1 (h 2-h 2_ )
v i=l i i 1
2(1-vj)

126
 N E
D L __i - (h~-h3 )

i=l 3(1-v~) 1 1-1

1 (15 )

D
v
= I~
i=l 3(1-v~)
(h 3 _h 3
1 1-1
).
1

Considering the equilibrium of the floating plate it can be shown that

the differential equation governing the flexural deflection of the
layered plate takes the form
D*V 2 V2 W(X,y) + YW(X,y) = p(X,y) (16 )
where y is the unit weight of water and p(x,y) is the external transverse
load. The differential equation (16) therefore has the same basic form
as that governing the flexure of a homogeneous plate supported by dense
fluid of unit weight y. The techniques and results derived for the
examination of the homogeneous plate can therefore be conveniently
adopted for the analysis of plates which exhibit a laminated composite
structure . These procedures are straightforward and in the ensuing
sections attention will be focussed on assessing the influences of
specific forms of laminated structuring on the elastic response of a
floating ice sheet.
Axisymmetric Loading of the Layered Ice Sheet
In this section we examine the influence of elastic non-homogeneity of
the ice sheet by considering certain basic solutions related to the axi­
symmetric loading of an ice sheet. We consider the problem of a
floating ice sheet of thickness h which is subjected to a uniform surface
load of radius c and stress intenSity Po' The analysiS of the problem
is classical and the results are given by Schleicher (1926), Wyman (1950),
Michel (1979) and Selvadurai (1979). The analysis presented by
Selvadurai (1979) employs a generalized treatment which is applicable
to elastic plates of infinite extent which rest on linearly deformable
elastic media of either the Winkler or continuum type and which are
subjected to axisymmetric loads with an arbitrary shape (Figure 2).
By employing a Hankel-transform development of the governing differential
equation (16) it can be shown that the solution for the deflection of
the floating composite plate can be written in the form
3 ~ p*(~)J (~r/a)d~
w( r) = -a J _----,--"0'---_ _ ( 17)
D* 0 [~4 + 6]

127

where
{', =
a\
-*- ( 18)
D

p*( ~ ) = ~ f ~p(~)Jo( ~~/a )d ~ ( 19)

a 0
and a is a typical length para~eter in the problem . In the particular
case when p(r) = Po = const., the integral (17) takes the form (see e.g .
Selvadurai (1979) Appendix B)
Po c r 'c r' c
w(r) = ~l?bero(I)kero(I)-beio( I)keio(I)J}; r < C (20)
and

w(r) = yPo c r 'c r' c

("iCkero(I)bero(I)-keio(I)beio(I)]}; r > c (21)

\~here

9.4 = Q* (22)
y
and kero(x), keio(x), bero(x) and beio(x) are related to the zeroth-order
Bessel function s of the first and second kind with imaginary arguments.
The terms ker~(x), kei~(X) etc., are derivatives of the respective
functions. The various series expansions for these functions are
summarized in Appendix 1 of the paper. The re sults of some engineering
interest are the deflection of the composite ice sheet and the flexural
moment at the centre of the uniformly loaded region. It can be shown
tha t

(23)

and
M (0) Me (0) ( 1+v*) 9. .' c
ii;(O) = _r_
2
=-- = - - - kel (-) (24)
pc P c2 2 c 0 9.
o 0
\~here v* = * *.
DjD
The elastic non-homogeneity in the sheet i s assumed to be such that the
Poisson's ratio in each elemental layer is considered to be constant and
that E(z) varies either linearly or non-linearly across the thickness of
the plate in a continuous fa s hion. In the nonlinear case, it is assumed
that the elastic modulus varies in quadratic fasion. The specific
variations are
(25a)
E(z) = Eo (1 + ~z)

128
and
2
E(z) = Eo {l + az } (25b)
h2
respectively. The factor a can be altered to give variations of elastic
modulus which either increase or decrease with depth. When the modulus
of elasticity decreases with depth the maximum value of a is unity,
this avoids the occurrence of negative modulu s values in the layered
ice sheet.
The analytical results developed for the central deflection and the
central moment in the layered ice sheet due to the circular load were
also compared with results of a finite element study in which thin plate
bending elements with interelement compatibility of slope and curvature
are incorporated. The effective stiffness parameters for the various
distributions of elastic constants have been calculated by using results
(11)-(15); for the linear variation
E h3 2
0* = 0 0. +60.+6 ]
[ (26)
2
12(1-v ) 3{2+a)
and for the quadratic variation
E h3
0* = 0 (190. 2 +760.+60) ]; ov* *
v D. (27)
20(3+20.)

Numerical Results
We employ the equations presented in the previous section to develop
certain numerical results which will illustrate the manner in which
elastic non-homogeneity in the ice sheet influences the flexural
deflection and flexural moment at the centre of a uniformly loaded region.
The Figure 3 shows the variation of w(O) with the non-homogeneity factor
a and a relative stiffness parameter ~ which is defined by
Eo

~ = Yh
(28)
These results indicate that the layered structure of the plate which
manifests in the form of an elastic non-homogeneity has a significant
influence on the deflection at the centre of the uniformly loaded region.
As expected, the difference between the deflection, at the centre of the
loaded area, for the homogeneous plate and the equivalent results for the
non-homogeneous plate becomes appreciable when 0.<1. In the range 0<0.< 1
the type of variation in the modulus of elasticity (i.e. linear or
quadratic) has no significant effect on the deflection at the centre of

129
 the uniformlly loaded region. The flexural moments developed in the non­
homogeneous ice sheet are of importance to the assessment of potential
fracture or failure of the ice sheet (see e.g. Meyerhof, 1960). The
results presented in Figure 4 illustrate the manner in which the flexural
moment at the centre of the uniformly loaded region is influenced by the
elastic non-homogeneity of the ice sheet. Again, the distinction between
results for the homogeneous and non-homogeneous cases becomes appreciable
when C1 + -1. An increase in the relative rig .i dity parameter results,
respectively, in the reduction of the deflections of the ice sheet and an
increase in the flexural moment. The Figures 3 and 4 also contain results
of the finite element analysis of the problem of a floating thin plate
possessing an equivalent flexural stiffness consistent with the elastic
non-homogeneity. These numeri ca 1 resu lts compa re qu ite fa vou rab ly with
the analytical results.
Conclusions
This paper examines the problem related to the axisymmetric loading of a
floating ice sheet which exhibits a composite structure. Such a composite
structure can result from various stages in the development of the ice
sheet. In general, it is desirable to examine the stress analysis of
the problem by recourse to a theory of elasticity associated with a non­
homogeneous region. An alternative to such an analysis would be to treat
the ice sheet as a laminated plate which exhibits elastic non-homogeneity.
The layered plate theories currently available in the literature can be
conveniently adopted for the analysis of the floating plate problem.
The numerical results presented in the paper illustrate the relative
importance of elastic non-homogeneity on the deflections and moments
developed in the floating ice sheet.
References
Assur, A. and Weeks, W.F., 1972. Fracture of lake and sea ice. In

Liebowitz, H. (ed.) Fracture: An Advanced Treatise, Vol. 7, Ch. 9,

Academic Press, New York.

Bazant, Z.P . , 1977. Finite element for nonlinear creep, large deflection
buckling and cracking of plates on fluid foundation. In T-S. Chang (ed.)
Recent Advances in Engineering Science, Vol. 8, Proceedings of the lOth
Annual Meeting of the Society of Engineering Science, Raleigh, N.C.,
pp. 401-408.
Bert, C.W., 1983. Comparison of new plate theories applied to laminated

130
 composites. In Dvorak, G.J. (ed.) Mechanics of Composite Materials ­
1983 AMD Vol. 58, pp. 9-17.
Calcote, L.R., 1969. The Analysis of Laminated Composite Structures,
Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
Christensen, R.M., 1979 . Mechanics of Composite Materials., John Wiley,
New York.
Desai, C.S. and Christian; J.T., 1977 (eds.) Numerical Methods in Geo­
technical Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Frederking, R. and Gold, L.W., 1976. The bearing capacity of ice covers
under static loads. Canadian Journal Civil Engineering, Vol. 3,p.288-293.
Gold, L.W., 1978. Ice pressures and bearing capacity. In Andersland, O.B.
and Anderson, D.M. (eds.) Geotechnical Engineering for Cold Regions,
Ch. 10, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Gudehus, G., 1977 (ed.), Finite Elements in Geomechanics, John Wiley,
London.
Hertz, H., 1884. On the equilibrium of floating elastic plates (in
German). Annals of Physics and Chemistry, Vol. 22. p. 449-455
Hutter, K. , 1975 . Floating sea ice plates and the significance of the
dependence of the Poisson's ratio on brine content. Proceedings of the
Royal Society Series A, Vol. 343, p. 85-108.
Kerr, A.D., 1975. The bearing capacity of floating ice plates subjected
to static or quasistatic loads; a critical survey . Research Report 333,
CRREL, Hanover, New Hampshire.
Kerr, A.D., 1978. On the determination of horizontal forces a floating ice
plate exerts on a structure. Journal of Glaciology, Vol. 20, p. 123-134.
Kerr, A.D., 1980. On the buckling force of ice plates. In Tryde, P. (ed.)
Proceedings of the IUTAM Symposium on the Physics and Mechanic s of Ice,
Springer Verlag, Berlin.
Kerr, A.D., 1981. Remarks to the buckling analysis of floating ice sheets.
In Michel, B. (ed.) Proceedings IAHR Symposium on Ice, Quebec City,
Vol. 2, p. 932-937.
McCutcheon, D.M., 1979. Use of ice cover as an airstrip in the Thelon
River Valley by the Canadian Armed Forces. In Proceedings of the
Workshop on the Bearin9 Capacity of Ice Cover, Winnipeg, Manitoba,
p. 224-231.
Meyerhof, G.G., 1960. Bearing capacity of floating ice sheets. Journal of
Engineering Mechanics Division, Proc. ASCE, Vol. 86, p. 113-145.
Michel, B., 1979. Ice Mechanics, Laval University Press, Quebec City.

131
 Nevel, D.E . , 1980. Bending and buckling of a wedge on an elastic
foundation. In Tryde, P. (ed.) Proceedings IUTAM, Symposium on the Physics
and Mechanics of Ice, Springer Verlag, Berlin.
Noor, A.K., 1981. Survey of computer programs for solution of nonlinear
structural and solid mechanics problems. Journal of Computers and
Structures, Vol. 13, p. 425-465.
Pister, K.S. and Dong, S.B., 1959. Elastic bending of layered plates.
Journal of the Engineering Mechanics Division, Proc. ASCE, Vol.85,
p. 1-10.
Schleicher, F., 1926. Kreisplatten auf Elastischer Unterlage, Springer,
Berlin.
Selvadurai, A.P.S., 1979. Elastic Analysis of Soil-Foundation Interaction:
Developments in Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 17, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Selvadurai, A.P.S., 1984. Soil-structure interaction. In Bell, F.G. (ed.)
Ground Engineers Reference Book, Ch. 46, Butterworth, London.
Szilard, R., 1974. Theory and Analysis of Plates; Classical and Numerical
Methods, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
Topham, D. R., 1977. The deflection of an ice sheet by a submerged gas
source. Journal Applied Mechanics, Trans. ASME, Vol. 44 , p. 279-284.
'Wyman, M., 1950. Deflections of an infinite plate. Canadian Journal of
Research, Vol. 28, p. 293-302.

132
Appendix 1
The series expansion for the functions bero(x). beio( x) etc .• take the
fo 11 owi ng forms.
x4- x8
be ro ( x ) = 1 - -- + ---;c--::-'-'----;,---oo­
22.4 2 22.42.6 2 .8 2

(0. 1159- ~n(x))bero(x) + ~ beio(x)

2 c

_ ~ (lJ-) + (x/2)U (1~1..)-

22 2 22.32 .42 2 3 4

(O.1159-~n(x))beiO(x) - f bero(x)
6
+ (x/2)2 - ~ (1~) + ...
22 . 32 2 3

_ ~ + 8x
7
22.4 2 22.42.6 2 .8 2
, 2 6x 5
beio(x) = 2~ - 2 2 2 + . . .
2 ·4 ·6
1
-x bero( x) + (a . 1159-~n(x))bero(X) I
+
'IT I
4 beio(x)
_ 4(x/2)3 (1+1..) + S(x/2)7 (1~)-
23 2 23.32.42 2 3 4

- ~ beio(x) + (O.1159- ~n(x))bei~( x )

5
+ llill_ ~
3 3
(l+W) + ...
2 2 .3 2 3

133
 p{x ,y)

Figure 1. Geometry of the laminated plate .

r laminated ice sheet

------------------------------------­
. ~
~
water

Figure 2. Axisymmetric loading of a floating ice sheet of infinite extent.

134
 w(0)xl0 2

quadratic variation 2c
of E(z) I- ...
I
I linear variation of
I E(z)
finite element results

-:;;;=' water ­
z ~ (l Eo (unit weight y )
E
oj> _ 0
- yh
2.0
w(O) = clQl
p/y

1.0
- --

-1. -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1. 0

Figure 3. Influence of elastic non-homogeneity on the deflections of the

i ce sheet at the centre of the loaded region.

135
 --
O.BO

0.60
'"" 2c

quadratic variation

of Eez)
0.40

linear variation

of E(z) water
(unit weighty)
--....- finite element resul ts

Eo
0.20 ~ = yh

=
M_(0)
_r _
M(O)
Poc 2

-1.0 -O.B -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 O.B 1.0
Cl

Figure 4. Influence of elastic non-homogeneity on the flexural moment in

the ice sheet at the centre of the loaded region.

136
ICE FORMATION

 WlR lee Symposium 1984

Hamhurg

QUIET FREEZING OF LAKES AND THE

CONCEPT OF OR IENTATION TEXTURES

IN LAKE ICE SHEETS

Anthony J. GO>l U.S. Army Co ld Regions USA

Research Ge ologist Research and Engineering
Laboratory

ABSTRACT
Several years observations of the crystalline structure of ice
sheets forming on a number of Ne>l En gland lakes i ndicate that just
t>lO major types of con ge lation ice are formed during qui et (non-turbulent)
freezing of lake >later. These are: (1) ice sheets characterized by
the growth of massive prismatic crystals exhibiting vertical or ·near-vertical
c-axes probably equivalent to so-called Sl ice and (2) ice sheets composed
predominantly of vertically elongated crystals exhibiting horizontally
oriented c-axes, so-called columnar i c e or S2 ice. In this context
of qUiet freezing of lakes it >las also determined that co lumnar textures
are al>lays associated >lith horizontal c-axis orientations of the crystals,
>lhereas the development of c-axis vertical orientation is invariably
linked >lith the growth of massive crystals. These observations have
fostered the concept of orientation t extures . To ascertain hO>l difference
in orientation texture might be generated several ice sheets >lere grown
in a test tank in >lhich the >later could be cooled uniformly to any
desired temperature bet>leen 4°C and COC prior to freezing. 'riater that
had been spray-seeded to initiate fre ez ing al>lays produced S2 type
ice and t his orientation texture developed regardless of the thermal
condition of the .~ter column. Unseeded or spontaneously nucleated
ice growth al>lays yielded macrocrystalline, Sl type ice. Results of
these experi ments strongly suggest that the cr ystalline ·s tructure of
ice on quietly frozen lakes is pre-determined by meteorological events
occurr ing immediatel y prior to freezing and, that atmospheric seeding
leads to the formation of S2 ice >lith subs tantially horizontal c-axes
and that l ack of seeding (spontaneous nucleation) produc es Sl ice exhibiting
vertical c-axes.
137
 I N'l'RODUCTTOH
Freezing of lake water is kno;m to yie l d ice sheets with varia bl

crystal structure. Even s mall variati ons in st ructur e ( '~hl ch i ncludes

the textural character ist ic s, such as size and shape of crys t als , as

well as their c-axis ori entati on) can exercise a significant i nfluence

on t he mec hanical properties of an ice cover, piI"ticularly its strengt h.

E'fen the extent to whi ch an ice sheet weakens when s ubjected to eleva t ed

temperatures and solar r adi ation a lso depends on str ucture since some

te>~ures are more conducive to inter nal me l ting and grain boundary candling

than others. For t hes e reas ons it i s impo r tant to understand t he physical

nature of the fr e e ~ing proces s and he variations in crystal structure

that result when todies o f water suc h as small l akes , impoundments, and

ponds under go quiet (non-turbulent ) fr ee zi ng .

Lake ice sheets ar e cornpoaed typically of two maj or component s ,

snow ice and lake i c e. Snow i c e f orms by fr eezing of water -s oaked snow
depo s i ted on top at' a pr eexisting ice sheet, wher eas lake ice is for med
by direct freezing of lake ~~ter . In thi s paper we confine ourselves
to obs er vat ions of the s truc r al characteristics of the lake ice compo nent.
Thes e s tudies were s ubs equently extended to investlgations of ic e s heets
gro;m in a test tank. Result s that follow a r e oosed primarily on exami nations
of thin sections of lce , using polarized light techniques simi lar t o
those us ed in conventional petrographic in vestigations of r ock thin sections.
OBS ERVATIONS OF CRYSTAL STRUCTURE IN LAKE ICE SHE
Result s of the present work r epresent sever al years observati ons

on a number of s mall lakes in New Hampshire and VerlOOnt . These ob­

servations began with studi es of ic e structure on Post Pond and Ma s coma

Lake in 1973-74, a nd were subsequently e xtended t o a nwnber of other

lakes in New Hampshir e and Ver mo nt. A ma jor foc us of' the wor k was at

Post Pond where crys al structur e of the ice has been examined several

times at s evera l different l oca tions every winter betw en 1972 a nd 1984.

Typi cally , freeze-u p on Pos t Pond begins wi th gr owth o f a 4-5 cm

t hi ck i ce sheet, genera lly at night under c ear, cold and calm conditions.
Such free zi ng usually produces two d i s tinc ti ve habits o f crys t al , needle- li ke
and tabular. Our obser vations indic ate that the tabular crystals are
nuc leated only after a network of cross-c ut ting needles has bec ome esta b­
l i shed on top of the water. Subsequent downward growt h o f the needles
leads to t he for mati on of bladed crystals , exhibi ting hori zontal and
subhor izo n al c- a xi s orientati on. Tabular crystals hy contrast possess

138
substan ial y vertIcal c-axi s orientati ons and in the e leven years that
ice growth has' been moniwl"ed on Po:;L Pnn. bhe struct ure of the i e has
been domi nated by c- axis vertica l crysta ls . Occa ionally in the top 10
cm of i c e fr inging t he shore cr ysta l s were orlented with their c-axes
or i ented hor i "ontaily hi Ie .he bulk of the lake "as freezing "'ith a
vertical c-2.xis S I·uc t ure . However c-a Xis hori zo nt a l growth '" as i nvaria.bly
interrupt ed by the ppearance of c- axis ve ti cal crystaJs which wo uld
cont i nue t grow rapidl..v at the expense o f the c- a xis horizontal crystals
until the latter " ere enti reJy e liminated by 15 cm epth . This elimlnati on
of c-aXis hor izontal erys als by c- aXis verti cal crystals is pr ecisely
the re verse of that r epor t ed by Ragl e (1963 ) for Post Pond during the
1956-57 winter and which obse atioDs were referen ed by Ketcham and
Hobbs (1967 ) as supporting thei r experi e ntal work , purportin ~o s how
that t he preferred or jentati ons of i ce in lakes should be one in which
hori zontal c- axes credominate . Rowever Ketcham and Hobbs ignored a large
body of litera ture, especially studies by Russian re ear chers that sho~ed

that ei her c- axis horizont al or c- axis vel' leal cr ystal orienta ions
can doml .ate lB-l\e ice s tructure . The Ket cham and lIobbs st dy '. as 00s
primar ily on t3e analysis of orien at! n changes in pai rs of adjacent
grains . Such a !'ocess, how ver , does not appear a fair reproduc ion
of ic e gr owth conditions as th ey act ually occur during the qui et fr eeziog
of lake wat er.
Examples of ic e structure obs erved in the everal lak s monitor ed
in the current s t udy are shown i n Figures 1 t o 4. Figure 1 f eatures
vel" leal secti ons of columnar , c- axis ho izontal struc tur e in t m'ee different
lake ic e sheets. Wedging out of crys ~, l eading LO substantial i nc r eas es
in the s ize of crystals 'Nith depth 1n the ic e are a charac teris ti c fea ore
of this ice t ype. This ·"edging out process has been termed geometric
selection by Shownsky (1955 ) t o explain the cutting- off and progressive
elimination of t hos e grains believed to be less favorably orient ed than
their ne ighbors. In the case of the Mascoma Lake profile crysta l size
increased 10-fo ld be"!;ween 5 a nd 23 cm . However , as dernonstr at . in Figure
2 the three fabr i c s ectio ns show little difference i n their over a ll c - ay~s

distribut ions , implying that orientat on per se is not the controlling

factor in det ermin ing geometri c selectioD among crystals .
An example o f struc ture i n a ver ti cal s ection , together with the
correspondi ng st r atigr a hic section of ice from the center of Mas coma

139
 MASCOM/\ LAKE LAKE FAIRLEE

9 CM

B POST POND

23 CI1
11 CM

Fi gure 1. Vert i cal thi n section. of columnar , horizontal c- a xis i ce

rom three New England l akes . Symbo ls A Band C beside the f/<as coma
La ke s ection indicate depths f om whi ch hor <zontal sectio in
Fi gure 2 were obta ined . Fine gra · ned ice a the t p of each section
is snow i ce .

140
 !~,
r' ~.

- ' j.-­

",

5 eM

, "

"
"
: . .-~

"

-+­
I
I

':­
.; : "

Figure 2 . Crystalline textur es and c- axis fabl'.i c p ots of thr ee hor iz­
ontal thin s ections o ~ S2 type ice from lI.a.s coma lake, New Hampshi r e.
Small es t eale subdivisions in phot o at 23 em measure 1 rom .

141
 L9.k.e , is shown in Figure 3. In this instance th e str-uctur e is domin9.ted
by the gro,Jth of massive crystals exhibiti ng a fibrous, s t riated appear ­
ance and with thei r c-axes or ie nted vertically. Layers of bubbles, related
to fluctuation i n freezing ve l oc i t y, character ize the stratirrraphic section
but such fluc tuations don 't appear to exert any detectable effect on
the continuity of crysta l gr oWth . A hori zontal thin section and its
corresponding c - axi s fabr ic are also pres ented. The c-s.xis distribution
shows the fabr ic is strongly skewed towards a vert ica l orientation, and
to which, the entire ice sheet reverts less than 4 cm below the t op

100,---------.----------,

eo

-
.E
"
60

o~
o· 45· 90·
Inclination of C-Ax., f,om Hotizontot

28 eM

Figure 3 . Stratigraphi c a nd c rys tal struc ture sec ions of 81 ice from
~las coma Lake . The symbols Cv nd Ch refer to crys alE with vertical and
hor i zontal c-axes r e s e c ive ly .

142
of the lake i ce comIPnent. Fi gure~' oe ic e from Post Pond exempli fies
s imultaneous gro.~h of horizont a l and vertical c-axis crystals and the
resultant e limina i on of "he for mer by vert l cal c-axis crystals with in
10 cm of the t op of the lake ice component . The c-axis distribution
diagram also illustrates the tightly oriented condit ion of crystals with
vert i cal c-axes and t he somewhat mo re dispersed nature of crystals with
c-axes t r endi ng t owards hor i zontal .
A listing of the domi nant crystal orientations of ice sheets for
t he s i x la ke6 s tudied s1.nc:e th e '.int er of 1973 -7~ is presented in Table
1. The predominant i ce s t ructure fo r t is syst em of la.kes, a ' l located
"ithin 8. circ le of radius of 25 kilomet ers, i s c-axis verti cal . The only
exc ept ion ws Cannan Street Lake wher e "i'nter ic e covers composed of
hor i zontal c-a x! c ystals exceeded those with vert i cal c-axes, f'i ve
t o four .

100,---- -----,--------,

eo

60

1:
°O~·,--~==~~4~5·~-- 9~
• -"Inclinalion 01 C-AlI.8s from Horizontal

Figure ~. Verti cal a nd hor i zonta l s truc t ure s ect ions of Sl i ce from
Post Pond , Ne" Hampshir e.

143
 TABLE J.
PREDOMINANT (- AXI S ORIENTATIONS
IN ICE (OVERS Of SEVERAL HEW ENGLAND LAKE S

YEARS
LAKE ' 74 '75 '7F. '77 '78 '79 ' Il() 'Rl 'az 'B~ '8~ IC,
POST Cy Cy Cy Cy Cy Cy Cy Cy Cy Cy Cy 100
POND
I'\ASCOHA Cy Cy Cy CH Cy Cy Cy Cy Cy 88
CANAAN Cy Cy Cy CH CH CH CH Cy CH 44
CRYS­ C, C, C, CH C, C, C, C, C, 88
TAL
110REY Cy Cy Cy CH Cy CH Cy CH Cy Cy 70
FAIR­ CH Cy Cy Cy Cy Cy Cy Cy Cy Cy 90
lEE

% Cy 100 83 100 100 33 83 67 83 83 100 83

Cv = CORRESPONDS TO VERTICAL C-AXES} S1 icE.

CH = CORRESPONDS TO HORIZ ONTAL C-AXES", S2 ICE.

Results of l on term s tudies of a number of New Engla nd Lakes thus

ind i cat e t hat ,just two major ic e t ypes are for med during qui et (non-tur­
bu l ent) fre ez ing of lake water . The s e are: (1) l ce s heets composed
predominantly of mas sive, pr1S llllltic crystals exhibit i ng vertical c-axes
and equi valent to the so-c alled 8 1 ice in the Mic hel and Rams ei er ( 1971)
c laSsi ficati on of r i ver and la ke ice and (2) ice she ets consistinG mainly
of vertic al ly elongated crysta ls with s ubsta nt i a l ly hor izontal c-s.xis
ori enta t i ons and corres pondi ng in structure to 82 ice of Nichel and
Ramse i.er. In t he case of 8 1 i ce ind i vidual crystal s may exceed a me ter
or more in diameter, lead ing to t he forma tion of ice sheets with sub­
stantially single crystal structure. I n 82 ice however the cross-sectional
diameter s of the columnar crystals rare l y e xceed 2 cm.
I n this context of quiet freezing of l akes it would a ppear that
hori zontal c-axis orientations of the crystals are a.lways associat ed
wi th columna.r growth textures '.hereas vertical c - axi s orientat ions are
i nvariably linked with growth of mas sive Ir13.crocrystalline ice. I n this
sense lake ice can be s ' i d to possess an or ie ntation texture. 8uch a
concept 1s i mplici t in sever al modern c l as s ifications of lake ice, for
exampl e Michel and Rarnseier (1971) and Cherepanov (1974), but the close
connection bet ,.,een texture and orientation has not been genera l ly
a p reciat ed and few att empt s seem to have been made to ascertain experi­

144
mentally how differences in ice type are generated, or what the precise
nature of the mechanisms are that control orientation textures in quietly
frozen water.
Some field evidence exists to indicate that orientation texture
is linked critically to meteorological events occurring immediately prior
to the onset of freezing, for example, seeding of the surface by ice
crystals originating in the atmosphere, or by nucleation occurring in
the absence of seeding. Additionally, both Shoumsky (1955) and Cherepanov
(as quoted in Lavrov (1971)) have suggested that the thermal regime of
the water plays a significant role in determining the freezing character­
istics of the water. To this end a series of experiments were conducted
in a 7m x 7m refrigerated tank filled with water to a depth of 1.2m.
The water used in these tests contained the same concentration of dissolved
solids as that found in local lakes. A circulating pump installed in
the bottom of the tank was used to cool down the water column uniformly
to any desired temperature between 4°c and OoC. As soon as the desired
isothermal temperature had been achieved the pump was turned o ff and
the air above the tank lowered to -20°C to promote freezing. This freezing
was initiated either by spray-seeding the s urface of the water with frozen
droplets or by allowing surface crystallization to nucleate spontaneouslY.
Ice sheets were allowed to grow to thicknesses of between 9 and 11 cm
before preparing samples for sectioning and crystallographic examination.
CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURES IN SIMULATED FRESH WATER ICE SHEETS
Water that was spray-seeded prior to freezing in the tank invariably
produced S2 type ice, that is,columnar-textured ice with substantiallY
horizontal c-axes (see Figure 5). Further, this orientation texture
always developed regardless of the thermal condition of the water prior
to seeding. Seeding, leading to the rapid formation of a surface skim,
prevents any significant growth of crystals in the horizontal direction
and promotes instead growth of i ce i n the vertical, i.e., the direction
of heat flow. This corresponds to the ~ or basal plane direction of
growth which is also the direction of fastest growth of these crystals.
The intensity of seeding determines the crystal size in i tially as shmm
in Figur e 5 but the thermal regime of the water column appears to exercise
little effect on the size of crystals at any stage of the growth proces s .

145
 A

3.5 CM

Figur e 5. Vert i cal str ucture

s ec tions rom t wo s i mulated 82 type
ice sheets gr ovn i n th e t est basi n
at eHREL. The two sect i ons to t he
r ight of ver t ica l section A ar e fr om
t he t op nd bot t om of the ice sheet .
Smallest s cale s ubdi visions in the
f ine- grained sect ion measure lmm.

10.5 CM

146
 Unseeded or spontaneously nucleated ice growth was observed, without
exception, to produce ice sheets composed substantially of large prismatic
crystals exhibiting vertical or near-vertical c-axis orientation (see
Figure 6). In these instances ice formation was initiated by growth
of needle-like crystals that ultimately intersected to form a network
that sets the stage for water between the needles to freeze as single
crystal plates with a predominantly vertical c-axis orientation. The
resultant ice skim consists generally of less than 30% needle crystals
which may continue to grow downward as bladed crystals exhibiting horizontal
or near-horizontal c-axis orientations. However, in volumetric terms,
the dominant ice crystal form at this stage is the vertical c-axis plate.
These plates continue to grow downward in competition with the bladed
crystals, ultimately eliminating them, as demonstrated in Figure 6.
As with seeded ice sheets the thermal regime of the water column seems
to exert no significant influence on the c-axis vertical growth form.
This was perhaps the most surprising result, especially in light of references
frequently made in the literature as to the importance of thermal regime
in controlling textures of ice forming on lakes. A total of 15 separate
ice sheets (8 seeded, 7 unseeded) were grown in the refrigerated tank
and no exceptions to the results described above were observed. The
two ice types produced in the test tank by the simple expedient of seeding
or not seeding the water prior to freezing corresponded closely with
the two major orientation textures observed in quietly frozen lakes.
Based on results of these experiments in the test tank at CRREL
it is concluded that the crystalline structure of quietly frozen lakes
is substantially pre-determined by the meteorologi cal conditions existing
immediately prior to the onset of freezing, and that atmospheric seeding,
leading to the growth of 82 ice (columnar, horizontal c-axes), or the
lack of seeding, leading to the growth of macrocrystalline 81 ice with
vertical c-axes, is the significant factor controlling the formations
of the two major orientation textures occurring in quietly frozen water.
This importance of seeding (or lack of it) implies that factors related
to geographical s ettings such as exposure, interior remoteness and
proximity to moisture sources actually determine the orientation textures
Observed in lake ice sheets.

147
 10.1 CM 10.7 CM

Figure 6 . Vertical struc ur e

sections of simulated Sl type ic e
i n thr e spontaneously u 1eated
ice sheets grown in the test tank
at CRREL . Temperatures t o which
tank water '.las uniforml y coo l ed
before i nitiati g freezing are
also indicated.

148
References

Cherepanov, N. V. (1974 ) Clas s ification of ice () .. natural water bodie s .

.!E. Oc ean 74:
IEEF I nt ernationa Co nf erence on Engineer ing in he Oc ea n
Environment. Vol . t , pp. 91-101 .

Ketc ham , W. M. and Hobbs , P. V. ( L967 ) '!'he eferred or ienta ion in

the growth of i ce f r'om the melt . J ournal of CrystnJ Crowth , J , p . 263- 270 .

La.vrov, V. V. (1971 ) Deformation and strength of ice. Transla ed from

Russian f or t he Nati onal Sc l e ce Foundation by the Isr ael Program for
Sc i enti f i c Transla i ons , J er usalem , 1971, 164 ;ip .

Michel , B. and Rams ei e r, R. O. ( 1971 ) lassi fi cation of r iver and lake

i c e . Canadian Geot echnical Journal , 8 , p . 36- 45.

Ragle, R. H. (1963) Format l0 of lake i c e i n a tempe ate c l imate . RREL

RESEARCH REPORT 107 , 22 pp.

Shoumsky, P. A. (1955) Osnovy s t rukt urnogo ledovedenlya . Petrografiya

presnogo l ' da ka k metod glyat s io lo gi cheskogo iss l edo vani ya (Pri ne _pIes
of s truc t ura l glaciology . Petrogra phY of f res h wat er i ce as a method
of gl a cio lo gica l research ). Mos ow, I s datel ' st \'O Akademii auk U~ SR .

149
 lAHR Ice Symposium 1984

•
'A Hamburg

ANCHOR ICE IN LACHINE RAPIDS

RESULTS OF OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS

Numa Marcotte HYDRO-QUEBEC CANADA

Engineer

SUMMARY

This connunication contains a desc ri~~ion of anchor ice observed

in the Lac hine rapids area on the St.Lawrence river and the major charac ­
"~eris~ics of a simple mathemaUcal model si mula '~ing fonna"cion and release
of anchor ice. A brief descr iption of moving sheet ice i s al so pres ented
due to its influence on anchor ice generation.

151
 1. INTRODUCTION

In the course of ~he s~udy on ice problems at the proposed

Archipel hydroelec~ric power plant at Lachine rapids on the S-~.Law­

rence river, i -~ was found -~ha~~ anchor ice wi 11 probably be the more
difficult ~ype of ice to evacuate since it grows to thicknesses over
one meter and is periodically releasee from ~~he bottol,' in large quan­
-c i -~ i es. I-l oreover, anchor ice produces increases i n wa-~er 1eve 1 . On
-~he othe-r hand, analysis of ice observa ~~ ions for the 15 year period
where good recorded da -~a are avai 1able shows -~hat sheet ice reduces
anchor ice generation.

In ~he following pages, observat ions and modelling of anchor

ice are described. A brief survey of mobile sheet ice is also giver.
and its relation wi:h ancho r ice generation. The more general
modelling of thermal and ice regime of a river is presented in another
communica'~ion a-~ this Symposium.

2. THE STUDY AREA

Figure 1 sholvs '~ he site of observations. It is loca ~ ed on

t he St.Lawrence river in the vicinity of the city of l·lontreal. Ir.
this s-~re-"ch of 'fiver, there are '~wo distinct zones. The upstream
zone is lake St.Louis, 20 kilometers in length. A major part of 'i:he
3
flow, 8400 m /s on 'i:he average, follows -i:he deep navigation channel
where velocities are around 0,5 m/s. The extent of the s t able cover
varies significan-~ly frOl~ year to year . Figure 1 shows in '~ermediate

ice condi~ions.

The ot her zone is ~ha~ of Lachine rapids. Velocities range

from approximately 1 m/s a -~ ~~he ou~~le t of lake St.Louis to 3 m/ s or
more in the lower and s '~ eepest part of the rapid. The length of this
zone is close -~o 15 k i 1QiOle 'l eis. It a 1ways r emai ns comp 1e '~e 1y free of
ice except for a f ew minor areas of border ice.

152
3. DESCRIPTIDN DF ANCHDR ICE

a) General observations

Anchor ice is generated over most of the area in figure

1 where '~here is no stable cover. l'~ gro\'lS on~he boV~om when
wa '~er is supercooled and keeps bui 1ding for days or wee ks if co lc
\'leather is rnaintaineG. The area covered by ice on the river floor
is aroune: 20 k/'12. Anchor ice is relea sed periodically from the
bottom. 5,oal l quanti'<:ies cori,e to ~he surface on cold days when
water is supercoolee: but the larger and more spectacu lar releases
OCCLOT on i,lil d sunny days af'~er an uni nte rrupted cold spell.
Barnes [1] gave good descriptions more than 50 years ago.

In s hallow areas, ice anchored on the bot '~ om i s easily

observed from an helicopter wi t h i ts greenish color for the
5·~.LaVirence river wa '~ers ane: brownish color for the Outaouais
river wa·~ers. After a snowfall, sorne whitish anchor ice has also
been observed [2]. In deeper areas, 1'\:s presence is revealeci by
the pieces of ice releasee: fror.1 '~he bot tom and floa'~ing ·~o the
surface wi'~h '~ hejr very distinctive appearance : inmost cases,
the part ou '~ of wa'cer is snow-whi te whi 1e the submerged par'~ is
brownish.

b) Physical characteristics

f'leasured 'thidness of anchor ice ranges be '~we en a few

cen'~iT;,eters and 1,5 /;1eters. La 'c eral dimensions vary in a sir.1ilar
\~ay with a great variety in forr.1s. Th e longer floa'cing blocks
exceed 6 meters in 1 eng'~h [2]. Var i ous f aC'~ors have an i nfl uence
on t he dimension of bottom ice, for ins tanc e meteorological
conditions, location due probably to differences in supercooling,
river bed material, ba'~hYlTle'~ry and flow velocities.

There are apparently various types of anchor ice [2,4].

In low veloci ty shallow waters, a cOr.1plex crystal lattice ice with
a 1arge a",oun'~ of voids has been observed with '~h ic k nesses be '~ ween

0,3 m and 1,2 m. i'lulilerous smaller pieces up to 1 or 2 meters in

153
 1eng 't h look 1 i ke f r azil '; ce, bu'~ '~h ei r sed i r•.en'~ con'~en'~ revea 1 s
their origin. Other fairly large bloc~s are solidly crystallized
wi'~h 1i'c't1e voids, at leas~ on '~ he bo~~om side, and are nearly as
resis~an: as lake ice.

c) Release of anchor ice

Some anchor ice is re 1eased con'~ i nuou sly even duri ng

the period of fomation when \~a:er is supercooled. Pieces are
sinal 1 and of'ten carry sedimen '~s . They cor,le mostly from areas
where 'the bed ma'~eri ali s sand and gravel. Buoyancy exp 1 ai ns
'~hese releases. The 1arger pi eces ori gl n frCin areas wi '~h rocky
bo~tom. They come to the surface, sorrre'~lrnes in a spectacu lar
~anner, on sunny aft2rnoons wi~h relative mild weather when wa:er
'~empera·ture is above 00 ;: which weakens anchoring to the bo'.:tom.
Be'~ween t hese tI,o extre;;:es, '~here are i ntermedi a'.:e ·types of ice
release.

Anchor ice generated during one ni ght is nu'~ all

released on the nex '~ Gay contrary 'co wha'c has been observed on '~he

ili agara r iver [7]. Visual observations inriica'~e tha~ ice

continues to grow for days or weeks. Af '~er approxima'~ely 24 ·~o 48
hours of near oOe air 't er;Jperature, only a few isolated patches
remai n on the bottom. The small is 1 ancis bu i l'~ on anchor ice,
which often looks like ordinary s·tatic ice, disappear long af'~er­

wards if mild weather continues.

d) Increase in water level

Observed water 1eve 1 s have been compared with 1eve 1s

calculated using '~ he stage-discharge relationship and the sum of
discharges at upstream s'tations li::tle influenced by ice [3].
Differences bet ween these t wo values are due to various causes and
particularly to anchor ice. A typical result is shown in figure
2 together with meteorological conditions and brief comments on
observed anchor ice even'.:s.

154
 Concerni ng hydraul ic resi stance of the ri ver bo',;'cor"
covered with anchor ice, a sensitivity analysis has been conducted
[4] '~o determine i':anning's n. Fol" '~he case studied, ;lrelir"inary
results indicate values in the vicin ity of 0,040 or 0,045.

4. MODELLING ANCHOR ICE

A simple mathematical model based on thermal exchanges has

been prepared to simulate formation and release of anchor ice. The
thermal aspect is described in ano:her communication at this
Symposium.

a) Formation of anchor ice

The major s '~eps are as follows. A: each cross-section

and a'~ every hour, the therrnal bucige '~ is calcula '~ed to obtain
water ternperature. When water is supercoo I ed, anchor ice is
generated by a hea'~ '~ransfer pl"ocess which gives additional thick­
nes s of so lid ice. A correct i on is then brought to the wa'~er

';;empera'~ure to accoun '~ fo 'r supercool i ng used in ice gene rat ion.
Density of anchor ice is expressed as a function of flow velocity
'~aking into accoun '~ 'the results ob '~ ained by B. i'lichel [5] in an
analysis of deposi '~s of active frazil ice. Thickness of
additional anchor ice is~hen ob'c ained using calcula'~ed solid ice
de::>osi'~ and 'jts densi';:Y. Comparison of change in wa'~er level
computed from back\~a'~er curves shows sat; sf ac~ory agreemen '~ wi '~h
change in water level obtained from reference 3 as explained
above.

b) Release of anchor ice

rirs';:, a continuous and minor release is simulated for

~he al"eas where bottom material is sand and gravel. The major
rei eases, however, are func~ ion of water ';:emperature which is
agai n obtai ned by :he '~herma I budget method. An empi ri ca I
expl"ession ;s being developed where the percentage of anchor ice
released per uni'~ '~ime is func~ion of curren;; wa';:er '~ eraperature

anci also of average wat er temperature for the previous 3, 6, 12

155
 and 24 hours. Resul'~s are sa '~i sfac-~ory for t he r.1ajor events bu '~

still do no~ explain all changes in water levels .

5. DESCRIPTION OF MOVING SHEET ICE

Sheet ice exami ned here is generated in open-I.ater areas

with relatively low flow veloci t y. I~ moves wi~h the current. I t is
no'c a'c tached 'co '~ he shore or to border ice.

In the ini '~ial s':.ages of fori,lation, shee'(: ice looks like

glass, specially if~here is no wind and t he flow velocity is
relatively low, becvleen 0,3 mls and 0,5 Tolls. This ice is '~hin,

approxi;;la'~ely one mi11 il,leter, I '~ is also 'cransparen'c and no '~ easily
seen. As shee'(: ic e moves dO\ms:ream, it thickens and gradually
becor.1es graY-lVhi::e and 1ess '~Tansparen~. Hours 1a~er, the thidness
attains a few centimeters. Sheet ice i s easily broken into pieces in
the rapids. IJhen '~he re is agita '~ion due to .lind in the ini'~ii;l s~age

of formation, small particles or p latelets of ice are brought together

'~O form round pl a'~es. Al so thin shee':.s super;>ose or br eak '~o forr"
agglornera '~es. The space be '~'leen individual plates freezes to foron
larger uni ts , and ~o on un ti l most of th e open water is covered.

Width of open water seems to be an important factor in the

forma'~ion of sheet ice. cor the genera'~ing areas observed, '~ he width
exceeds one ki 1or"e;;er. La '~eral dimensions of shee';; ice af '~er a
'~ra ve 1i ng d i s '~ance of a few k i 1ome'~ers is a fel' hundred me'~ers and
of'~en i,lore than one xil ome t er.

6. INFLUENCE OF SHEET ICE ON ANCHOR ICE

j,lovi 119 shee '~ 1ce covers an i rnportant percentage of the

open-water area and contributes to reduce appreciably the heat losses
by~he 1'la'CeO". ;'~ is a i)(O'<:ec-~jng "moving cover". As a consequence,
Hate r supercool'ing is redL!ced~oge'~her l'li~h gene,a '~ion of frazil and
ancho~ ice. Analysis of water level varja~ion for t he pas t 15 years
also confirl::s '~his resuL. ror the Mchipel projec~, genera '~ ion of
anchor ice can be reduced by favouring forma '~ion of moving sheet ice.

156
7. CONCLUSION

Anchor ice and moving sheet ice have been described for ~he

area of ~he proposed Hydro-Qu§bec Archipel hydroelec~ric power

s~ation. i · la·~hema~ical rilOdelling of anchor ice has also been briefly
described.

From a p;-aC'~ical iloin'~ of view, anchor ice and Inoving shee'~

ice phone/dena are nO\1 be~ter uncierstooD so '~hat valuable forecas '~ing

of ice condi '~ions and changes in wa '~er level can be made for design
~urposes. The possibil~ty of using moving shee '~ ice as a prO'~eC'~ ion

against anchor ice has been recognized and is now being examined
f llT'~ h e r in order ·~o con'~rol both '~he quantities of floa '~ ing ice~o

evacuate and the loss of prociuction by indirect effect on water levels

ups ·~tealil ar.c C:Olmsjeam from '" he plan ·~.

REFERENCES

1. BARHES, H.T., 1928, Ice Engineering, Renouf Publishing Co., Mon~real.

2. HYDRO-QU~BEC, Service Hydraul ique, 1984, Various Internal Kepor ',;s on

Ice observations, Archipel projec t .

3. LARDEAlJ, J. P., BRGSS~AU, G., BOSS£, Z. and ROLLAND, R., 1984, Vari ous
Internal Technical Notes, Service Hydraulique, Hydro-Qu§bec.

4 . rlARCOTTE, N., 1983, Proje'~ Archipel. c'cude de la glace de fond,

Serv i ce Hydrau 1 i que, Hydro-Quebec, I nterna 1 report, 128 p.

5. mCHEL, B., 1983, Archipel. ResuHa'~s de la Calnpagne de f·lesures des

Glaces, Hiver 1982-83, Volume 1,22& p.

6. TSAi~G, G., 1982, Frazil and Anchor ice, A j;lonograph, Na'~ional \Ja'~er

Research ~ns~itu~e, Canada Centre for Inland Waters, NRC Subconrnittee

on Hydraulics of Ice Covered Rivers, 90 pages.

157
 7. IJ!GL'::, T.~., 1970, Inves'~iga~ions in'~o frazil, bO~'com ice and surface
ice forma:ion in ~he Niag~ra R~ver. In Ice and its Action on Hydr~ulic

S~ruc~u 'res, Proceed i ngs 0-( 1 s·~ i n~erna~ i ona 1 Syrupos i urn on Ice
Problems, sept. 7-10, ~ey~javiX, Iceland, In'~e 'rna'~ional Associat"ion
for Hydraulic Research, paper 2.8.

158
 <)
ARTIFICIAL ISLAND
OPEN WATER
c::J STABLE ICE COVER
® MovING SHEET ICE km i 6 2:3 km
® ANCHOR ICE

F I GURE I

LOCATION PLAN
(]1
<D
 *J~ 12~ I'A
§

14)\ I'A I'A 1'/\ 1'£\ 1AI'OA I"A I'A I"~ I'~ I"A I
9

~I_~fffl?tt+++# j m~

w
I

~ ~, r

~ O,31----H LITTLE OR
ANCHOR ICE
NOIL-__~__-4-t~~~rl-~~__-7~~~~~
I­
<t.
~
Z

W
(/)
<t.
w
a:
u
z
2 3 4 5 6 FEBRUARY 1983 II 12 13 14 15
FIGURE 2 DATA PROCESSING FROM [3]
CHANGE IN WATER LEVEL IN ONE SEQUENCE OF ANCHOR ICE FORMATION
laa IAHR Ice Symposium 1984

•
Hamburg

THE DYNAMICS OF FRAZIL ICE FORMATION

Steve F. D.ly u. S. Army Co I d Reg Ions Resuarch US~

Research Hydraulic Engineer and Englneerl ng Laboratory,

Hanover, NH 03755

Keith D. Stolzenb,ch ~ssachusetts I nstl tute of USA

Associate Professor Techno 10'1'1, Co5TIbr Id ge,

tJassachusetts 021.39

ABSTRACT

This paper applies Quantitative appt'"oaches of 'a.-ge-c;cale Inwstrlal c rystaillmtion to

the stu:ly of frazll Ice. The development of a crystal number continuity equation and a heat

conservetlon equetlon clIIn serve as a ~sls tor predicting the size dlstrltutlon and concen­

tratron of frazll crystals. The key parmeters In these equations are the crystal grcwth

rate and the rate of secondary nu:leatlon. The crystal gro.tth rate Is determined t¥ the

heat transfer rate fran the crystals to the fluid. the Intrinsic kinetics of the crys1"~ls.

surface 1"enslon, and the ness transfer r~1"es .. Awl18ble dcta IndlCllI1"e tha1" the growth of

the IMJor axl s of frazll crystals I s controlled largely by heat transfer.. The heot transfer

expression for disks suspended In turbulent flOfi Is presented .. The rate of secondary

nuc leatTon can be expressed as the prodJct of three functions, which relote the energy

transferred to crysta Is by collision and the nunber of survlvl ng crysta Is prod...ced b( the

collision. The secondary nucleation rate Is found to be a function of the turbJlent energy

dissipation and a strong Iy nonlinear function of the fonn and magnitude of the crystal size

dlstrlbJtlon. The number continuity and heat conservation 8qlJatlons are trwbl6some to

solve slmultansOJsly because they are nonlinear and dlmnslonally InCon"patlble. However.

the equations con be IJsed In the development of models of frazll Ice fonnetlon.

161
 Despite such provocdtlve stdto3fl"8nts as "the phenocmnon of fr~zll ••• Is slmll~r to the

more general one of cryst~lllzal"lon In a ;upersafurated ~dlunll (Michel, 1963), very seldan

h"s an att9ll'pt bet1n made to study trazll In the wider con text of cryst~1 growth fran ~ solu­

tlon. The problems of l~rge-sc~le Inrustr-I~I cryst~lllz8tlon. hCJrlrlever, c~n provide Insight

Into tha frazll probl8ll. lndJstrl~1 crystallization Is the production of crystals frem

s;JperS<3turatl3d or supercooled solutions agl t8ted in vessels of varying conplaxlty that are

called cryst~1 Jlzers. Generally, the average crystal size and cryst~1 size dlstrlbJtlon are

very Important In determining theeconanlc raturns of a crystallizer proruct (Smith and

Serof 1m, 1975). Therefore, much t I rna and af fort has been expended' n developl ng both theo­

ratlcal ~nd anplrlcal means of predicting the crystal size dlstrlbJtlon that wi II result

'rOTl 8 given crystallizer (Randolph and Larson, 1971). The rlgorcus deterrrin8tlon Of the

crystal size dl strlbJtlon, together wi th the associated he8t balance and the ~ppropr'ate

boundary conditions, proV'ides a 1.111.100 predict Ive and descrlpt Ive theory for the .orrretion

of cryst,,'s I n en agl t8ted crystallizer. By use of the appropr I~te transfOrTMt Ions, these

technIques can be used to describe the forlTlltlon of frazll Ice In natlTal ~ter bodies.

This p~per will present then the basic equations thet describe the dynMllc development

of the size dlstrltutlon and concentration of trezll Ice crystals In tlTbulent ..eter. It

.. III be seBn th8t the Two Important panmetars 1 n these squat Ions "re the gr~th rate of the

crystals and the rate of secondary nocleatlon. The deterrrination of these paran'8ters will

be d i scu ssed i n data II.

Basic Equ~tlons

Let nCr) be the population density of cryst~ls of size r. at a time t, In a regIon

such th~t

N n( r)dr (1)

o
4
.tlere N Is the total nl.lllber of crystals per lJllt volume. The I.I1lts of n are (r- ).

The mess of Ice per unit volume of an Icel~ter mixture (e l ) can be conveniently expressed

by t!1e third moment of the size dl strlbJtlon as

(2)

where PI Is the density of Ice and Kv Is a volumetric shape factor. If the crystals

are geanatrlcally similar, Kv will be Independent of the crystal size. Let G be the

grOith rate of the major redl us of the I ce cryst~ls ~nd NT be the rete of creation of new

crystals. For frOll1 Ice, the rate of creation of n8lll' cryst~ls 15 largely synonymous wi th

the rate of secondary nocleatlon. The nlmber contlnul ty equation can be stated as

162
 ~. ~ (Gn) • 'lev n) • N
at ar e T
(3)

-t -t
where 9(I/en) Is the divergence of crystells convected with velocity Va Into the region,.

With representation of the bulk supercooled ttwnper8ture of the fluid as e, the heat balance

for 8n Ice/toetsr mlxtlre Is

(4)

-t
.. here V f Is the convective velocity of the fluid, L Is the l.!!Itant heat of fusion, C Is the

heat capacity, Pf Is the density of the fluid, end Q* Is the rate of heat trunsfer from

the rtglon. In general, the convective velocl'ty of the Ice crystals end the fluid ., II be

slml18r. The action of buo.,ency end Inert! 01 forces on the Ice crystols rfIl!Jy cause the Ica

crystal velocity to differ fran the fluid velocity I f these forces beccme large cQr1l>ored to

the fluid drog force.

To determine Band nCr) unIquely, both the number continuity equtltlon and the heat

balance equetlon rrust be solved slmultaneoosly. The til«) a:p.~tlons ~re linked bi the growttt

~nd secondary nucle~tlon r~tes of the fce crystals, which ~re dependent on both the he~t

bal~nce and cryst~1 size dlstrlrutlon. In theory the eqUlltlons can be solved If the \l8rlrus

required boondary ~nd Initial conditions ~re knOlln. DlfflOJltles ~rlse because e and nCr)

are dilT8nslon~lly lncOtT'p~t'ble, the grooh rate Is a flJ"1ctlon of crystal size ~nd the local

hellt trensfer. the secondary nucleation r~te Is dl fflrult to char~cterlze, and both equ~-

tlons lMy be strongly nonllne~r. The ed'l8ntage of these eqoetlons Is th~t they ~IIOIIl'I'k)dels

to be developed I t the parmeters of grOfth end secondary nuc leatlon can be characterized.

These parSn'9ters will be dlsOJssed In the ne:d sections.

Ice Cryst81 Growth Rates

The r8te of grooh of 8n Ice crystal depends on til«) ~ocesses th~t take place In

series: the attachment ~nd re~rrangement of water moleOJles on the crystal surface In

8ccordence with the Intrinsic kinetiCS, and the transp>rt of the I~tent heat of fusIon e'llll~y

from the cryst81 surf8ce. DependIng on the relative rates of these two processes, either

could control the grooh rate., Prediction of the grOlllth rate Involves determining hOlf the

separate processes I nteract and hOll the two c~n be cO'l'lbl ned to give ~n overall grcwth rate.

The grOltth rate 'l1li11' be I1Ddeled here as two IToceSSes In serIes, and the Influence of

the surface curvature wil l also be Included. Let T f be the bulk tanperature of the super­

cooled liquid, 8nd Tm be the equillbriun temperature of the Ice-water mixture. For p ..... e

WlIter, theequlllbrluntenperatL.... ewlll beO·C. The overall supercooling level ecsnbe

obtained ~s the SlJ'n of the three tefT1)6ratlTe dl fferences repr-esentl ng the dr Ivl ng forces

required to overcOTl9 the surface curvatlJ""9, I ntrlnslc crystallization and the heat tr~nsfer

reslst~nces:

163
 e = Tm
-T
f
• CT -T ) + (T -T ) + (T -T )
me 81 If
(5)

here (lm-Te> Is the tEmperature difference required to overc()TIB the surface curvl!lture

resistance. (le-T,) Is required to overcane Intrinsic kInetics resIstance end

(T ,-T f) Is req u I red to overcc:me the he~t trans fer res Istances.

The surface curvature resistance Is a function of the radius of curv8ture of the Icel

'l6ter Interface. The t~ratlTe needed to owrcome this resistance cen be 9stirreted

T (6)
e

Y lea/water Interfacial tension ( Y ~ 2

22 erg cm- )

latent heat of fusion per grml of Ice

r a red! uS of curvnture

PI density 01 Ice.

6 3
Ta can new be estimated os 3.9xl0- em ·CIr. Therefore, If r > =:f 10- em (10 )JTI) then the

cur'f'otlSe effect ",III be essentially negligible.. \Ie can asst.me that for the purposes of

this paper that this wi l l alway s be the Case, Therefore, eq 5 can be re....-ftten as

e =T -T • (f -T ) + (f -T ) (7)
m 1 m I I f

where (Tm-TI) Is required to overccme 'the Intrinsic kinetics resistance. Let Q be the

rate of heat trtJlOsfer per un It surface area. It6sLrTlI ng a steady grOfth rate, then

= h(f -T ) h(T -T ) (6)

I 1 m f

where a and b are the crysttId Ilmtlon kInetics coefficients, h Is the heat transfer coeff'­

clent and h rep--esents an overall tronster rate. We can make the crystaillation kinetics

II near as

b
aCT -T) ::I at + all (T -T ) (9)
m I m I

a nd thus

h(f -T ) + (h.' I.")

m f
= h (T -T ) (\ 0)
m 1 f 1+( h/a") I

The grQlth rote along the a-axis determines the major linear dimension of the trazll disk.

Therefore, It Is the a-a)(ls grCM'th rate that appears In 'the nLrTlber continuity 6QlRltlon as

'the tunctlon G. Kallunga l and Barwho (1977> measured a-axis grOfth rates and found no

evidence of a rate Ilmltl og k.lnetlc step. Thl s Implies that a" > h. Thus

164
 (1 II

The gr-Ololth rate In the a-axis Is strictly c ontrolled by heat transfer. An expre s sion for

the he~t transfer coefficient h will nOff be determined.

To detennl ne the heat transfer rates froo the suspended Ice cryst~ls, I t is necessary

to describe the mlbient velocity dlstrlbJtlons of the fluid obout the crystols. 'fl'lls

requires kncwledge of the properties and characteristics of turtulence and the buoyant -5nd

InertIal forces actl og on the crystal. The fluid tlfbulence can be vi awed ~5 prOdLCl09 a

shear flew of rMgnltlX1e 5 In the fluid surrcundlng the cryst",. The buoyant "nd Inertial

forces acting on the crystal will prodLC8 6 relotlv8 rotlon behsen the crystal ond the

fluid of megn Itwa~. It wi' I be c1sSlITled here that rS/~ » 1, that Is, the buoyant

and ioartldl forces can be Ignored. Hcwever. these torces may be Import8nt In certdln

sltuotlons dnd can be Inc Iu:led In the an~lysl s.

Let E be the rtlte at which turl:ulent energy Is vlscOJsly disSipated per unit mass ot

the tluld. Then I t Is possible to tonn a length scale r"l known 8S the I(olrrogorov length

sC81e. such thtlt

3 1/4
n ~ (v IE) (12)

I t the crystals I ze I s small reltlt Ive to the Kolmogorov length scale, It 15 I n the dlssl pa­

tlve regime. In the dissipative regime the tluld eddies are strongly dampened and dlsslpat­

ed by the tluld viscosity. In effect, the crystal 15 smaller then the simi lest scales of

the turbJlent eddies. It does not experience the turb..l lence as Inter8ctlng eddies but

rtlther as 8 fluid motion that wries Iinetlrly with position. The rnagnltu:le of S In the

dissipative regime can be estlmtlted as (Tennekas and Luml&y, 1972)

~ (£/vi 1/2 (13)

The Reynolds number of the particle motion '111111 be (tlssllTll ng the particles 8xper"ience only

th 15 she8r)

(141

and the Pec let number

( 15)

As r < T\ 1 n the dlsslpat Ive region,

r <

ond therefore

Re < 1 •

165
 For the Peclet Il~!:>er to eQual unity, thet Is, Pe '" 1,

112
r " (I /Pr )n ( 16)

..tIere Pr 13 the Prendtl nunber. Therefore, ..nen

112
r < (I/Pr )n Pe < I (17. )

112
r> (I/Pr )n Pe > I • (17 b)

In the analysIs of mes'i transfer, usually the Prandtl number (or analogously for mess

trllnsfer, the Sl~hmldt nunbar) I~ much larger than I. Therefore, the I~ Peclet c llse corre­

sponds only to very smell I particles, usually much Stnllller thlln the rl!lnge of Interest.

Ho..,eve r , for heat tran'ifer frem frllzll crystals, the Prandtl nunber Is approxl lTDtely 13, and

the 101 Peclet case Is relevant. It Is Int"3restlng to note that there Is only a narra.

range In ""'Ich Pe > 1 and Re < 1. As the particle size becOlT8s large, r ..,111 ap~oach the

!(olrrogorov scale, fl, and the condition s of the dissipative regime ..,111 no l onger be valid.

Ho..,ever, Mta SLggest (EBtchelor. 1980) that the flow dlstrlbJtlon can be co nsidered Iineer

until r Ii::J 10 r), ..,hlch expends the large Peclet number range. In the Interest o f generellty,

then, the result for both the smell end large Peclet cases ..,111 be given.

Batchelor (1980) sha.ed that In l ocally homogen8OJs ~nd Isotropi c turbJlence, the

Imjl)rtent sheer rate Is

112
<lsI> • 0.18 (£/v) ( 18)

The heat transfer lit a smllli Pectet number Clln be written

2 112
~= 0.17 NUG (~.£_)I!2 ( 19)
NUG avl12

The large Peclet number result can be..,r I tten

2 112
_r _£_ )I/J (20)
Nu NvO + 0.55 ( 112

a v

..,here Nu Is the Nusselt number formed usIng the crystal radius as the length scale end Nu
O
Is the Nus'ielt number for pure dl ffuslon. These results are for e pertlcle Immersed In e

shear ft~ produ:oo b'f the tlTbu lence of the fluid.

If the crystal size Is large relative to the Kolmogor ov length scale It Is In the

Inertial regIme. A. nunber of theories of transfer In the Inertial regime have been

developed and abandonoo b'f the chemical engineers. These are discussed by Wl!idlll (1915).

The ceuse of the diffIculty Is that the flow field In the vicinity of the crys tal Is complex

and the transfer tray proceed at meny scales. The particle rrrtJy Interact with fluid eddies

that are both larger end srrBller than I t Is. The problen then becOll'8s C:harecterlzlng the

ambl.ant velOCity di strlbutlon so as to aCOJrately detennl ne the heat transfer rete.

166
 The lI\'1blent velocity can be ch~recterlzed In Ileny different ways, each corresp::>ndlng

to ~ different eddy size. It seEJTIS reasonable to asstrne, follcwlng Wadia (1975), that the

predom:ln~nt shear th~t the p~rtlcle will e><perlence wll' be produ::ed bt eddies closest to

the p~rtlcle that ~re of the sMle size as the particle. Eddies th~t ~re slgnlflc~Jntly

I~rger th~n the p~rtlcle will entraIn both the partIcle and the fluid around I t. Very sIMI,

eddies relative to the particle size may enhance the overall transport by some mechanl9TIs of

renewal of the boundary layer slJ"'roundlng the pertlcles, but It Is eddies of a size

canparable to the size of the particle that will cause the most significant gradients near

the crystal surface. The shear can be est lmted 85

1/3 -213
5 Z £ r (21 )

This she8r will not be linear with positiOn.. The Reynolds number of the particle motion

wIll be

4/3 1/3
r £
Re (22)
v

and the Pec I et number

4/3 1/3
r £
Pe (23)
a

As r > U In the Inertial regime

r >

a nd therefore

Re >

and the Peclet number Is

Pe > Pr •

In the Inertial subrange, a linear Mlblent velocity dlstrltxJtlon does not e><lst. The

Peclet nunber Is large, therefore gradients of t6l'T'peratlJ"e will exist only In StMII boundary

layers near the particles. Fluid bOJndary layers W'III also exist and, I f the Reynolds

nU"lber becOlms large enough, they may becorre t...-bulent. This ~Jtuatlon cannot be analyzed

I n terms of the II near ve loci ty dl strlbutlons. Therefore, to determl ne the heat transfer

fra'll the particles, the frOssllng equation wl1 t be used. The !Teln square shear bet'l8en two

points separated by distance r In the Inertial subrange can be I3stlmated a s

(24 )

and the frOsstl ng equation becc:mes

167
 4/} 1/3
Nu • NuO + 0.70 ( r £ )1/2 Pr 1/3 • (25)
V

The small-sc~1 e fI'Otlon, sl'T'IeIller than the 51 ze of the crystal, may enhance the heet

transport fron the crystal by penetnltlng the bOJndery layer lIrrund the crystal. It Is

dl ff I cult to quantify this PO-OC6SS rut this enhllncenent has been su:cessf ul Iy lICCOll1ted for

(.Ithough ... plrlc.lly) by correl.tlon of the turbulent Intensity. "T. of the fluid. Or
I s de f I ned .s

(26)

2
where (u )1/2 Is the rms v81ue of the velocity devIation from the mean velocity V,. The

experiments of L5Vender and Pel (1967) demonstrllted that the FrOss11 ng equlItlon cOJI d be

..... Itten as

• (1/2+.) 1/3
Nu ::r NuO + 0.44 aT Re Pr (27)

.mere II Is an 9>Cperltrentally derived coeffIcIent. They found th.t for

aT Re < 1000, • ~ 0.035

• nd

aT Re :> 1000, e ~ r).2 5

wlt!1 the break occarrlng at the P'Jlnt at ..nlch the boundary layer becQn195 tlTbulent. There­

fore, hevl n9 aT < 1000 91 "as

0.035 0.535 1/3

Nu NuO + 0.70 '\ Re Pr

(28)

.nd h.vl ng "T Re > 1000 gives

0.25 0.75 1/3

Nu = NuO + 0.70 aT Re Pr
(29)

For aT Re:> 1000, Nu Is essentially Independent of the cl')'stnl size. This rnnge Is where

InOJstrlal cl')'stallizers generally operate and the Independence of the transfer processes

and particle sIze Is often seen. 1llis observation has been generalized and Is called

McCl!Ibe's Lo!IN'.

An alternative II'Bthod of defining the t-i.Jsselt nunber that provides an Intuitively

e",sler means of seeing the relative value of the actual heat transfer coefficient Is as

follCllls. Let NUT be the turbJlent Nusselt number defined as

3
Nu = ~= ~ (~)1/4 (30)
T k k £

168
 Let mit = rl l). The he~t transf~r relationship s presented earlier are then;

for mit < I / (}Jr)i / 2

NUT = (11m') + 0.17 Prl l2 Dla)

for I/(Pr)1 / 2 < m*< 1'::1 10

NUT = [ (I I ""') .0.5 5 (PrI""') 1/3 J (3101

for mlf > I, with d I~ IntensIty 0Tm*4 / 3 < 1000

0.035 1/3 10
NUT = [ (II""') + 0.70 C'r (Pr/""') JP <31 c)

fo r mit> I, with a high I nten s ity a,-m*4/3 > 1000

0.25 113 k
NUT = [ tIl""') + 0.70 ' \ Pr " <31d)

whero B~ 1.0 for a sphere and 1.1 for e disk. The se ~sselt nLJnber reletlonsl1l p s are

shown In Figure 1.

. ,
m ~7J

FlglI"e I. Nondlnenslonal heat tnllnsfer correl"tlon based on

a tur~.d ent ~u 5 selt number

Nucleation

There Is .!!Ibundant experimental evidence that at the levels of s upercooling found In

nattral, tll"bulent \It!!Iter bodies, sjX)nteneClJ s ntCieatlon seldan, I f ever, occurs. Thl s

Implies that seed cryshlls are necessary to start the fOf"'lT'lllltlon of frazll Ice In natur.!!ll

\It!!Iter bodies. Such seed cryst.!!ils are usually abund8nt In the atmosphere before fralll Ice

Is observed and are proMbly lntroruced a cross the .!!I I rl W1J ter Interface.

Second.!!lry ntCleatlon can be deflnod as the ntCle.!!ltlon that occurs, Irres pective of Its

mech.!!lnl9TI, only because of the presence of Ice crystals In the supercooled liquid. Undoubt­

169

I
 ad Iy, secondary nocle~tlon plays the :naJor role I., Increa;log the total nunber of frazlt

cry 5 ta 1'5.

The most likely rrechanl sm of secondary nu:leatlon appears to be the mlcroattritlon of

particles from the surface of the parent crystals. by collisions of the crystals wi th hard

surt.:!ces (Evans, 1973). TofI'() general classes of crystal collisions can be Identified. The

flrs~ 15 collisions be""'e~n cryst~I'S In suspension (crystal-crystal collisions) and the

second I s collisions of the crystals with external boundaries (cryst~l-boundo!llry col 11­

5ions). If It Is assuned that the socondary nuc leatlon rate Is Ilml ted by the rate l!It whIch

potential ne.l crystals are removed frem the crystal surface, and that the rate of rElTlOval Is

Independent at the crystals' time hl ", ;tory, the overall nucleation rate Nt, with two or

more rrechanigns of r600val, can be detennlned as the linear sun at the actual nuclel!ltlon

rate attrlrutable to each mechanlgn of r-anoval (N,),

(32)

The nu:leatlon rate of each rrechanl sm of collision can be extyessed as the tyoduct of three

functions (90ts~rls, 1976),

(33)

wher-e E t Is the r~te of energy transfer to crystals by collision, Fl Is the number of

particles generated per unit of collision energy and F2 Is the tr~ctlon of particles survlv-

Ing to become crystals. At this time both FL and F2 /rUst be detennlned BTlplr-lcally. There­

fore, FL and F2 can be ccrnblnad and

(34 )

where SN -= eFl) (F2) and Is a function of the supercooling, the fluid turbulence €: and

Imptrlty concentration C 1•

The rate of energy transfer to crystals by collisions can be estimated (Daly, 1984) as

the product of the collision energy E(rl, r2) and the frequency of collision q(rb r2)

bet-~een crystals of size rl and r2, Integrated over the crystal size dlstrirutlon. Thus

JJ q(rt,r2)E(q,r2)n(rt)n(r2)dqdr 2 (35)

o0
It has been found that for crystal-crystal collisions, the rate of energy transfer Is a

h .... ctlon of the level of t....-bulent energy dlsslp8tton and Is a strongly nonlinear flllction

of the fonn and n\8gn ItLde of the crystal size dl strlbutlon. The r~te of energy transfer for

crystal-boundary collisions Is dependent on the level of ttrbulent energy dlssl~tlon and

the fonn of the crystal size dlstrlrutlon, and is inversely proportional to the hydraulic

dept h.

170
Frazll Ice Oynemlcs

The equetlons descrlbl ng the d)'flamlc InteractIon of the c·ryst~1 dlstrlbJtlon and the

hellt balance of the water can new be wr Itten

an a a
- > - - - (hn) > '1(V n) , N
+
(36)
at PIL ar a T

LP K
aa
- > '1(V
at
+
fa) I v
CP
[~t j 3
r ndr v(~a f r ndr) . > .L .
2
1 CP
f
(37)

f 0 0

WritIng the 6qu8tlons In this form 9'tIphaslzes the dynemic way In which they Interact.

Rllindolph and l8rson (1971) used the term "Inforrretlon U to describe the crystal dlstrlbJtlon

and the he8t b8l.!1nce.. "Frazll Ice dynemlcs" describes the unIque Intern81 InfonTllJltlon

feedb8ck loop th8t regulates the cryst81 site dlstrlbJtlon. The IT8chanlsm for this

InfonTllJltlon feedb8cx Is thrrugh the level of supercooling resulting from the balance of the

latent heat released by the productIon of Ice and the tot 05 I heat loss fran the ~ter. The

supercooling level of the wlIter ulthn8tely determines the rates of secondary nucle8tlon and

crystal growth, -.thlch In tlrn determine the d)'flamlc crystal dlstrlbJtlon 05t any time. The

level of turbJlence

8-Supercaoled Temperature G- Linear Growth Rate

AT - Total Surface Areo
Available for GrO\Olth
0" -Heal Loss
£ -Level 01 TUlbulence
(enerqy/moss of fluid)
h- Hea t Transfer Coefficient
N, - Secon dary Nucleotion Rate
f(n) - Size DIstribution Dependence
of Secondory Nucleation

Figura 2. Frozll Ica dynifllics.

controls the r8te 8t ..,hlch the feedbad<. loop can operata.. Thl5 Is shewn graphically In

Figura 2.

Given Equations 36 and 37, a canprehenslve quantlt05tlve model describing frazll Ice In

tlTbulent 'leter can now be deyeloped. The major block to this nodel, at this p:>lnt, Is the

almost tot051 led<. of experimental or field measUrEJ'Tlent5 that can define the size dlstrlru­

tlon of fr8z11 cryst.!lls.. The d6velopl11mt of r.!ltlonal nodels of frazll Ice forrretlon would

allcw advances In engl neerlng solutions to frazll Ice problEmS.

171
 .'

References

B81"chelor, G.K., 1980. ~5S 1"r8nsfer trem p8rl"Icies suspended in turb"llent fiOll.
JOll"n.1 01 Fluid ","chanlcs. Vol. 98 n), p.609-623.

8:>1'58,-15, G.O., 1976. Se<:ondary nu:IS8tlon-A revla.. In 1n<1l5t,. 181 Crystallization.

J.W. Mullin (ad.>, PlenLITI Press, N.Y.

Daly, S,F .. 1984. Frazll Ice dynmllcs. CRREL Monograph 84-1. U.S. Army Cold Regions
Res88rch and Englneerl ng LlIIborllltory, HanoYer, N.H..

EV8ns, l.W., 1973. ~chenlsrn of secondlliry nu:leetlon d.rlng thecrystalll2Zltion of Ice,

Ph.D. thesis, MI!Is58Chusstts InstItute of TedlnolOtJ'/, ClImbrldge.

Kalungal, J.p. and A.J. Bar-whn, 1977. Grcwth rate of an Ice cryst81 In 5ubcooled pure
..,Ter. American InSTITuTe 01 Chemlc.1 Engineers JOll"n.l. Vol. 23 n), p. 294-303.

Lavender, W.J. and o.C.T. Pel, 1967. The Effect of fluid t .... bulence on the rete of heat
transfer from spheres. Internatlona.' Jrurnel of Heat and MI!Iss Tr8nsfer. Vol. 10, p.
529-539.

Michel, 8., 1963. Theory of forl'l"etlon 8nd deposl t of fr8zl1 Ic~ In E8stern Sno.t Cbnfer­
ence, Proceedings of the 1963 Annu81 Meeting, Quebec City.

Randolph, A.D. and M.A. Larson, 1971. Theory of partlcul ate processes. Acadanl c Press,
N.Y.

SrrlTh, K.A. and A.F. Sorollm, 1979. Fund.mnt.1 stooles 01 des.'ln.tlon by freezl ng.
Final Report to the Office of water Rase8rch 8nd Technology', U.S. Depar1ment of
Interior, W,shlngton, D.C.

Tennekas, H. i!IInd J.L. LlnIley 1972. A first course In tlTbulence. MIT Press, Cmbrldge,
tJaSs8chusetts.

172
 WlR Ice Symposium 1984
IA Hamburg

V FORECASTING SNOW AND BLACK ICE GROWTH

FROM TEMPERATURE AND PRECIPITATION

Lars Bengtsson Division of Hydrology Sweden

Professor Uppsala University

ABSTRACT

Growth of ice and the type of ice that is formed have en­
vironmental impact on a lake. Although ice growth is reason­
ably well estimated by the degree-day method, this method
does not allow to distinguish between different types of ice.
In this paper, an algorithm or model is suggested for comput­
ing black and white ice growth and lake snowcover depth. In­
put is daily values of air temperature and precipitation. The
model is applied to a water body in northern Sweden. Also,
some theoretical situations are simulated. Total ice thick­
ness is well computed through a freezing period, but white
ice formation is not computed very accurately in the first
one or two months after freeze-up, because of difficulties in
estimating snow precipitation. Total ice thickness is well
determined by the degree-day method, but where the winters
are not very stable, it is difficult to estimate an a priori
value of the degree-day coefficient.

173
 INTRODUCTION

Growth of lake ice is often considered as a simple straight­

forward problem. Probably because of that it has not been de­
voted very much interest. Growth of ice is well described
using the degree-day method. However, the degree-day method
should, at least theoretically, apply to growth of black ice
only. When ice growth is associated with large amounts of
snowfall, the snowcover insulates the ice thereby slowing
down the rate of black ice growth, but when the lake snow­
cover is flooded a slush layer which freezes to white ice or
snow ice from above is formed. Using regression, the total
ice thickness, including white ice, can be well determined
by the degree-day method, which states a "linear" relation
.between ice thickness and square root of accumulative nega­
tive degree-days following freeze-over. The regression co­
efficient depends, however, on snow conditions, and the
method does not allow to distinguish between different
types of ice. To be able to compute ice thickness and dis­
tinguish between black ice and white ice, it is necessary to
use daily values of air temperature and precipitation. An
algorithm or a model for lake ice growth is suggested in this
paper.

ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF ICE GROWTH

If it is not considered essential to separate white ice and

black ice, the degree-day method is an acceptable method for
ice growth computations. However, columnar black ice has
different mechanical properties than white ice, which is
granular and composed of smaller ice crystals. Whether the
formed ice is black ice or white ice is of environmental im­
portance also. Exsolution of solids and gases occurs as water
freezes. For the lake body this phenomenon has significance
concerning dissolved oxygen, solids and nutrients. The lake
water just beneath the black ice is rich in exsolution pro­
ducts from the formed black ice. White ice forms on the top

174
of the original ice cover. Since the freezing interface moves
downwards through a slush layer, there will be a concentra­
tion of ex solution products at the contact interface between
different ice layers. In general, the concentrations of dis­
solved solids are higher in white ice than in black ice.
Since enriched lake water may flood the lake snowcover
through cracks in the ice, the concentrations of dissolved
solids in the white ice may be higher than can be expected
from dry and wet fallout from the atmosphere. The distribu­
tion of snow and different types of ice influences the
amount of radiant energy that reaches the lake water. When
an ice cover is mainly black ice, incoming shortwave radia­
tion may heat the water below the ice. Since the melting
black ice is very low in salt content, the water temperature
just below the ice can rise above 4°C. The dilution effect of
melting ice on the chemical conditions in a lake was discuss­
ed by Canfield et al (1983). From the brief discussion above,
it is clear that the growth of ice and the type of ice that
is formed have environmental consequences on a lake. The
biological role of winter lake cover has been treated in a
number of papers by Peter Adams and is summarized in Adams
(1981) .

DEGREE-DAY COEFFICIENTS

Growth of black ice can be determined from Stefan's classi­

cal law, but for practical applications static growth of ice
is usually determined by the degree-day method. However,
Bven if growth of lake ice over a season is well determined
from a degree-day approach, computed (from measured ice
thickness and air temperature) degree-day coefficients for a
lake may vary from one year to another. Some examples are
given in Table 1. In northern Sweden where the winters are
stable and there are rather large amounts of snow, the
degree-day coefficient is rather constant, about 2 cm/
(oC_day)O.S.

175
 Table 1. Degree-day coefficient (cm/( oC-day)0.5) for
Swedish lakes computed from measurements of
ice thickness and air temperature

Lake Region 1964/65 65/66 66/67 67/68 68/69 69/70

Tornetrask north 2.0 2.0 2.5 2.0 2.2 2.2

N. Bygdetrask north 2.8 1 .8 2.0 2.0 2.2 2.2

Siljan Dalarna 3.0 2.0 2.0 1.8 2.5 1 .5

Baven Stockholm 3.5 2.2 2.5 2.2 2.2 2.2

Ringsjon south 2.2 3.0 2.0 3.0 3.0

ALGORITHM FOR ICE GROWTH

From Stefan's law and accounting for snow load and buoyancy
effect of the ice an algorithm for computing ice thickness,
taking into account different kinds of ice, can be develop­
ed. The growth of black ice is given by

dhb -T
a
\1 )
dt 0b F hb h h
-­ + +
w s
+
m Ab A A
w s

and the growth of white ice is given by

dh -T
w a
(2 )
dt e Ow F hwt h
+
s
A A
w s

176
where h = thickness, t = time, Ta = air temperature, \ =
heat conduction coefficient, p = denSity, F = latent heat of
fusion, m = surface thermal resistance, and where index b
refers to black ice, w to white ice, wt to white ice at the
top of a slush layer, and index s to dry snow above an
eventual slush layer.

Daily values of air temperature and preCipitation are used.

Snow is added to existing snow on the lake and the new load,
W ' is computed. Whether the load is fully compensated for
s
by the lifting force from the ice or not is checked by com­
puting maximum snow load, W that can be supported by the
max
ice without the ice being flooded.

where h total ice thicknwss, p density of water.

If W is larger than W ' black ice is formed and eq. (1)

max s
is used. If W is less than w ' the ice is flooded and a
max s
slush layer is formed at the bottom of the lake snowpack.
The depth of the slush layer is

h' (4 )

where h' = depth of slush layer and e = porosity of slush

layer. White ice is formed from the top of the slush layer.
The growth is computed from eq. (2). The depth of the snow­
cover above a slush layer is determined as the maximum of
W ' W divided by the snow density. The procedure is
s max
straightforward except that the value of the porosity of the
slush layer is not obvious. When the ice is flooded and the
snow is saturated, it is somewhat compressed. According to
Langham (1981) recrystallization is partly responsible for
transforming snow into ice. Transfer of material between
crystals and variations in stress and free energy occur in
the matrix of crystals when snowpack densities exceed

177
 3
approximately 580 kg/m . The transfer mechanism was shown
by Hobbs and Radke (1967) to be volume diffusion. Assuming
that the above given density is valid for the slush layer,
the porosity corresponds to 0.36. This, maybe low value,
has been used throughout the computations.

When the snow load increases further while only the upper
part of a slush layer has frozen to white ice, the white
ice may be flooded and there is a second slush layer. A new
layer of white ice is formed from the top of this slush
layer. Thus, a lake ice cover may consist of many ice layers
intercepted by slush layers. The porosity of the lower
layers decreases as water moves into the upper slush layers,
although of course water moves through cracks in the black
ice into the lower layers. For this reason and for simpli­
city reasons the formation of white ice in a slush layer
overlaid by a second white ice layer is simply computed by
directly transforming all the snow in the remaining slush
layer into ice,

The lake snowcover may, of course, be exposed to melting.

When the air temperature is above freezing, snowmelt is
computed by a temperature index method.

The growth of black ice is somewhat reduced due to heat

2
flow from water to ice. A heat flow of 2 w/m , which is a
large value, would melt 0.5 rum of ice over a day, which is
only 1.5 cm over a month. A routine accounting for heat
flow from water to ice was introduced in the first model,
but since the heat flow was found not to be very signifi­
cant in reducing ice growth and since data on water temper­
ature close to the ice is very scarce, the routine was
taken away from the ice growth model or algorithm.

A similar model was presented by LeppKranta (1983), but he

treated the formation of white ice by letting all the snow
in a slush layer directly be transformed to ice.

178
THEORETICAL SIMULATIONS

The ice growth model was first tested on some theoretical

situations including snowfall every day during the freezing
period and single events of heavy snowfall.

Extensive Continuous Snowfall

Over a three month period the air temperature is assumed to

be constant - SoC and the daily snow precipitation 3 rnrn.
3
The snow is assumed to have a density of 300 kg/m and a
heat conduction coefficient of 0.24 W/oC,m. Black ice is
only computed to form during the first week; in fact almost
exclusively during the first 3 days. After the first week
the ice grows at a rate linear with time and to a large
thickness. The computed ice growth is shown in Fig. 1.

The same situation as before is considered, only that the

snow precipitation is reduced to 1 rnrn/day. During the first
20 days only black ice is computed to form. From then on
black ice is not formed fast enough for buoyancy from the
new ice to compensate for the load from the new snow. Every
day new white ice is formed from the snow that is submerged.
Since the snowfall is light, some black ice is formed con­
tinuously throughout the simulated three month period. The
ice growth is shown in Fig. 1. Compaction of the submerged
snow has not been considered. In conclusion, it can be
stated that when snowfall is light but frequent throughout
a winter, black ice grows continuously but white ice forma­
tion dominates ~t the end of the winter.

1~
 In this situation the same temperature conditions as before
are assumed to prevail, but snowfall only occurs at two
occasions, 45 mm early in the freezing period and 45 mm
when the ice cover is thick. Four days after freeze-up the
first snowfall is assumed to occur. The black ice growth
until then is computed to 10 cm. Due to the heavy snowfall
a slush layer is formed on top of the black ice. It is
computed to take four days before the slush layer freezes
to ice. After that, black ice is assumed to form over a
period of 52 days. Although the ice is 44 cm thick after
this period with a snowcover of only 3 cm, the load of the
new 45 mm snowfall is large enough to submerge the snow and
form a 2 cm slush layer. The slush layer is computed to
freeze to white ice in just about a day. During the last
month the black ice grows another 5 cm so that the total
ice thickness after 3 months is 51 cm of which 8 is white
ice. The computed ice growth is shown in Fig. 2. The snow­
fall events affect the ice growth so that much ice is pro­
duced in conjunction with snowfall, but thereafter the
growth of black ice is slowed down. Calculation is also
made with the degree-day method. Best fit is obtained with
a degree-day coefficient of 2.5 cm/(OC-day)0.5. The
degree-day equation is plotted in Fig. 2.

APPLICATIONS

The ice growth model has been tested on a number of water

bodies. Results from an area close to Lulea Harbour are
presented below.

Ice data presented by Bengtsson and Sandqvist (1977) and

Sandqvist (1978) was used in analyzing ice growth in the
harbour basin of Lulea, northern Sweden. Graphs of measured
total ice thickness, white ice and snow depth over the two

180
winters 1976/77 and 1977/78 are shown in Figs. 3 and 4.
Meteorological data from a station on land was used as in­
put in the growth model . The snow density was chosen as
3 3
300 kg/m and the density of the slush as 580 kg/m .

In Fig. 3 computed ice thickness and snow depth for the

winter 1976 / 77 are compared with observed values. The
observed values are average values from four sites.
White ice is not computed to form until week 53, but the
first white ice was observed week 51. However, the last two
months of the winter observed and computed white ice thick­
ness are in very good agreement.Computed and observed total
ice thickness correspond well throughout the winter, but
the observed extensive growth of black ice during week 50
and 51, when the air temperature was only just below freez­
ing, is difficult to explain. The snow depth is underesti­
mated, which may be due to snowdrift or somewhat larger
amounts of snowfall on the ice than on land, or the catch
of snow in the precipitation qauge is lower than the true
snow precipitation. Inaccurate estimations of snow preci­
pitation particularly affect the computation of the early
ice growth, i.e. formation of white ice.

A graph of degree-day computed total ice thickness is also

shown in Fig. 3. Using a coefficient of 2.3 cm / ( oc-dayj O.5
the degree-day computed ice thickness closely follows the
ice thickness obtained from the more advanced method.

Simulated and observed data of 1977 / 78 are compared in Fig.

4. The total ice thickness is computed accurately except
that the growth in week 4 and 5 are overestimated. During
week 3, snow drifted away or melted so that the actual snow
load on the ice was much lower than the calculated load.
Hence, white ice was computed to form, when actually only
some black ice formed. Yet, from week 7 and onwards, com­
puted and observed thickness of white ice are in good agree­
ment. Also the snow depth is computed to be in reasonably
 good agreement with measurements. Since most of the formed
ice is black ice, it is logical that the total ice thick­
ness is well computed also by the degree-day method, as is
illustrated in Fig. 4. The model computations and the
degree-day method computations follow each other very
closely.

CONCLUSIONS

An algorithm or model for computing ice growth has been

presented. Using the model, it is possible to determine
black and white ice thickness of the later phase of the
freezing period quite accurately. In the early phase of the
freezing period, the model is sensitive to correct estima­
tions of snow precipitation. In the applications given, the
ice thickness in course of the winter is almost equally
well described using the degree-day method, but the degree­
day coefficient may vary from one year to another.

REFERENCES

Adams, W.P~, 1981. Snow and Ice on Lakes. In Gray, D.M. and
Male, D.H. (eds.) Handbook of Snow. Pergamon Press, Canada
p. 437-474.
Bengtsson, L. and Sandquist, J., 1977. Ice Conditions in
Lulea Harbour. Proc. Symp. Ice, Ships and Winter Naviga­
tion 100 years, Oulu, Finland, Dec. 12-17, p. 368-384.
Canfield, E.D., Bachmann, R.W. and Hoyer, M.V. 1983. Freeze­
out of Salts in Hard-Water Lakes. Limnol. Oceanogr.,
28(5), p. 970-977.
Hoobs, P.V. and Radke, L.F., 1967. The Role of Volume Diffu­
sion in the Metamorphism of Snow. J. Glacial., 6(48), p.
879-891.
Langham, E.J., 1981. Physics and Properties of Snowcover. In
Gray, D.M. and Male, D.H. (eds.) Handbook of Snow. Perga­
mon Press, Canada, p. 275-337.

182
Lepparanta, M., 1983. A Growth Model for Black Ice, Snow
Ice and Snow Thickness on Subarctic Basins. Nordic Hydro­
logy, 14(2), p. 59-70.
Sandquist, J., 1978. Problem in Keeping Year-Round Naviga­
tion in the Lulea Harbour. Proc. IAHR-Symp. on Ice
Problems, Lulea, Sweden, Aug.

183
 Fig. 1

Simulated snow depth and ice

growth for daily air tempera­
week ture -S oC and 3 mm daily snow
4 - --&---8--_l0 12 precipitation (solid lines)
-----­
and 1 mm daily snow precipi­
.. - ........ -.... _---­

40 --- --- tation (dashed lines). upper

line below datum is white ice
60
thickness and lower line is
80 total ice thickness.
ice

Fig. 2

Simulated snow depth and ice

growth for daily air tempera­
ture -S oC and 4S mm of snow
precipitation on day 4 and
day S9 (marked by arrows) .
Results of degree-day compu­
tations using a coefficient
of 2.S cm/( OC-day)o.s are
...........

shown with broken lines.

ice upper line below datum is
white ice thickness and
lower line is total ice thick­
ness.

184
 Fig. 3

Observed ice thick­

ness and snow depth
(solid line) in
weel<; Lulea 1976/77 com­
10
pared with computed
values (broken lines)
including degree-day
computations (dotted
'~' .
line). White ice is
"~" "'-'''"''",-,.~:.-.:::.~:-- upper and total ice
thickness lower line
below datum.

Fig. 4
em Observed ice thick­
snow
20 ness and snow depth
(solid line) in
week Lulea 1977/78 com­
15
pared with computed
20 values (broken lines)
including degree-day
computations (dotted
line). White ice is
'. total ice upper and total ice
ice ' ......~...... .. .. .. .
. 80 thickness lower line
below datum.

185
 lAHR Ice Symposium 1984
Hamburg

REGULARITY OF THE FREEZING-UP OF THE WATER SURFACE

AND HEAT EXCHANGE BETWEEN WATER BODY AND WATER SURFACE

Vaclav Matousek Water Research Prague

Senior Scientific Officer Institute Czechoslovakia

Abstract
An ice cover on the river surface is formed due to two
basic processes. The first, called statical, is based on the
spreading of shore ice'1n the direction of the stream line
in the rIver. The second, called dynamic, is related to
Blush ice run, its stopping in front of an obstacle on the
surface, to the formation of a cohesive ice carpet and its
freezing-up into an ice cover. The paper deals with the
static process of ice cover formation. It explains the pro­
duction of shore ice and of a primary ice layer based on the
thermal balance of the water surface. Using a theoretical­
experimental method, the relation for the coefficient of
heat transfer between the water and water surface is derived
and the temperature of the water surface at which freeze-up
begins is determined. These data are used for the mathemati~

al formulation of the necessary and at the same time suffic­

ient condition for the creation of a immovable primary ice
layer on the surface. The validity of this condition is
demonstrated by several measurement and observation results
on rivers with various characteristics.

187
 1. I n t rod u c t i o n

In frost periods frozen water surface is the most fre­

quently occurring ice phenomenon on rivers and reservoirs.
Yet it is not sufficiently known which factors cause the
formation of an ice cover and which do not. In the technical
literature we find that an ice cover is formed in frost
weather on the still surface of quiescent waters and on
rivers with low flow velocity. The values of the limiting
water velocities, where ice cover can still be observed,
cited in the literature differ greatly, those given by So~t
l
authors vary usually within the range of 0.4 - 0.6 m.s- •
Two basic processes contribute to the covering of river
with ice. The first is static and might be called the shore
ice growth process, which may be further subdivided into
shore ice growth by thermal exchange only and shore ice
extension by frazil flocs. The second process is dynamic and
might ba called the frazil ice evolution process, which
starts with tr.e supercooling of water and the production of
frazil crystals, the latter gradually developing into slush
and floes and finally forming a continuous ice cover. In the
following we shall deal only with static ice formation
including the formation of a primary ice layer.

2. The 0 ret i cal a n a 1 y sis

A primary ice layer is formed in the supercooled sur­

face layer. The cooling of the water surface is the result
of the heat exchange between water and atmosphere. The
thermal balance of the water surface is given by the general
equation:
qo = a(t h - tv) (1)

where qo - net heat flux per unit area due to heat exchange

188
 between the water surface and the atmosphere
IW.m -2 I,
Q - coefficient of heat transfer between water and
-2 0 -1
the surface IW.m • C I,
th - temperature of the water surface lOCi,
t v - wa t er t empera t ure lOCi.
The net heat flux per unit area qo is given by the sum of
the different components, i.e. the heat flux per unit area
due to evaporation ql' convection q2' long wave radiation q3
and solar radiation absorbed by water q4p+ q5p' or

qo = ql + q2 + q3 + q4p + q5p ( 2)

The relations for the determination of the different compo­

nents were shown by Matousek (1980 and 1981). For the evalu­
ation of the occurrence of freeze-up, qo can be also deter­
mined from the simplified expressions (15) and (16).
In Eq. 1, the coefficient a and the temperature of the
surface are unknown. From the theory of heat transmission we
know that coefficient OC is a function of the water velocity
v, heat water capacity c, density of water f and in our case
also of the wind velocity w,

IX= f (w, v, c,~) (3)

To ascertain the relation for a: and the surface tempera­

ture th at freeze-up, the measurement and observation results
on the river Ohre were used. From 1970 till 1981 the freeze­
up of weir backwaters and ice slush runs on the river Ohre
in the sector Karlovy Vary - Terezin were studied and data
recorded. In addition, water and air temperatures and other
meteorological parameters were measured in selected stations.
The mean water velocity was determined from the gauged
cross-section, measured water discharge and elevation of the
water surface. From .this twelve-year period an extensive set

189
of data about freeze-up and ice slush runs through ten weir
backwaters and one reservoir was collected (Matousek, 1982).
The analysis of freeze-up and ice run in relation to go and
mean water velocity v showed that, at constant wind velocity
w, coefficient C( has the form of a straigth-line equation.

C(= (A v + B w) c.f ( 4)
From Eq. 1 we get
qo
Q= ( 5)

In Eq. ( 5)for the determination of coefficient ~ the surface

temperature th is not known. For the determination of th at
freeze-up we make use of the fact that the relation ct has,
at constant w, the form of a straight-line equation. From
the found values qo and measured tv in cases of freeze-up
and chosen t , we calculate from Eq.(5)the values of coeffi­
h
cient a. The . calculated values are plotted in a graph with
the coordinates a and v. The graph indicates whether for the
chosen th the form of the straight-line equation holds true
for coefficient C(. The values of <;( calculated from Eq.( 5)at
o
th = -1.1 C are plotted in Fig. 1. The IX values create in
Fig. 1 a set of points delimited from below by a straight
line. The qo values were not determined for the real time of
freeze-up but as the highest values that occurred after
several hours during the night in which the freeze-up start­
ed. For this reason the qo values can be considered only as
greater or equal to those values at which the freeze-up
started. The different a values plotted in Fig. 1. incorpo­
rate also the wind velocity component. At constant water ve­
locity the lowest values are observed when w = O. That means
that the straight-line delimiting the set of pOints of "
values from below,is the graphical expression of the equ~n

of coeffi cient c(, when w = O. The del1m1 tating straight-lim

190
 o
0-
I
-­ I
~
~
>
.
I

<...)

0
.
I N

t!
II 'E

.
3;
400,---­

t
300 I
i:
I
+
I

+
I

200 +

~--+--I
100

o -----+--------+­
o Q05 0.10 0.15 0.20
v- ms-1

~ Fig. 1 - Coefficient of heat transfer vs mean water velocity at a cross-section

in Fig. 1 is given by equation:
-6
oc = 1127 v = 269.2.10 .c. f.v (6 )

For other th values was it not possible to delimitate the

set of points of oc values by a straight line. The condition
for a linear relationship between coefficient d and v is met
o
when th = -1.1 C.

3.Coefficient of heat transfer between water and water

surface

For the heat transfer coefficient oc we derived equation

(6), which is valid when w = O. The dependance on wind vel~

city is determined from the expression:

=f (!!)
v
(7)

issuing from the dimensional analysis.

To find the functional Eq.(7h we use again a graphical
illustration. The values obtained from the measurement and
observation results are plotted in Fig. 2. Values referring
to the reservoir of the Kadan barrage are graphically differ­
entiated. The object of our interest are the pOints apper­
taining to high w/v values. The oc/v.c.f values at constant
w/v are very different. From this it follows that coeffici~

a is not dependent only on the wind velocity, but rather on

the surface width in the wind direction, of which we know
that it markedly affects the size of the waves at the sur­
face. The full line in Fig. 2 is given by:

v.c.p • 10 6 = 269.2 + 5.09 !!

v
(8)
or
OC = 1127 v + 21.3 w ~ 1130 v + 21 w (9)

Since the coefficient with regard to w is not constant,

but dependent on the surface width in wind direction, the

192
<D
o

o reservoir Kadan
+ weir backwaters
900r----,-----.-----+----~----~--~~--~
c;I
/
o·
/ .'
/ /
800+---~r----+-----r----1---~+-----~~~

/. l/
.~ 0
L/ /
'Q
./ /'

200r-----r---~-----4----_+----~----_r----~
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
~/v

Fig. 2 - Effect of water velocity on the coefficient

of heat transfer

193
equation for coefficient ~ can be written

~ = 1130 v + b.w (10)

where b - coefficient dependent on the surface width B in

wind direction,
w - wind velocity at an elevation of 2 m above the
-1
water surface Im.s I,
v - mean water velocity in a cross-section Im.s-l/.
Coefficient b = 21 refers to the full line in Fig. 2.
This line reasonably fits the data for weir backwaters. Weir
backwaters on the river Ohre have a surface width of about
50 m and therefore the value of coefficient b = 21 can be
correlatedto tbe surface width B = 50 m in the wind direct­
ion. The dasbed line in Fig. 2 corresponds to low values of
alv.c.f referring to the reservoir of the Kadan barrage.
The surf ace width of the Kadan reservoir 1s 130 m and to
B = 130 m can be correlated coefficient b = 27. From Fig. 2
can be aleo seen that coefficient b can reach values up to
b = 47. In this case the wind direction was corresponding to
B • 3000 m.
From tbe above it can be concluded tbat the values of
coefficient b vary in the range of 15 to 45. For the deter­
mination of its values we recommend to proceed as follows:
(1) wben the surface width in the wind direction
B~ 15 m, then b = 15,
(2) if B ~ 15 m, then
b = -0.9 + 5.8 19B (11)

4. The regularity of freeze-up

From the results in Chapt. 2 and 3 the regularity of

freeze-up of the water surface by a static process can be
derived. The surface of flowing waters is covered continu­
ously with an unmoving primary ice layer or mainly primary

194
ice layer, when
qo::S (11)0 v + b.w) (-1,1 - tv) (12)

The study of the freezing-up process on the navigation

canal in Prague-Podbaba showed that Eq.(12)can be generali­
zed and simultaneously more precisly defined according to
the following regularity:
The surface of a temperature-equilibrated fresh-water
stream, flowing through an open channel in nature freezes up
in the entire extent of its cross-section in the form of an
ice sheet or mostly ice sheet, respectively, when

Iw.m- 2 1 (I)

where v - maximum mean vertical water velocity in the

am -1
riverbed cross-section Im.s I, or mean water
velocity at the cross section in the case of
a broad trapezoidal channel or channel of simi­
lar shape, respectively,
t - mean water temperature lOci in the vertical with
v
a velocity of v sm ' or cross-sectional water
temperature when SUbstituting for vsm the mean
water velOcity.
The surface of flowing waters starts to freeze-up mostly
from the shore. Near the shore, the mean vertical water
velocities are lower than in the streamline and thus the
regularity of freezing-up, expressed by Eq. (1)), is already
obeyed at higher qo and higher water temperatures. ' This
regularity is valid also for partial freeze-up of the sur­
face in the cross-section, i.e. it is valid also for the
formation of shore ice.
The regularity of shore ice formation can be defined as
follows: On the surface of a temperature-equilibrated fresh­
water stream, flowing through an open channel in nature,

195
shore ice is formed in part of the cross-section, where the
mean vertical water velocity meets the condition
b.w
v~ (14)
s 1130
The application of the freeze-up regularity in practice
simplifies the determination of qo from simplified relations,
derived by the author. For air temperature t
o
lOci e (OJ -12>

-81 + 12 t + 3.2 (0.8 t + 0.1) w +

o o

+ (318 + 4.6 t ) c.n Iw.m- 21 ( 15)

o

and for air temperature to < -12 °c

-96 + 11 t + 3.2 (0.7 t - 0.9) w +

o o

/W.m- 21 (16)

where w - wind velocity at an elevation of 2 m above the

water surface Im.s-Il,

n - cloudiness - i.e. the extent of sky overcast with

clouds classified by a scale from 0 to 1; cle ar

sky n = 0, overcast n = 1,

c - coefficient dependent on the cloud density; for

thin clouds c = 0.006, moderately dense clouds

c = 0.16, dense clouds c = 0.27.

5. Verification of the freeze-up regularity

The regularity of freeze-up expressed by Eq. (12)or Eq.

~3) is the result of a theoretico-experimental study of the
freeze-up of weir backwaters and reservoirs on the river
Ohre. This regularity was also verified on two rivers of
different characteristics. For it is necessary to prove that
Eq. (13)is not only the necessary condition for freeze-up to
occur, but simultaneously rather a sufficient condition.

196
This shows the necessity of verifying the relationship in its
entire range of water temperatures and water velocities
occurring in nature at whicb, in relation to qo' a freeze-up
can happen.
Verification tests were carried out for three winter
seasons on tbe middle reaches of the river Labe a nd in the
navigation canal Prague-Podbaba. In the reach Melnik-Chvale­
tice on the river Labe there is a continuous sequence of
weir backwaters. The riverbed is in its entire length regu­
lated, the water depth is more than 2 m and the average sur­
face width is 80 m. The total channel roughness is much less
than that of the river Ohre. Since the winter season 1981/82,
the necessary meteorological and hydrological parameters
have been measured on each sluice 3 times a day and the ice
pbenomena have been observed. At the same time control
measurements and river surveys were performed with the pur­
pose to determine the precise occurrence of ice phenomena in
the entire river length of interest. In the total length of
100 km of the studied river reach, cross-sections of the
riverbed are being measured a f ter each 50 m, from which the
mean velocities of the water, and the mean vertical velocity
can be determined. At the same time a detailed map of the
river and its mileage is available. The river stationing in
hectameters is indicated by signalizing rods on the banks
permitting the exact identification of the site on the river.
The observations and measurements during the three
winter seasons, in the course of which the water discharges
and the weather were very variable, provided a great amount
of data for the verification of freeze-up regularity and
confirmed its correctness. In Table 1 an example is present­
ed of the data evaluation of the freeze-up regularity from
measurements carried out on Feb. 17 and 18, 1984.

197
~ EVALUATION OF THE REGULARITY OF FREEZE-UP Table 1
Water course: Middle Labe Date: Feb.17, 84 Time: 6.00 + 8.00 h

Meteorological to Name of
qo Profile Q v tv qmz Observed
parameters °c W.m-2
reach 3 l -1 -2 phenomenon
at km m .s­ m. s °c W.m
===============: ------- 1:=====: ============ 1========l::======: ======= b====/======= ============
w = 0.4 m.s­
1 -12,2 -240 Lyse. 40.70 31 0.083 1,2 -241 freeze-up
I
cloudiness -11.8 -235 Cele.kovice 35.05 32 0.085 1.1 -235 freeze-up
n =0 -12.5 -244 Brandys 28.10 44 0.114 0.5 -223 freeze-up
visibili ty -12.0 Kos.telec
-237 20.50 44 0.115 0.5 -225 freeze-up
d> 5 km
-11.5 -231 Lobkovice 13.10 44 0.120 0.5 -235 freeze-up I

--­ - - - -

Date: Feb.18, 84 Time: 6.00 7 8,00 h

w = 0.3 m.s -1 -13.2 -249 Lyse. 40.70 31 0.083 0.8 -194 freeze-up
cloudiness -12.6 -241 Cele.kovice 31 0.082 -181 freeze-up
35.05 0.7
n =0
visibili ty -12.2 -237 Brandys 28.10 43 0.114 0.4 -205 freeze-up
d = 2.5 km -12.0 -234 Kostelec 20.50 43 0.116 0.4 -209 freeze-up
relat.humidity -12,0 -234 Lobkovice 0.117 freeze-up
13.10 43 0.4 -2l0
cp = 90 %
qmz = (1130 v + b.w)(-l.l - tv) b 27 regularity of freeze-up:qo~ qmz
 EVALUATION OF THE REGULARITY OF FREEZE-UP Table 2
Water course: upper navigation canal Prague - Podbaba
Date: Jan. 19, 1984 Time: 6.00 ~ 8.00 h

Meteorological qo Profile v tv qmz Observed

W.m- 2 phenomenon
parameters at km m. s -1
°c W.m -2
==:::::=::======: ====:::=== ========== ========= =======F======= ================
-110 1. 40 0.018 2.30 -96 freeze-up
to = -2.5 °c
-110 1.60 0.019 2.30 -100 freeze-up
w = 0.4 m.s­ l
-110 1. 70 0.016 2.30 -89 freeze-up
cloudiness:
n = 0.2 -110 1. 76 0.020 2.30 -104 freeze-up

density of -110 1.80 0.017 2.30 -92 freeze-up

cloudiness: -110 2.20 0.022 2.35 -113 shore ice
z =0
-110 2.30 0.018 2.35 -98 freeze-up
relat.humidity:
-110 2.44 0.023 2.40 -119 shore ice
'f = 90 %
-110 2.54 0.022 2.40 -115 shore ice
visibility:
d:> 5 km -110 2.84 0.019 2.40 -103 freeze-up
-110 .1.10 0.022 2.40 -115 shore ice

qmz = (1130 v + bW)(-l,l - tv) b 20 regularity of freeze-up: qo~ qmz

CD
CD
 Freeze-up at very low water velocities was studied on
the upper navigation canal in Prague-Podbaba. The canal is
3.4 km long. Between km 1.40 and 3.40 it was built with uni­
form cross-section. During the many years of navigation
traffic its shape underwent a partial deformation, as was
shown by detailed measurements of its cross-sections. In
front of the lock, up to km 1.40, the canal is conically
widened.
Due to the different sizes of the cross-sections, the
mean velocity of water along the canal, at constant dis­
charge is variable. The canal does not freeze-up simultane­
ously in its entire length and it is possible to observe
and prO! e easily the regularity of freeze-up and formation
of shore ice. The evaluation of the results from measure­
ments carried out on Jan. 19, 1984 is presented in Table 2.
The results obtained prove the clear boundary of freeze-up
and confirm that the regularity expressed by Eq.(13)includ­
es all factors affecting the freezing-up of the surface.

References

Matousek, V., 1980. Thermal and ice regime to water streams,

1st Edition. State Agricultural Publishing House, Prague
(in Cze ch) •
Matousek, V., 1981. Heat exchange between the water current
and the ambient environment. Vodohospodarsky casopis
Vol. 29 (2), p. 165-187 (in Czech).
Matousek, V., 1982. Regularity of freeze-up in rivers and

weir backwaters. Vodohospodarsky casopis, Vol. 30 (2),

p. 122-140 (in Czech).

200
 lAHR Ice Symposium 1984
Hamburg

RECENT DEVELOP~1ENTS ON MATHEMATICAL ~DELLING

OF WINTER THERlolAL REGHIE OF RIVERS

Numa 1·1arcotte HYDRO-QUEBEC CANADA

Engineer

SUMMARY

r·\a·cher.1a ·~ i ca l mocie ll ing of '.:he '~he mal and ice r-e gi i:le of r-i ve rs
is desc;-i bee ana app 1 i eo '~o '~h2 S ·~. Lawrence ri ver i n '~he ,e g~ on of I :on­
~re al. Rescl~s of ~e2s~~e~en~s and si~ula~~ons are compared .

,l, bri ef descri;>~ion of '~he gen era l me'.:hoe of s'~udy is presen'~ee

'~oge~her wi '~h ;;he bas ic '~h er,oa 1 buc;ge'~ ro1e·~hod. I n·~era.c ·c i on be '~weell hea'~

exchanges , w a'~er ·~er.lpe ·ratu,e , ice fon.la·~jon ana ice de'~eri orc'~ion is 'c hen
2x o.fflineci in ~ore de-~ail. Two '~y~e s of ice are consideree wi ~ h i;;ore
emphasis: ancho r ice ane moving sheet ice.

The fo llowing point s are of particular interes:. One more term

is aeaed to the thermal budget to express the use of supercooling for t he
forma'.: i on of f ra zi I and anchor ic e. AI so, a criteri on for shee: ice
formation i s pres entea where ~he limiting water ve locity is a function of
heat losse s . Fin a lly, t he variat ion of ca lc ula'~e d wa'~ er '.;elilpera·~ure wi '~ h

d i s '~ance shows a ;Join'<: of maxir;:um supercooling followeci by "resiciual"

supercool ing, wi '~ hou '~ the nece ssity of having '.;0 prescribe value s '~o '~ hese

201
 1. INTRODUCTION

The ;Jresen'~ pa :JH descr; bes recent aC:ai~i ons to the

fila~~er,iatical r,i0Gel ~;Vi-iZR [~] which uses hea'~ '~rensfer analysis '~O

sir.lula'~e river ice r:egir::e. The novel aspec~s concern anchor ice,
shee~ ice and wa~er '~er,1pera '~u:-es in '~he Gor,iain of supercool ing.

The GesCl'"ip'~ion ane filoGelling of ancho:- ice is ~resen:ec in

ano'~her cO""~I L:niccj"~ion ('~ ':'his SYr.lposiur.l.

;{ui:lel"ical sim.:la'. ions are i'.;Jpl ieG '~O '~he case of '~he S'~.Law­

:-ence river il1 '~ ile :-egion of la:(e S'~.!..oL:is anG Lachine Ra~ids wile:-e
nU;,le:-OLS obs:e:-vc..~ions have been r;lace by ilycro-Quebec in ~he pas'~ few
years. Tilis stretch of the river is c~aracterized by a la~e zone wi~h

par~ial ice cover followea by a long rapia~ha'~ remains open all

wi nter. Anchor ice end mvi ng sheet ice are genera'~ed in 1 a:-ge
quanti'~ies.

2. GENERAL PROCEDURE

The s'~udy area is shown in fi gure 1. I-~ ex '~enc:~s from the

ta ilrace of exis t ing Beauharnois power plant t o :he Champlain bridge
located downstream frOfil Lachine rapids, a tot al distance of 40 kilo­
r.1e'~ers. Figure 1 indica '~es also the ex'~ent of '.:he stable ice cover
duri ng 'the wi n-ter 1983-34 '~ oge'cher wi th areas where sheet ice and
anchor ice are gene:-ated.

A first-order fileteorologie~l station located at nearby Dorval

airport gives hourly values of all usual parameters. Similarly,
various hydrometric s':'a'~ions give hourly fileaSUrefilen'~s of levels and
eli scharges. \~a'~er ter.lpera'cure a'~ '~he uils'~ream end is assumed to be
cons '~an'~ at + 0, GOl °c whi eh is close ':'0 the Toreasured 'tefilperatures in
j,li G-\\'i n'~er .

In the nUfilerical simulation, cOfilputations are filade for the 75

cross-sec~ions a'~ hourly or caily in'~erval, as required. Sir~ilarly,

each crQss-sec~ion is '"rea'~ed as a whole or subdivid:ed in-~o

sub-seC'~ions if required. As clescribed in a previous paper [4], '~he

~orielling is ~ade up of threE dis~inc~ bu~ int2rrela~ed conrponents:

202
 a) nycrc:.ulic cOI~:?u '~a '~ions
The backwa~er c~rve gives wa~er levels, dep~hs, veloci:ies,
sGrface area, e:c. a: eech cross-sec:ion and for each sub-section
i~ required. TO '~al or ;Ja;"~';al ice cover is '~aken in'~O accoun~

I.!sing~he Sabaneev r"e ·~ho(;.

b) ~ea~ ~ransfer analysis

The~her;;,al bt:cge '~ i s cor;,pu~2d a'~ every cross-sec~ion ,:~ hourly

i~:erval s~arting a~ the upstream end and ~roceeding downstream.

ValUeS of ce;)'~h, '~ravel ·~ir.:e, sU'r"'face area, e·~c. obtain2C ftor;;

back\"ja~e." co;;,pu '~a '~ions are used '~o cal cuI a'~2 'che change i n wa '~er

te~perature. :ce conditions also influence the wa~er ~empera~ure:

eX '~err~ of s '~able ice cover, ice genera'~ion, floa'~ing ice, e ·~c.

~ I Ice cclcula~ion
Us i ng wa'~er '~empera;:ures and ra~~es of hea'c exchange, the mode I
Sir:lUld'~es ice foma '; ion, progression and deteriora'~ion at hourly

or dally i nterva I as requi red. There is constant interaction

be~ween ice paTam2~ers anti hea~ exchange computations.

3. THE BASIC THERMAL BUDGET

The n2'~ hea~ transfer per ~n~t surface area and uni~ tima Q
is given by~he~heimcl budget. In eql1a'~ion : 1). '~he te:'"f:ls of -;:he
h2a: budge: dre, in order: infrared radia:ion, solar :'"adlatlon,
convection, evaporation, precipitation, head losses, infilt:'"a~ion,
'~hermal erosion, and anchor ice or frazil genera·~ion.

Q QRr + QRS + Q~ + Q~ + Qr + CHF + QJ + QTL + QA

The descrip~ion of first seven terms in equa:ion (1) is given

in o'~her publication, for instance reference [3]. The term QT~
adap"~ed fT"O;;l reference [2] and expressed in Kcal/m 2 -day is written:

QT~ ( 2)

where n is ~anning's n, V the velocity, y the depth and aT th~ tempe­

rature above DoC. The equation for QA is identical with equation (2)
except aT is negH~lv2.
203
4. SURFAC~ CONDITIONS

There &re ~wo dis~inc: con~itions: ~he surface of ~he water

Cilil be eLhe; ~ ce covereG or free of ice. rieat '~ransfer differs
racically for those two cases.

a~ 1(2 covereG crees

The cover cc~s as en iils~la'~ion pro~:=c~ing '~he wa'~er from 'ehe
ex~erior. In ~he ~her~Bl bucge~ of the flowing wbter, only :hree
~err,lS rel;:b~n: heeG losses, hec '~ gains froin infiEration and
thermal erosion if wa~e; ~s above CoCo Thic~nening of the cover
~s ob;:ainec by '~he degree-Gay r.le ·~hod [4].

b; C2en-wa:er areas
The~hen~al b~c'ge~ is c&lcula '~eci L;sing all '~e r;;:s ~n equa'~ion (1)
except QTE, the erosion term. During wamer periocis or J.lOre
preci sely when '~he budge '~ is posi '~i ve, '~he open-wa~er areas are
"winc'ows" '~hroL;gh which large hea '~ in~u'~s can be brough'~ to the
flowing water. This results in an increase in water ter.lperature
and subsequent ther~al erosion of the ice fur~her downstream. In
our cliITIa'~e a~ la~i'~uGe 45 0 rl, '~ he '~hermal budge'~ can be posi'~'jve
for a few hours on sunny Gays in r.lid-win ·~er even when '~he air
temperature is as low as -150~.

\,llen '~lle bucge~ is neg a'~ ive, ',- he pheno~len a are more cOlliplex.
Hei!"~ losses cause a decrease in wa:er ·~er.Jpera~ure which becor.les
supercoo 1 eo a fe\~ t housand '~ hs or a few hundre '~ hs of a degree C.
r;azil ice, anchor ice or hiobile shee '~ ice is fomed, depending on
local hydraulic and ·~hefr.lal con~i~ions. i'ar t of '~he supercooling is
useci in this ice generat ion and water :e~pera~ure co~es closer to OoC.
The newly formed ice tha~ floats on :he surface reduces the exposed
are., and hence the hea'~ losses. As \~e proceed downstream, '~he

,)ercen'~age of floa'~ing ice varies an~ consequently, the heat losses,

supercooling and ice generation.

204
5. HYDRAULIC COMPUTATIONS

The globc:l parai;Je '~e l" S of flo\\' ob'~ajned a '~ each cross-sec '~ion

by '~he baci<vle '~er computa-~ ions are no'~ suffi c i en '~ when it becor.les
necessary 'co c1i s '~ingui sh be '~\;'een ice genera-~ion in ~he [;lain deep
channel and ice fo r mation in shallow areas near the riversi de .

Due -~o cos -i:, i -~ has been chosen no '~ to use bi -d i men s i ona 1
modelling al t hough simulations have been made for lake St.Louis [I].
An incerrnediate ,"e-~hod has been chosen. The i:anning equa-~ion usee: '~o

de'~ermine badwa '~er curve is applied again a~ each sub-section. The

velocities and other para~eters of flow so obtained consti~u~e a
be~ '~er approx i '"O-i: i on '~han -~he hycrau 1 i c parame-:ers for the global
cross-section to calcula~e ice conditions.

6. THE STABLE ICE COVER

~e have seen in paragraph 4 :hat heat transfer differs

rad i ca 11 y for ice covered and for free surf ace areas. It i s '~hen of
major i [;lpor-~ance~o :<no<l '~he exten-~ of the s'~ab 1e cover. Out
knowle~ge on progression and regression of border ice [5,6] has proven
to be insufficient to adequately ;;;odel the stable cover, even when
using hydraulic characteristics in ~he sub-sections. Fortunately, fo r
-~he case s '~uoi ec, '~he cover once fon~eo changes 1 i -~t 1e duri ng -~he

\tJin·~ei"' . in ·~he lilodel, \"i~ tlplace ·~he cover as observeC:, which is

ll

relatively easy since the width and ;:hickness of the cover is

described a'~ every silb-sec~ion of a cross-section. M -~er cons-~ruc­

tion, the cover extent on lake St.Louis will be artificially

con-~ro 11 ec.

7. MOVING SHEET ICE

Th-i s '~fPe of ~ ce is gen2.'"a -~ed in areas where;:he wa -~er

veloci-cy is rela '~jvelj low ane: -;:he wiG~h of o;>en-wa ;:er is large. cor
~he case s-cudied, -~he order of r.lagni -~Jde is C,5 r;lis c:.nd 1 kilOi,le~er

respectively.

205
 In '~he inLial s '~ages, shee: ice I,oo:<s like glass. It is
uniforl.l and -::rans?aren~ am: has a few millimeters in ·~hickness. I~

gradually beco:i1es gray-\~~i '~e anG '~hickens ·~o a few cen ·~ime·~ers.

Latera I di ,"ens ions are i n '~~e order of a few hundred I~e t ers to more
'~han one :<il01ile·~er. T~js ice moves wi~h -::he flow.

Analysis of various li~iting cases in lake S:.Louis, Beauhar­

no i s canal and Riviere-des-Prairies shows 'cha~ -fOrlna'~ion of shee'~ ice
de;Jencls Of: \\'a '~er veloci '~y anci ra'~e of hea~~ransfer. ResuLs have
been plot~ed on figure 2. The li mi ti ng. veloc~ty can be expressed as:

-4
v -1,25 x 10 Q

I '~ is seench(..~ in cold \~eir~her ",oving shee '~ ice can fonl \'ihen~~e

velocHy is as high ~s 1 (;l/S. This cri'~Gria is ~relij'j inary. O'; ;her

factors also have an influence, s~ch as winci and width of the river.

From t~e ~oint of view of heat exchanges, sheet ice insulates

'~he \",'a '~er frol:, '~ne eX '~eri or. H2a'~ 1OSS2S con~.:ri bL!"~e ·~o '~hi cken '~he

floa '~ing ice. The reduc ': :ion in hea':: loss can be consiGerable if '::he
coverecl surface area Is la r ge. i·lorever, in '~he case of '::hi n
~rans~aren~ sheet ice, solar radiat ion ~ene:rates :hrough ~he ice and
brings a sligh: increase in water te@pera: ure. All these aspects are
included in the ~odel.

8. FRAZIl AND ANCHOR ICE

In :he present paper, all frazil ancl anchor ice is treated as

anc:lor ice. In rec.li ·~y, this is no '~ 0,ui '::e ·~rue. iiowever, available
observations indicate :hat frazil ice quan:ities are relatively small.

Grow'~h of ice on '~he bO'~~orJ i5 assu;;:ed~o be produced by heat

~ ransfer be:ween ~he s~~ercooled flowing w&~er and the existjng bot~om

ice ~~ CoCo T~is bc.sic assu;n,:J~ion seei;:S ~o be suppor~ed by~he

s~udies of Vlaha:ds and Barduho1 [7] on '~he grmf~h of ice crys'::als in
su~ercooled flowing wa~er. In ~he ~odel, the eQuation used for growt h
of ice on '~~e river floo t is 'che sai:le as~he one giving '~hermal

e'(os j on of '~he ice cove r . The genera~ i on of anc~or ice bri ngs a

206
 change in wa~er -~em;Jera~Llre. P,l1 energy liberated by ice growth is
assumed ~o be ~ransferred ~o the flo~ing water .

9. WATER TEMPERATURE

~ater :e~perature is -calculated taking in:o account all terms

of -~he hea-~ buC:ge-~ plus the foIl owi ng paramete-rs: surface area
covered ~i~h stable ice; open-~ater area; area of floa~ing ice;
fOil,la-~ion of shee-~ ice and anc:'or ice; -~hemal erosion of anchor Ice
and stable ice cover; solar radiation through sheet ice.

SIr.1ul a-~ed wa-"er -~ei;,pera"i:ures are in fai:-ly good agreemen-~

l1"ith observed -~er.1ilera-~ures as shown In fi gure 3. Vari ous other

s i [;1i I ar cor,lpari sons show good agreemen'~ be -~\ieen measured and
calCL:1 ated -~empera-~ures. The major poin-~ in -~hese results is -~hat

maxiiJurn supercooling is followed by "residual" supercooling without

-che necess i '~y of hav; ng -co prescri be values for -these -~wo parar.1e '~e -rs

as was (jone in ear Ii er vars Ions of -~he model. The heat released in
anchor ice fo:'"mat i on and the pro::ect:i on due to fl oa '~ i ng ice exp 1a in
::hese changes i n wa-~er -~err.pera-~ure.

10. CONCLUSION

i-Iodelling -the ice regime of -~he 5t.Lal-l rence river in '~he area
of la~e St.Louis and Lachine rapids has been made using detailed heat
-: :ransfer analysis. Par'~kular a-~ -;:en -~ion has been brough -;: to anchor
ice and fOIov-j ng shee-;: i ce -;:ha-~ ore genera -~eG i il 1arge quanti '~i es and
-~ha -~ are be i ng -~a :( en in-;:o cOl1s i dera-;: i on iTl -;:he design of -~he proposed
Archipel power station.

Add i~ ions have been brough -t~o~he r.la-thefila-t I ca 1 rnode 1 R: v;;a

in order -::0 sifOlul a '~e adequa-~ely -~hese -~wo -~ypes of ice tha-:: are
rela-~ively li -~ -~ le documen -::ed in -::he litera-tu:-e. Comparison between
results of sjmul~:ions and nume:-ous observations in the field indicate
good agreeiilen'~. i~e\-I cleve I 0piilent s on the -~ he;"i:1 a 1 aspec -;:s inc I ude -the
hea: Involve(j in an~hor ice generation, a crite~ion for the formation
of ~oving she2~ ice &nd ~he evolution of we~er ~em~era~ure.

207
 Froi,; c; prac'.:ical poin'~ of view, -~he I.lode1 si[;,ula~es sc..~isfac­
'.:orily~he evolu'~ion wi;;h dis'.:ance and ·~;r.le of shee~ ice, anchor ice
and wa'~er supercooling. For the proposed Archipel s'~ation prevision
of anchor ice and ilroceccion due~o r.loving shee'~ ice can no\'l be
analysed. Use of shee~ ice ~o reduce anchor ice produc~ion is being
investigated.

REFERENCES

1. C:\~BALUDA et al. Hydrociyna;;:ics and r,lixing of joining rivers. A case

s'~udy, Vol. VI, p. 587-594, Proceedings of the XX IAH~ Congress,
;·:oscow (U~SS), Sep~ei"ber 5-9, 1983.

2. CO~L~Y, ~.E. and LAV~~D~~, S.T., 1975, Convective heat transfer at an

ice -wa'~er inferface, Discussion by Dr. 8. r'~ichel, p. 60-76,
i'roceedi ngs of the Research SeT"i nar on Thema 1 ileg; [,le of ,~; vel" Ice,
Techni cal i·Jemorandum ,,0 114"la'~ i onal ,~esearch [cunci 1 ~anada, Cc~ober

1974.

3. lJA:{COTTc, iL and DUOI~G, V.L., (1973), Le calcul de la tempera';:ure de

1 'eat.: ces ri vi eres, ~ournal of Hydrology, 18, p. 273-287.

4. ilAilCOTTC:, iL, 1981, Regime;:hemique des glaces en riviere. E';:ude de

cas, p. 412-422, Proceedings IAHR In'~erna';:ional Symposium on Ice,
Qu§bec, Culy 27-31, lS81.

5. iJIC:-:C:L, B., i:A~COTTC:, N., rOi~SE;:A, F. and R:VA~D, G., 1982, Forma~ion

of Border Ice -in '~he S~e.Anne iliver, p. 38-61, Proceedings of the

\:orkshop on Hydraulics of Ice-Covered ({ivers, Edmon'con, Cune 1-2,
1982.

o. I~,:JJBU,H, R.il., 1%9, The i'lel son ~iver. A S~udy of Subarc;:ic ~iver

Processes, Ph.D. Thesis, Ann Arbour, ~ichigan.

7. VLAHAKIS, J.G. and BARO[;Hil, A.':., 1974, Grow-~h ~a~e of an Ice Crys'cal
in Flowing \Ja-;:er and Salt Solu';:ions, AI~hC: :'ournal, Vol. 20, ;"-lo. 3,
,J. 581-591.

208
 +
<)
o ARTIFICIAL ISLAND
c::::::J 0 PE N WAT ER
c::::::J STABLE ICE COVER
® MOvING SHEET ICE km I 0 2 3 km
@ ANCHOR ICE

FIGURE I

LOCAT ION PLAN

r'U
o
CD
N
0 W
C)
(/) 0

(/)
0
a..
a:
(D
<l:
(5 cr cr
z W
z
cr
u.. <l
0> w ---1
<l: 0 Z a..
:r: U
~ I- :i: :.
U <l: ::;;W U <l:
:r:
::it

w <l:
<f)
(]) ---1 u
W
cr
l!)
w 0,04
1 OPEN
DARK
DOT : NO SHEET
DOT: SHEET ICE
ICE

0
0,03 f--. 1,0 0
w
"
- - CALCULATED
• 0
0,02 on ~
cr
~
I­ 0,01
\ )1-----1( MEASURED
"­
E
~\
• .a­
<l:
cr
W
a..
0,00
\\ (\
z
0,5 0
e:, e:,
• •
:. -0,01 1(--J(­
> o
w
I- -0,02
\\ ~ \ BEAUHARNOIS CANAL

\/ / e:, LAKE ST- LOUIS

Ct
W
I­
~
-0,03
-0,04
0,0 10,0
DISTANCE
'­
20,0
IN KILOMETERS
30,0 '" 40,0
0,00
-2000
Q
o
-4000

IN
RIVIERE - DES- PRAIRIES

-6000
2
K CAL I m - DAY
-8000 -10000

FIGURE 3
FIGURE 2

CALCULATED AND MEASURED

LIMITING VELO C ITY FOR MOVING SHEET ICE
WATER TEMPERATURES
FORM ATION IN FUNCTION OF RATE
OF HEAT EXCHANGE
FEBRUARY 26, 1983, 7 A.M .

- - - - --- --- ---- -- - - - - - - - ---_.

 W!R lee Symposium 1984

Hamburg

STATISTICAL TIME-SERIES ANALYSIS AND

- - - + . - --- - - ­

RELIABILITY OF DATA DESCRIBING THE OCCURRENCE

AND INTENSITY OF ICE-rHENOMENA IN RIVERS

AND RESERVOIRS

Ladislav Votruba Faculty of Civil Czechoslovakia

Prof.lng.Dr.DrSc. Engineering,
Technical Univer­
Adolf Patera ai ty of Prague
lng.CSc.

The reliability of the function and safety of hydraulic stru­

ctures is often very markedly affected by winter conditions

(ice acting on the structures, ice jams, clogging of the in­

lets by sludge, etc.). Therefore statistical characteristics

of ice phenomena and processes present frequently a conside­

rable part of the operational reliability characteristics of

the structures thus gaining a great significance.

For the generalization and prediction in water management

practice it is essential to investigate the stipulating and

influencing time series of meteorological, climatic and hyd­

rological characteristics such as

- temperature time series,

- wind conditions observation series.

- discharge series.

- series describing the occurrence and duration of the dif­

ferent ice phenomena and processes and
- series of values describing the intensity of the partaking
ice phenomena and processes.
The processing of the values obtained from the observations
and measurements are not of the same standard and some of the
partaking processes are not sufficiently known for the needs
of the ice-engineering. The presented paper deals with some
analysis results and determined statistical properties of so­
me stipulating climatical and hydrological phenomena and da­
ta series of cryological parameters.

211
 1. Temperature series
The air temperatures above the water surface affect most ma­
rkedly the temperature changes in the river or reservoir.
For this reason attention is focused on them during the mea­
suremets and statistical treatment. they are often correla­
ted to determined values of the cryological parameters. It
is a certain schematization. especially in the prediction of
the beginning of ice phenomena in rivers and reservoirs.whe­
re today we cannot do without the precise thermal balance of
the water surface. the water flow or volume. respectively.
Some present experiences show [3J that by simultaneous deter­
mination of the greatest number of components of the heat ba­
lance equation we commit the slightest error in the calcula­
tio~d that is optimal to process statistically and evalua­
te directly the time change of the total heat flux through
the water surface and to determine from it the probable heat
flux. In spite of this the relatively independent evaluation
of the probability changes of the phenomena and their values
the participate in the total heat balance, does not lose its
importance.
Of extraordinary significance is detailed statistical treat­
ment of the more than two-hundred-years' series of daily air
temperatures that have been measured in Prague-Klementinum
[1]for the period 1776 - 1975; this series was started by J.
Stepling [2J.
Now the analyses of this series have been carried out in gre­
ater detail in the ranges of minimum air temperatures in the
winter months, the new findings about the variability of
this meteorological parameter in Czechoslovakia can be furt­
her generalized.
The minimum daily air temperatures in the winter months we­
re elaborated for the 20D-years' period into empirical lines
of exceedance and were rather successfully approximates to
negatively asymmetrical binomic distribution of probability.
E.g. the January minima had Cv = 0.222 and Cs~ -1.60. February
Cv = 0.193 and Csc -1.20. We can see here, e.g. in comparison
with hydrological values (discharges) a markedly smaller va­

212
riability but a considerable negative asymmetry.
The probability of reaching values below the daily average
air temperature in the range of low temperatures covering on
the time axis throughly the period from October to April is
elaborated in Fig. 1. The values determined for the different
dates are, with a view to the great length of the series and
generally to its little variability, relatively dispersed,ho­
wever, the plotting of the envelope gives the diagram especi­
ally for high p[%J clearness and order. From the diagram one
can read with what probability we can expect a drop of the
mean daily temperatures below zero to a certain date.
A global survey of the temp,= HI ture conditions in the low tem­
perature range with a vievi to the winter regime in river and
reservoir was obtained by analyses of average monthly air tem­
peratures in the winter months and of the s.bsolute temperatu­
re minima encountered in tbem, investigated in various time
intervals of this almost secular serie~. Their significance
for Czechoslovak conditions can be understood from the evalu­
ation of the relatively variable temperature conditions on
the territory of Czechoslovakia, as they were characterized
in our paper presented at 6th Symposium on IceJQuebec [4] •
Included in it is also the elabora.tion and anol,lysis of the
time series of the sum of average daily negative air tempera­
tures in frost periods in winter that cen be considered as
global characteristics of winter with regard to the ice-engi­
neering problems.

2. Wind conditions
Vlind conditions markedly affect the hea.t exchange between wa­
ter and air and can principally influence the appearance and
course of aome ice phenomena and processes (e.g. if a cohesi­
ve ice sheet is formed or slush ice is produced).
The statistical evaluation of the measured wind velocities is
to a certain extent influenced by how the meas ure ments were
carried out. Time series of measured wind velocities from
measurements carried out at specified times during the day
have different properties than aeries of average hourly valu­

213
I\J
~

. ... .
. /<?<0
~
51 ·c .~() : .... ~~
4 ,, ' " "A~\O
'/
3
2
1
/ " j
". :,:., "

-1 J 1. X.
1.11. 1V.
1.1.
-2

-3
... ..
-4
" .
-5

-6

.... /... :: .'

-7

-8

-9

- 10

- 11

-12

- 13

Fig. 1 Average daily air temperatures in the station Pr ague-Kle mentinum

(Cze choslovakia) for the period 1776 - 1975 cor r esponding to the
chosen probabilities of exceedance (nega tive exceedance) P [ % ]
es from continuous anemographic measurements. It was found
that for these time-specified measurements Pearson's distri­
bution of type 3 is suitable, whereas for average hourly ve­
locities the exponential Goodrich's probability distribution
can be applied. Wind conditions occu!ing at a certain place
are naturally not only dependent on the elevation of the sta­
tion above sea level, but on its position and especially on
the relative height of the station with a view to its surro­
undings.
Important is the relationship between the velocity and dura­
tion of the wind with direct conseGuences for the cooling of
the water during its turbulent mixing. Time-specified measure­
ments of wind velocity are to capture a wind of a certain
velocity lasting 2 to 10 minutes.
For the verification of models for the simulation of certain
border situations of the winter regime, it is still difficult
to propose in an exposed direction the wind velocity with a
certain duration and with a certain periodicity that could
reflect the spectrum of their occurence. In this sense the
statistical analysis has not yet led to unembiguous conclu­
sions.

3. Probability properties of discharge series

Probability properties of discharge series of average annual
and monthly discharges under stationary as well as unstatio­
nary conditions are sufficiently well known. With a view to
the potential difficulties during the winter and ice regime
of rivers we are mostly interested, on the one hand, in the
average monthly discharges in the winter months, on the ot­
her hand, in the absolute minima and maxima in this period.
The prinoiple problem remains the precise determination of
the discharge under ice or even in the path of ice jam, when
the summer consumption curves cease to be valid in the water
metering profiles. A solution could be in some cases the in­
direot determination of the discharge. The lesser precision
of these measurements reduces the posibility to reveal in ti­
me the unstationarity and unhomogeneity of the discharge se­

215
ries that have been encountered after 1960.

4. Time series of values describing ice phenomena and pro­

cesses

Observations and measurements of indicators of the winter

and ice regime have been done consistently only on rivers.
On the territory of Czechoslovakia it was possible to pro­
cess their time series from 125 water metering stations that
were used for the clas~ification of Czechoslovak rivers ac­
cording to the thermal winter regime [5] • River reaches we­
re divided into three classes according to 11 criteria that
could be usually enumerated and evaluated by observations
and measurements. A survey of the criteria and characteris­
tic values for the different classes is shown in Table 1 in
which are included also the relative number of stations in­
corporated into the respective class according to the given
criterium. Taking into account all aspects, stations with
the lowest water temperatures, with the earliest and latest
occurrence of ice phenomena and freeze-up and with the lon­
gest duration of the ic e phenomena and freeze-up were inclu­
ded in Class 1. The criterium lirrdts used for the different
classes can be recommended for more gener a l applications un­
der similar climatic and hydrological conditions.
Under Czechoslovak conditions, it will be possible to carry
out a more perfect analysis of the temperature and ice con­
ditions of rivers after a summarized elaboration of the me­
teorological and hydrological data to the end of the 80's,
after which date will be possible to work with much longer
series.
More complicated is the processing of the series of data
about the ice regime on water reservoirs, even though the
conditions as such the observations on them could be better.
Time series of these data have been up to present only very
short and not sufficient for the representative justifica­
tion of stationarity, homogeneity and probability properties
of the time series of the respective phenomena (variability,
probabilistic extreme values, etc.), in addition, the ice

~6
Tab. 1
Criteria for the classification of river reaches ac cording
to the temperature and ice regime:
1 stations and reaches with relatively severe ice regime
2 - stations and reaches with moderate ice regime
3 - stations and reaches with mild ice regime

Criterium: Share of stations (m)

in categories (%) :
1 2. ;,

A. According to annual ave­ 4,5 - 7,0 7,1 - 10 10,1-13,3

rege water temperature
rOC] m• 13,5 76,2 10,3
B. According to average wa­

ter temperature veget.

6,0 - 10 10,1 - 14 14,1-19,0
period [Oc J m• 8,8 43,6 47,6
C. According to mean No of

days in year with water

121-160 81-120 0-80
temperature ~ 4 °c
m .. 37,6 55,2 7,2
D. According to mean No of

days in year with water

301-365 241-300 170-240
temperature ~. 12 °c

m '"
12,8 27,2 60,0
E. According to mean No of

d~ys in year with water

0 - 30 31 - 70 71 - 140
temperature ~ 18 0c
m= 51,2 30,4 18,4

Fp. After the date of the

to 10.XI. 11.-30.XI after 30. ,
first ice phenomenon

occurrence m•
25,3 60,6 14,1 I
After the date of the
last ice phenomenon after 31.III.to 31.III.to 20.111,
1
occurence m= 15,5 76,0 8,5 i
~~~----77--~--~-------+----------+-------~~----- ----­
Ft. According to the mean
No of days in the year 51 - 80 31 - 50 o - 30
with ice phenomena

m= 28,5
45,7 25,8

Gp • After the first date 0 to 30.XI.

1.-20.XII. after 20.
freeze-up m= 28,1 57,9 14,0
Gk • After the last date of after 20.III.to 20.III.to 10.111
freeze-up m .. 33,8 49,3 16,9
Gt • According to the mean
No of days with freeze 31 - 50 11 - 30 0 - 10
up in the year m= 25,7 42,8 31,5

217
phenomena on water reservoirs have usually not been consis­

tently elaborated by the hydrological service.

We measured the thickness of the ice cover on 22 reservoirs

in the C.S.R., for which up to 3D-years' series of measure­
ments were available. Supreme thicknesses of ice covers on
Czech reservoirs do never exceed 1 m, they vary rather in the
range of 0.5 - 0.7 m. For certain ice-engineering solutions,
e.g. for tasks of ice loading on dam constructions the annual
maxima of ice cover thicknesses were enumerated with a proba­
bility of 1 - 10 % exceedance (according to repetitions in
years) that have a low variability even with a different
position of the reservoir in the range between 58 to 79 cm
with an average of 68 cm on 9 reservoirs at an elevation of
297 to 725 m above sea level. This points to the similarity
of quite extreme situations in winter on a rather vast area.

5. Statistical relationships of some characteristic intensi­

ties of ice processes and selected climatic characteristics
For 22 selected reservoirs with coordinated meteorological
and climatic stations with long-term observations we solved
linear correlations between the maximum ice cover thickness
and a number of climatic, especially temperature characteri­
stics.
Some autors consider the correlation between the found ice
thickness and the elevation of the water level of the reser­
voirs above sea level usually as not too close. In a set of
Czechoslovak reservoirs with an elevation of 271 - 775 m abo­
ve sea level we ascertained relatively higher values:
- r = 0.690 for an average of annual ice cover thickness ma­
xima and elevation of the reservoir surface,
r = 0,356 for absolute determined ice cover thickness maxi­
ma and elevation of its surface above sea level (however
only informative, during differently distributed observati­
on periods of different lengths).
The variability of the two correlated sets was in both cases

approximately the same. Cv

from, the values of the elevation

of the reservoir above sea level 0.257, Cv from the values

218
I
of the averages of the ice cover thickness maxima 0.280 and
Cv from the values of the absolute ice cover thickness maxi­
ma 0.299.
From the study of these c.orrelations some conclusions can be
derived:
between the average of the ice thickness maxima and the
average air temperature in the winter months (December ­
March) the correlation is indirect and relatively close
(r = -0. 596 >J
- likewise close is the correlation between the sums of the
average monthly air temperatures during the first two
(r = -0.599) or three winter months, respectively, from
December (r ~ -0.605); these sums can be considered as one
of the indicators of the severeness that part of the win­
ter in which most of the ice cover growth takes place;
- the average of the anual ice cover thickness maxima is
practically not dependent of the average annual air tempe­
rature of the reservoir locality (r = 0.072);
- the relatively close relationship between the average an­
nual ice cover maxima and the observed annual air tempera­
ture minima during a longer period (r ~ -0.592), rather
less close on the observed monthly air temperature minima
in January (r • -0.471) and in February (r = -0.392), and
it markedly drops in March (r ~ -0.195);
- generally more close are the correlations between the ave­
rage of ice cover maxima on reservoirs with an average
long-term number of frosty days in the period December ­
January (r • 0.661), or December - February (r a 0.624)
or for the whole winter (r 3 0.444);
- very little close are the relations between the average of
the ice cover thickness maxima and the number of ice days
during winter and its parts, i.e. days with maximum air
temperature below zero;
- similar closeness of relationships can be observed also for
the reached absolute ice thickness maxima in the reservoir.
The successions of values of ice cover thickness maxima in
the different years have their characteristic properties.

219
In principle they are absolutely random successions with a
variability o~ values comparable for instance with the varia­
bility of average annual discharges. The asymmetry of their
distribution is usually more variable but always positive
which is in agreement with the genesis of the phenomenon.
Analyses o~ the correlations included also the corresponding
values of the sums o~ the average daily negative air ' tempera­
tures as indicators of the severness of the winter [4] and
of the maximum ice sheet thickness in the same year: E.g. for
Husinec reservoir on the river Blanice the linear correlati­
on reached the value r = 0.501, for the Klicava reservoir r =
= 0.491, in both cases an elaboration in a consistent 15-ye­
ars' period is being prepared.

6.Conclusions and recomrr,endations

The performed statistical and correlation analysis of the
temperature characteristics and cryological values in their
time series contributed to a better understanding of their
properties of specific random processes under the demarkated
geographical and climatic conditions. From the meteorological
aspects it indicated the possibility of using concrete chara­
cteristics for some analyses, justified its usefulness and
the hope for the understanding of the long-lasting mechanis­
mos of the development and changes of the ice-engineering and
cryological characteristics in rivers and reservoirs.
EspeCially the close interrelations between selected tempera­
ture and cryological characteristics were proved. The sphere
of problems is much wider but available reliable data do not
allow to carry out especially
- complete analyses of the types of the distribution of the
probability of the occurence of values of ice condition
characteristics, ~nr
- a correlative and autocorrelative analysis of their time
series.
An unsolved problems remains still the methodological appro­
ach to time series of values of phenomena that have only par­
tially a probability character and that are markedly affected

220
by not random influences (e.g. operati~s on thp. reservoirs)
as well as the approach to the elaboration and approximations
of empirically stipulated probability distributions and laws
of the distribution of more variables. where the hydrology
does not after enough -experiences.
For this reason it can be recommended to devote attention to
measurements and observations of ice-engineering and cryolo­
gical characteristics and to the elaboration of their time
s eries together with synchronous climatic. meteorological and
hydrological (discharge) time series. Their better understan­
ding permits among others to consider the application of sto­
chastic simulation modelling of ice phenomena and proce s ses
using mathematical (numerical) models that undoubtedly will
contribute to the improvement of the operative as well as
long-term statistical forecasts and to a more preCise quanti­
tative evaluation of the operational reliability of hy~aulic
structures with respect to the winter regime.

References
[1J Hydrometeorological Institute, 1976: Meteorological obser­
vations in Prague-Klementinum. Part I: 1715-1900. Part
II: 1901-1915. ~ Prana, 459 pp.
[2J Pejml, K., 1915: 200 years of the Meteorological Observa­
tory in the Klementinum in Prague, ~ Praha, 80 pp.
(in Czech)
[3J Rudis, M., 1984: Proc. Symposium on Ice, CSVTS, Usti n.L.
(in Czech)
[4]Votruba,L. and Patera,A •• 1981: Relations between climatic
conditions and winter regime of water bodies. Proc.IAHR­
- Symposium on Ioe, Quebec, pp. 131 - 141
[5] Votruba.L. and Patera, A., 198}: Temperature and winter
regime of rivers, reservoirs and hydraulic structures,
Academia, Praha, 552 pp. (in Czech)

221
 WiR Ice Symposium 1984

'A
•
Hamhurg

PREDICTION OF ICE FORMATION FOR THE EASTE RN

SCHELDT IN THE NFTHERLANDS

Pilarczyk K.W. Delta Department The Netherlands

Seni o r Eng ineer Hydrauli c s Division
Ri j kswatp.rstaat

SYNOPSIS

The Eastern Scheldt is the last tidal estuary to be closed within the
scope of the Delta Plan in the Netherlands. The result will be a
storm-surge barrier at the entrance of the tidal basin together with
compartment dams separating the tidal Eastern Scheidt from a new
freshwater lake. One of the aspects 5tudied in connection with
determining the design conditions for the storm-surge barrier and the
consequences of closure for the environment and navigation was th e
formation and movement of ice.
Because of the lack of data no statisti c al analysis of ice data wa5
possible. The prediction of ice formation was based on the analysis of
the available data on air- and water temperature changes due ing the
winter periods. For the ice-growth a formula was derived analytically.
The numerical constants in this formula were obtained from a comparison
with literature data and some previouslv nh~erv e rl data n~ ice formation
in the area concerned.

ROTTERDAM
6 (I
] G O RINGHEM
HOOROH/NOEII
-FROM-,-e-59 -­ " HEt.L£VOETSLUIS
!.l NUMANSOORP
G OORORE CH'
7 HA. ... MSTEOE
e ZIE'RII(UE
Q BRUIN'SSE
10 Sl AN..,AL,4HD
11 WISSEKERKE
12 VERE
13 WOLPHAARTSD1JII:
0 CL1MATOLOG ICAL ST ATIONS 14 KATSEV£ER
8 [ • WATER - TEMPERATURE STATIONS ,~ Loo rJII.SEGAT

lG VL1SSING£N
C LIMATOLOGICAL HEAO -STATION
17 BATH
L1GHT SHIPS , I!!l WOEHSORE CHT

A STORM-SURGE BARR IER

8 O ESTEROAM C : PHIL1PSPAM

Fig.l. Eastern Scheidt and the dams under construction.

Climatological stations in the Delta area.

223
 LNTRODUCTION

The Eastern Scheidt is the largest and therefore the last tidal
basin to he closed under the n~lta Plan. As a result of the Delta Works
the flow of the rivers Rhine and Maas through the southern part of the
region was restricted: the Volkerakdam, completed in 1969, cut off
southward flow almost completely. The Eastern Scheidt can therefore be
regarded as an estuary subject to only very limited freshwater
influence. The Eastern Scheidt has not only a vital function in nature
c onservation but "Iso an important role with regard to shipping. A
large proportion of the shipping going to Antwerp and other trade
centres along the Western Scheidt passes through the Eastern Scheidt.
The execution of the present plan r .. garding the Eastern Scheidt
will (~sult in a storm-surg~ barrier at the entrance of the tidal basin
together with two compartment dams (Philipsdam and Oesterdam),
separating the (reduced) tidal Eastern Scheidt from a new freshwater
lake (see fig.1).
Much research has also b .. en done to determine the design
conditions for the storm-surge barrier and the consequences of closure
for the environment. One of the aspects studied was the formation and
movement of ice. In order to solve the various problems of interaction
of ice with engineering structures, it is necessary to have some basic
knowledge of the formation and types of ice in the area under
consideration. However, data on ice formation and movement in the
Western and Eastern Scheidt are rather scarce. The reason for this is
that ice is not normally considered to be a dominant problem in the
South-West Netherlands, where the probability of having a severe winter
is about 1/10 per year. However, it has to be taken into account in the
design process regarding the possible ice forces which will be exerted
on structures, especially when a design load with a probability of
exceeding of 2.5 x 10- 4 per year is chosen as a design criterion, as it
is a case for the storm-surge barrier. Moreover, the forming of a
fr~shwatec lake behind the the compartment dams will have a very
significant influence on the ice regime and thus on the duration of the
hindrances to navigation caused by ice.
B.. cause of the lack of the proper data no statistical analysis of
ice data was possible. Therefore, the prediction of ice formation was
based on the analysis of the data on air temperatures for this area and
restricted data on water temperature changes during some winter
periods. For the ice-growth a formula was derived analytically.
In this paper the present situation with regard to the formation
and movement of floating ice in the Eastern Scheldt and the influence
of the damming up of this tidal estuary will be discussed.

CLIMATOLOGICAL CONDITIONS

The region of the large estuaries in the south-west is favourably

affected by the Gulf Stream whose influence reaches inland. In addition
the existence of sea and/or brackish water there reduces the occurrence
of ice. Consequently, ice is not a very cOmmon occurrence in the Dutch
estuaries. Most winters in the south-western part of the Netherlands
are characterised by short per iods of moderate frost, alternated by
thaw with little or no ice at all.
The general annual-cycle of the average monthly (1961-'70)air- and
water temperatures for stat ion Vl issingen and the temperatures for
seawater (Goeree) and for the western part of the Eastern Scheldt
(Zierikzee) are given in figure 2.

224
 ~ 20
Occasionally winters are ~ery
se~ere. The winter 1962/63 is a n
,}
example of a very severe wint e r~
~ ,~~--+- Its cha racteristics including the
~.
mean air tempp.raturp.s at refe rence

··

o station Vlissingen and the water

~

temperatures stations mentioned
above are presp.nted in figure 3.

·: 5 +-~~'+--~ ____
Similar data ar~ presented for
other wint e rs (6).

_____ A IR TEMP ERATURE V ll~SmOEN( ' A)

- - WATER TEM PER ATURE VlISs:..."'GEN ( Tw )

WATER TEMPERATURE Z!ERIK,Z €E

WATER TEMPERATURE UGHf ·SH,P OOER[[

Fig.2 Year-~ycle of the monthly air-and water temperatures.

(Period 1961-1970).

.,
O J

I
max. Ka" - ro.... th per ,od ( 70 do.)'s )

8 •• •••••
(unurl OIn perIOd)
.....

c ,

is _J

......... YI-"eller Icmp.

Z, ~rl"u~

• • •• WGlc r t."", LS. Goq rQ(1

Smin
-,0

Fig.3. Characteristics of the winter 1962/6 3. South-West Netherland.

225
 EQUATION FOR PREDICTING ICE THICKNESS

If the data on representative ice thickness are not available, a

less accurate estimate can be obtained from climatological data for a
given region, which are usually accessible. The first approach in this
direction was made by Stefan in 1881 (7). His equation has been used
with considerable success in the modified form

where 5 g known as the freezing exposure, is the sum of nagetive daily

air temperature since freeze-up (below freezing point), h is the ice
th ickness, Q" is an empi r ieal cae f f icient cons ider i ng snow cover, st ream
flow, and other local conditions, and B is another empirical
coefficient equal to about 0,5.
I t is recommend that a = 2,7 be used for freshwater-lake ice and a =
2+ 2.4 for sea-ice (2,4). If 5g is in degree-days (Celsius scale) and
these values of a and B are used, h will be in cm ••
Another more accurate form of ice growth equation may be obtained when
account is taken of convective heat transfer at the ice-air interface.
In this case, the basic heat transfe r equation becomes

where L is the latent heat, Ki is the mean thermal conductivity, e is

the temperature difference between the top surface of an ice caver and
the wat~r under it at a time t, and e is the overall coefficient of
surface heat transfer.
Integration with respect to h give s

+ K'h
1
eKi
= --
L. p

Jt e dt
or

h 2 +-h - 24B5 g 0
e

whp.fe A = 2 Ki' B = 2 Ki / L·fl and

Sg = -2.
24
i
t

dt 0 ( in ·C x days)

(e - hourly mean air temperatures).

Finally

h =~(y(~)2
e
+ 96B5g _~)
-e

For sea-ic e with salinity of about 4 ' 1 •• the following charact e ­

risti c values may be assumed used as representative:

thermal conductivity of ice 2 W/ m/"C =

0,072 kJ / hr / cm/ 'C

- latent heat of ice L 300 kJ / kg

- density of ice fl 920 kg / m3 +

920.10- 6 kg / cm 3

Using these values and defining h in cm. and 5g in ·C x days the

formula for ice thickness (without snow cover) is modified to

226
 h =" ( .V/ (-e-)
400 2
+ 50 Sg -
400
e
where 'e ' is the coefficient of surface
heat transfer expressed in
w/m2;-c.
The values of 'e' equal to 6 W/ m2/"C for a calm weather and about 26
W/ m2;-C for wind-speed of 10 m/s are often mentioned as representative
ones(5). In the case of this study the value of e equal to 13,3 w/ m2/ "C
has been applied. In this case the formula can be rewritten as

h =" ( J 900 + 50 sg' - 30)

where h is in cm and Sg in ·C x days.

In figure 4 both the modified formula of Stefan and the last
formula are compared with literature data and some previously observed
indicative data of ice thickness for the area concerned. The latest
were observed at shallow locations and are not therp.tore very
representative for the whole area. Because of better agreement with
prototype data and because of safety reasons the last formula has been
chosen as the most representative one.

s,

Fig.4. Growth of ice, hice = f(Sg).

In the formulas discussed above the parameter Sg is defined as

accumulated degree-days of frost below the freezing point of water
since first freeze-up. The point of the first freeze-up depends to a
great extent on local condit ions. In the case of inlets/ estuaries
sal inity and the exchange of heat with warmer seawater is mostly much
higher at the mouth (entrance) than inside. Moreover, in larger areas,
the local air temperatures may differ from each other at the same
time. Thus, for practical application, it is suitable to define Sg as

227
 where: ~- corr e ction factor of local air-temperature related to
reference station where Smax is defined.
Smax - sum of negative daily air temperature since the first
moment that air temperature falls below the freezing
point of water.
Smin - SUm of negative daily air-temperatures since a first
freeze-up.

The final form of the ice-growth (thickness) formula becomes

h = ,,( V900 + 50( pSmax - Smin) - 30)

To calculate the ice thickne~s at different locations inside the

sea-estuaries parameters~, Smax and Smin must be determined. This can
be done through the elaboration of available air-temperatures for frost
periods ( 'f' ' Smax) and available water temperatures and ice formation
data (___ Smin). If the latest data are not available, the best possible
estimate (quess) has to be made.

THE CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH ICE FORMATION TAKES PLACE (Sminl.

Surface water temperature change parallels air-temperature change

during the first stage of cooling of freshwater and during the whole
stage of cooling of seawater. Because of that it should be possible to
establish a relationship between air and water temperature. (10,11,
12). The simplified mathematical expression, based on the assumption
that the rate of heat loss from water surface depends on air water
temperature difference is:
dTw Tw - Ta
"""""dt ---A­

where: Tw sur face water temperature, wh ich is assumed to

remain essentially constant to depth d (depth of convective mixing),
and Ta~ air temperature.
Parameter A defines the retardation phase difference in the
adjustment of water temperature to ambient air temperature. The
procedure is to determine that value of A which reduces a weighted air
temperature sequence to the freezing point of water.
The relationship between air temperature and surface water
temperature has been succesfully applied to predict ice formation in
areas with relatively stable winter periods (8). The sensitivity of
surface ice format ion to variable weather conditions during the final
stage of cooling is one reason why freeze-up data fluctuate within
rather wide limits. In milder regions, an ice cover may freeze, then
melt under milder conditions, before freezing into a permanent ice
cover. That makes the applicability of this method to milder (unstable)
regions i.e. the Netherlands difficult and/or questionable. However,
even in the last case, this method may be a useful tool in
understanding a problem.
In the present study the background data needed to calculate the
parameter A were not available. Therefore a simple linear approximation
was appl ied and the followi ng aver age val ues of A (= r etardat ion time l
were roughly established:
Goeree (seawater, close to the coast) A~35 days
Vlissingen (mouth western ScheIdt) A -19 days
Zierikzee (western part of Eastern ScheIdt): A-12 days

228
 The values of Smin' referred to two freezing points (Tv ~ O· C and
Tv= -1.5· C), defined both by the linear approximation (air water
temp. relationship) and by the real values for the winter period
1962 / 63 are given in table 1 for different locations in the Western and
Eastern ScheIdt.

Table 1 : Smin - values for locat ions in the Delta area.

Station Tv Date for Smin(Tv=O·C) ~in(Tv=I,5·C)

Tw = Tv linear real linear real

appro 62/ 63 appro 62/63

Lightship Goeree -1,8 180 240*) 100 170*)

(seawater)
VI issingen Western -1,6 18-01-63 66 113 30 71
Bath ScheIdt -0,5 03-01-63 53 33
Zierikzee -1,6 11-01-63 40 79 12 45
(west part) Easte.r n
ScheId t
Lodijkse Gat -1,5 27-12-62 7 23 0 15
(east part)

NB. Date for Ta .; Tv: 23/12/ 1962: * ) estimated values.

The Smin_values for Goeree (seawater) are only roughly estimated

because freezing point was not reached during the cooling period in
1962/ 63: the decrease in the water temperature stopped at about O· C
when the negative air temperatures became less than -5· C. That means
that th e growth of Sg-values only does not quarantee a decrease in
water temperature; a certain minimum difference is also needed betwe en
air and water temperature which compensates for the locally present
influx of heat by heat transfer into the atmosphere.
A comparison of the real and linearly approximated values of Smin
allows the conclusion to the drawn that the high fluctuations in the
air temperature changes during a COOling period result in higher
Smin-values than in the case of gradually decreasing air-temperatures.
Because the purpose of the present study was to predict ice
formation and ice growth during very severe winters with a low
probability of occurence, it was reasonable to assume that during
future severe winters there will be a real chance of a winter with a
nearly linear (gradual) decrease in air temperature during a cooling
period. It was therefore decided to use the Smin-values obtained
throughout the linear approximation for the winter 1962/63 as
representative (i.e. on the safe side) for future severe winters.

FREQUENCY ANALYSIS.

The quant i ty Sg represent ing the accumulated degree-days of frost

below freezing point is the main factor governing the formation and
growthof ice. This quantity may be also used for the classification of
winters.
As mentioned before, most winters in the south-western part of the
Netherlands are characterized by short periods of moderate frost
alternating with shorter or longer periods of thaw. I t is therefore
difficult to define the representative frost period with respect to

229
representative ice growth. TO avoid this problem the following
definition was applied: if the sum of positive air temperatures
(referred to freezing point) during thaw period (Sd) which takes place
between two frost per iods, is equal or larger than half of the sum of
the negative temperatures (Sg) of the preceding frost period, then
these two frost periods are classified as independent (individual)
periods. In such a case, the period with a larger Sg was taken as the
representative one for a given winter. When the opposite was true, both
frost periods (including thaw period) were taken together as the
representative frost period (both negative and positive temperatures
were added together). It is known that the influence of positive
temperatures can not be linearly compensated for by negative
temperatures. It was, however, a safe assumption in a light of the
purpose of the study discussed.

The quantities Sg were calculated for each winter with reference to two
freezing points: Tv = O· C and Tv ~ -1,5· C. The freezing point of
fresh water was of interest because of the plans to form freshwater
lake behind the compartment dams in the eastern part of the Eastern
ScheIdt. The Sg-values were calculated for the period 1876-1975
(Vlissingen as a reference station). To obtain curve showing the
probabil i ty of Sg-val ues be i ng exceeded, the normal probabil tty paper
was used (Fig.S).
To calculate the local
ice-thickness the local Sg-value
has to be used. The mean air
temp e ~ature s in the central part
of the Eastern ScheIdt in the
winter periods are about a,s· C
lower than these at vlissingen.
The correlation between the
equivalent Sg-values at
Vlissingen and those at
the station in the eastern part
of the Eastern ScheIdt yields.

Sg(E.Scheldt) "" 1.20 Sg (Vlis­

singen)

Factor 1.2 is the correction

factor ('P) in the formula on
ice growth when applied to the
eastern part of the Eastern
ScheIdt.
Fig.S . Exceedance of Sg-values.

RESULTS.

The foregoing chapters have shown how the data needed for the
prediction of ice formation and ice growth have been collected. By
combining the calculated data with an available qualitative description
of different ice stages at certain dates during various winters in the
Delta area, a comprehensive picture of ice formation and ice movement
in the area concerned may be achieved. Using these data, an approach
has been made to classifying the winters in this area in terms of Sg
quant i ty (Fig. 6) •

230
 DRIFT ICE

z
~ DUGHTICE:s;-2cm

~
~ ~ RATHER HEAVY ICE

~
~ EI HEAVY ICE

o
~ H HARBOURS FROZEN

5 - -­
~
NO NAVIGATION OR
HEAVY OBSTRUCTED

Fig.6. Expecte(! ice stages as function of Sg for various locations in

the Delta area.

The future situation in the Eastern ScheIdt depends largely upon

the method operation of the gates. However, the opening of the
storm-surge barrier is so large that these is a reduction of less than
20% in the t ide. Moreover, the gates will be closed only in the event
of a very severe storm being predicted (not usual during frep.zing
period). Because o( that, the c hange in hydrologi ca l conditi o ns
regarding in particular the factors important for ice formation
(salinity, intrusion of warmer seawater, etc.) will be rather small in
comparison to the present situation. That means that the influence of
the damming up ot the tidal East~rn Scheldt on the formation and
movement of floating ice in these waters will be negligible.
The situation will be quite different on the freshwater lake
(Zoommeer Lake) behind the compartment dams. Because it will consist of
fresh water with only secondary currents (refreshing discharge), a
solid ice cover will form rather quickly once freezing conditions have
set in. This will result in a considerable change in the duration of
the hindrance to navigation caused by ice on this important navigation
way between Rotterdam and the Western ScheIdt (e.g. from Antwerpen).
The probability of obstruction to navigation will increase from about
10% in the present situation to about 20% in the future. The duration
of the hindrance will be double its present duration not only because
of the longer lifetime of freshwater ice but also because no effect
will be felt from eastern winds (the present route for drift ice to the
sea will be blocked by future compartment dams).
For design purposes of the storm-surge barrier a thickness of 45
cm. has been chosen as representat ive. The diameter of ice-floes is
mostly restricted because of the influence of the tidal flow (based on
past observations) and has been assumed equal to about 15 m. By
defining the drift velocity of ice floes (velocities of tidal flow and
superposed wind-drift effect) and taking into account the above
mentioned dimensions of the ice-floes the forces resulting from

231
 interaction with the structure (i.e. piers) have been calculated.
Static ice thrust due to jamming has also been considered. None off
these forces, however, were of primairy importance to design in
comparison with other design hydraulic loads (water levels and waves).

REFERENCES.

1. ASSUR, A. and WEEKS, W.F., 1964, Growth, Structure and Strength of

Sea Ice.U.S. Army, Cold Regions Research & Engng.Laboratory,
Research Report 135, October 1964.
2. ANONYMOUS, 1972, Guide to World Inventory of Sea, Lake and
River-Ice, UNESCO/lARS, Paris 1972.
3. BILELLO, M.A., 1961, Formation, Growth, and Decay of Sea-Ice in the
Canad ian Arct ic Arch ipelago, Arct ic 14 (1), 1961.
4. NEMEC, A., MILLS, D., LANGFORD, C. and JESSEAU·, S., 1973, Lake
Melville Ice Investigation, Labrador •. 2nd. Int.ConL on Port and
Ocean Engng. under Arctic Conditions, Reykjavik, 1973.
5. NEUMANN, K., 1948, The Growth Velocity of Ice Sheets as a Function
of Air Temperatures and Wind Velocity (text in German). Annalen der
Meterologie, Vol.2, 1948.
6. PILARCZYK, K.W., 1977, Formation and Movement of Ice in the
EasternScheldt (in Dutch) Delta Department, Report W-76.033,1977.
7. POUNDER, E.R., 1965, Physics of Ice Pergamon Press, 1965.
8. RODHE, B., 1952, On the Relation Between Air Temperatures and Ice
Formation in the Baltic Geografiska annaler 34, 1952.
9. WEEKS, W.F. and LEE, O.S., 1962, The Salinity Distribution in Young
Sea Ice, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research Report 98, 1962.
10. WILLIAMS, G.P., .1965, Correlating Freeze-Up and Break-Up with
Weather Conditions Canadian Geotechnicdl Journal, VOl .. 2, or.45,
1965.
11. WILLIAMS, G.P., .1 966, Freeze-Up and Break-Up of Fresh-Water Lakes.
Proc. Conf. on Ice Pressures Against Structures, Quebec, 1966.
12. YA~~OKA, I., 1970, Estimation of Incipient Ice Cover Formation Date
of Reservoirs in Hokkaido by Use of a Time Series of Daily
Accumulated Air Temperatures IARR, Ice Symposium, Reykjavik 1970.

232
ICE HYDRAULICS AND ICE CONTROL

 WlR Ice Symposium 1984

•
'A Hamburg

ANALYSIS OF ICE DAM FORMATION

AND ITS FORECASTING

Liu Guiyun,Engineer Heilongjiang provin­ People's

cial Hydrological Republic
Service of China
Xu Dezhi, Engineer Hydrometric Station,
Hejiang Prefecture,
Heilongjiang

ABSTRACT
The paper deals with the conditions for formation of ice dam
on the lower reaches of the Songhua River in area of high
latitude and low temperature, leading up to thick ice cover.
Jamming of different types are treated of, together with the
boundary conditions of the river for the formation of ice dam.
A brief account of the hydraulics and thermal conditions is
also given, on the basis of which parameters for computation
may be chosen and formula for forecasting of ice dam formation
has been derived, the results of computations agreeing closely
with the observed data.

233
 Ice dam is a natural phenomenon frequently observed during
thawing of ice cover on a rive r secti on . The Yilan-Fujin
stretch on the l owe r reaches of the Songhua River lies be­
tween 129 0 JJ ' and IJ 2 0 01 ' long .E and 46 0 20' and 47 0 16' lat.N.
The high latitude and low temperature bring about appreciable
thickness of ice cover. As the river flows in the northeast­
ern direction, thawing begins on the upp er reaches. The river
section in Yilan is embraced on the south by high mountains
and rolling terrains, hindering the approaching warm current
fr om the south, and thawing period differs for different sec­
tions of th e river. The lower course of Songhua River crosses
the Sanjiang Plains, with its numerous meanders and shallows
causing frequent occurrence of i ce dams.
Whenever ice dam occurs, the river section is jammed, thus
bringing about backwater upstream forcing the stream to over­
flow the banks and ic e rafts to deck the floodplains. Break­
ing of ice dam causes ice slush downstream and consequent rise
in river stage. In some years, flood brought about by back­
water o f ice dam was the larg es t one to be observed through­
out the respective year, with its tremendous forces causing
damages such as silting over cropland, washing away bridges,
culverts or water conservancy projects, devas tating dykes
and canals and bringing harms to villages and towns. Laying
stress on analysis of ice dam formation and recognition of
the law of its evo luti on as well as prediction of the time
and place of occurrence of ice dam and magnitude of backwater
is functi onal in gaining succ ess in combatting ice run and
alleviate the harms. Through field investigations made on the
lower reaches of the Songhua River, the Yilan section in par­
ticular, both with respect to river morphology and occurrence
of ice dams, we come to the conclusion that the physical geo­
graphy and boundary conditions of a river 2.re the necessary
conditions for formation of ice dams, but not the only condi­
tions, for hydraulic and thermal factors also play an import­
ant role.
An expression for forecasting ice dam formation(location and

backwater effect) has been derived on the basis of analyses

234
made.

CONDITIONS FOR FORMATION OF ICE DAM

There are numerous conditions under whi ch i ce dams are formed

on rivers , leading up to sUbstantial differences in the size
and exten t, stability and particular features of ice dams.
The conditions for formation being different, the critical
conditi on and mechanism of the factors of influence are rathe r
complicated . Certain regularity and conditions of ice dam
formation, however, may be recognized for a particular river
or river section. All in all, these compris e boundary parti­
cularities , hydraulic and thermal factors.

Boundary particularities of a river

For any river in particular, ice dam is formed as a result of

packing of ice floes at the place where the resistance to flow
and velocity and direction of the stream change more or less
abruptly owing to changes in boundary conditions of the river,
such as elevation of river bed, direction of flow and width
of channel. It has been known, therefore, that ice dams are
most frequently formed at river bends, contracted or forked
sections or shallows where the ice cover remains intact to
some extent. As the resistance offere d may vary greatly, the
magnitude and shape of ice dam formed differ signifi cantly .

As result of our observations,

the following categ ories of
boundary conditi ons for forming
of ice dam on the lower reaches
of Songhua River have been not­
iced:

Jamming due to ice cover not

t: hu li<.lll
WHl lllU ne disintegrated has been obse rved
on the 50 km stretch of Songhua
River from Hekou, the confl uence
Fig.l.River morphology at with its tributary Mudan R., to
Hongkeli reach,Songhua R.

235
Hongkeli, the east bank being close to the foot of the moun­
tain which obstructed the access to warm air current, thus re­
sulting in low temperature and thick ice cover in this section
of river, with significant lag of the period of thawing. The
ice cover there not yet disintegrated hinders the oncoming
drift of ice floes from upstream reaches, resulting in reverse
dilatation waves, and ice dam is formed owing to the piling­
up and plunging of the ice pack.

As ice drift is hindered over considerably large area, its

accumulation in the crosswise direction also forms lengthy
"tail" over an extent of as much as 10 - 20 km in general,
together with appreciable backwater effect, frequently causing
disasters. l\­

J I CGI(j of I Jamming due to contraction in

river channel, such as that at the
steel bridge in urban area of Jia­
musi city, at Xinmin reach, and Fu­
jin reach, with coefficient of con­
Fig.2.River morphology at
Xinmin reach,Songhua R. traction of 1.67 - 3.25. Ice dam is
resulted from a decrease in trans­
porting capacity for ice running
through the contracted section.

Ice dam as such due to contraction

of navigable channel usually takes
the form of mound -like cone accu­
mulated along the channel, general­
ly disastrous in nature.

Jamming at bend such as at the Aoqi

Fig.J.River morphology at section, with reverse bend (S-
Aoqi reach,Songhua R. shaped) or abrupt bend (L-shaped),
as shown in Fig.J, ha~ing sinuosity of 1.40 - 1.68. Ice dam
is resulted from circulating flow when the floes are drifted
along the bend.

The ice pack accumulates at a bend in belt form, and is there­

236
fore destructive to water conservancy projects along the bank.

J amming at river bed is typical of ice dam at shallows in the

Yilan reach of lower Songhua River, of which the Hafei shallow
shown in Fig.4 occupies 5/6th of
the width of channel, with dif­
ference in elevation of flood­
plain and river bed something
like 2.8 m.

Ice dam resulted from jamming

Fig.4.River morphology at at the bottom of channel usually
Hafei shallow,Songhua R.
occurs at low water and is re­
lated to the depth of water upstream of the shall ow and its
location and shape, leading up to a variance of position of
the "head" . of the ice dam, with different forms of accumula­
tion behind it, sometimes conical and sometimes barrage­
shaped.

Jamming at braided channel such as Wuguliu, on the lower

reaches of Songhua River, with branching coefficient of 2.43­
3.58, as shown in Fig. 5 .

Jamming at forked channels mostly

occurs during low water period, the
circulating and laminar flow' at
the fork being responsible for the
disturbances in direction of stream
and accumulation of ice pack there.

Such ice dams are generally limited

in height and disconnected with
Fig.5.River morphology at
the banks and are hence less stable.
Wuguliu reach,Songhua R.

Hydraulic factors

The highest stage during ice run results from the mutual ac­
tion of water and ice. Energy or momentum equations are still
not applicable to the hydraulic computations for ice dams.
Froude's number has been used by many a researcher to charac­

237
terize condition of flow in river channel. The computed value
of Fr during ice run in spring is on the average 0.02 for the
Jiamusi stretch in years with ice dam formed and 0.01 for the
years without. Although the value of Fr remains quite cons­
tant, it is rather difficult to determine under critical con­
ditions, and further exp erimentations are recommended. At
present, empirical parameters are generally used. In our
practice, predictions usually made on the basis of channel
storage have been p roved satisfactory.

Initial storage. Analyses of the hydrographs of mean river

stages over periods of ten days through a number of years
have shown that during the freezing period, the curves vary
in U-shape from the beginning of freezing in November to the
thawing period in April. At first, the cross-sectional area
decreases due to forming of ice cover and clogging by [razil
and cakes of ice, and the stage rises abruptly, followed by
restoration of original water level, rather steadily, owing
to elimination of the ice-jam and diminishing roughness of
the ice cover. In spring, the stage again rises as a result
of melting of snow, precipitation during thawing period and
increment in channel storage due to melting of ice cover un­
der rising air temperature. There is good correlation be­
tween the highest level during thaw and channel storage by
the beginning of free z ing. As a matter of fact, the latter
reflects the volume of runoff in autumn and the recharge cap­
acity of ground water and is also one of the dominant factors
governing the volume of channel storage, the other factors
being the shape of river channel and thickness of ice cover,
among others. The quantity of ice pack is one of the princi­
pal conditions for ice dam formation.

Increment of storage during thaw 6w includes the quantity

due to melting of snow wI' precipitation in the same period
w ' and volume of water resulting from the thaw of ice cover
2
w) etc. Computations for determination of the increment are
rather complicated. For instance, the quantity of water due
to melting of snow is governed by the quantity of snow accu­

238
mula ted , different moisture contents of soil in the preceding
season and different trends of temperature rise, resulting in
different runoffs and hydrographs. Instead of employing wI'
w2 and wJ' the adoption of snow accumulation in winter P IO - J '
mean precipitation over the basin during thaw, and increment
or drop of river stage during the period of thawing renders
more satisfactory results in general practice. It is known
from analysis of data gathered in a number of years that P IO ­
J
values are higher than the mean annual value, and ice dam is
most liable to occur after a rainfall exceeding 10 mm (mean
preci9itation over the basin) takes place during thaw.

Thermal factors

The thickness of ice cover is chiefly governed by the thermal

conditions in the period of free zing. The thermal factor also
plays an important r ole in reducing the thickness and strength
of ice cover during thawing, and directly affects the runoff
due to melting of snow. The thickness and strength of ice co­
ver during thaw are predominant conditions for ice dam forma­
tion. If the air temperature before thawing (mean air tempera­
ture in March, for instance) is comparatively low, the ice
c over suffers only slight damages and the thick and solid
masses of ice favour the f ormation of ice dam during thawing.

EQUATION AND PARA~rn TERS FOR FORECASTING

It is known from the above-mentioned that the main factors

affecting the highest stage in peri od of thawing are volume
of ice and water as well as strength of the ice cover. The
mean discharge in December of the previous year is taken as
index of initial channel storage (Xl)' Channel storage in Jia­
musi section (x 2 ) is computed by method of sectioning. The
mean air tenH)erature in March and thickness of ice cover are
adopted for index of strength of ice cover (x ). The correla­
J
tion coefficient of the three indices to Hm, the highest stage
in thawing period at Jiamusi,is 0.719, 0.718 and 0.541 res­
pectively, and a regression equation is established:

239
 The forecasting success is 8].] % and mean square deviation
0.]2 m, the maximum error being 1. 04 m. The forecasting time
is 10 - 20 days. For comparisons, see Fig.6.
" o~,,1 f--f-­
_ (X)m~ ' 1ed According to the prediction,
.
E \
f-­
there should be major ice dam
r
"
I'~
\.f''C~ .'\
1/\
' . disastrous in nature in 1981.
. V ~ L ~

~l 'N
This was identified in fact
and losses were reduced owing
" to the initiative gained in
m
. ~, ~
-Year
. , m prevention of harms from ice
Fig.6.Comparison of observed run. In 1982 , conditions were
and computed river stage dur­
ing ice run at Jiamusi Station
different and it was predicted
of the Songhua River that no ice dam would be form­

eu.
Ice dam formation as a product of multiple factors is mainly
governed by the volume of ice and water, thickness of i ce
cover and boundary conditions of the river, the pos ition and
shape of ice dam varying from year to year due to different
combinations of the aforesaid factors in different years.

Experimental studies on ice dams are limited at present to

field observations and our cognition of th e mechanism of ice
dam formation, classification and law of evolution of ice dams
is but preliminary, so that many problems remain to be probed
into.

240
 WlR Ice Symposium 1984
IA Hamburg

V
FIELD INVESTIGATION OF ST. LAWRENCE RIVER

HANGING ICE DAMS

Hung Tao Shen* Department of Civil and U.S.A.

Professor Environmental Engineering
Clarkson University
Potsdam, New York

William A. Van DeValk Stone and Webster Engineering U.S.A.

Hydraulic Engineer Corporation
Boston, Massachusetts

A field survey of a hanging ice dam in the St. Lawrence River is re­
ported. Cross section profiles of the dam, the channel geometry, and ve­
locity profiles underneath the dam were measured. Formation processes of
hanging dams are discussed and supported by field observations.

*On sabbatical leave at the U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineer­
ing Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire.

241
 Figure 1. Channel bottom topography and control lines for
hanging dam thickness measurement.

Introduction
The existence of hanging ice dams in rivers has been known to hydrau­
lic engineers for many years. Hanging dams in a river constrict the flow
cross section and, in many cases, could cause a large head loss in addi­
tion to the los·s caused by a normal sheet ice cove r. A large hanging dam
could also cause scouring of the channel bed and affect the operation of
inland navigation in the winter. A number of field studies have been re­
ported in the literature on hanging dams (Beltaos and Dean, 1981; Hopper
and Raban, 1980; Kivisild, 1959; Tesaker, 1975). The present understand­
ing on the formation process and hydraulic effect of hanging dams is, how­
ever, rather qualitative. This is due partly to the complex nature of the
evolution process, and partly to the difficulty in carrying out comprehen­
sive field studies. In this paper the result of a field investigation of
hanging ice dams in the upper St. Lawrence River is reported (Fig. I; Yapa
and Shen 1984). Formation processes of hanging dams are discussed.

Formation of Hanging Dams

Although all hanging dams are massive accumulations of ice on the un­
derside of an ice cover, the formation processes of these hanging dams may
differ significantly. Hanging dams may be classified into two categories
according to their formation processes. The first type, which will be re­

242
ferred to as fragment-ice hanging dams, are accumulations of large ice
plates or frazil ice pans. These dams are often formed near the leading
edge of an ice cover during its upstream progression. The second type,
~hich ~ill be referred to as frazil-ice hanging dams, are formed by the
deposition of suspended frazil ice particles or frazil slush on the under­
side of a stable ice cover. In order to better interpret the field data,
a brief description of formation processes of typical hanging ice dams
will first be given.
As winter begins, large quantities of ice floes form in a river.
These floes are carried downstream until they reach an artificial obstacle
or until they jam together to form an ice bridge. With an additional sup­
ply of ice floes from upstream, the front of the ice cover progresses up­
stream against the river flow. This upstream progression will be impeded
when the leading edge of the cover enters a fast-flowing reach where the
Froude number exceeds a critical value (Pariset and Hausser, 1961). At
this time additional incoming ice floes ~ll be dragged under the ice cov­
er by the flow. Depending on whether the critical flow velocity for the
progression of the ice cover is larger or smaller than the critical velo­
city for the deposition of ice floes on the underside of the ice cover,
the submerged ice floe may either be deposited at the leading edge of the
cover or transported along the underside of the ice cover for some dis­
tance before its deposition. In a large river the critical velocity for
ice cover progression is usually smaller, and the ice floe will usually be
deposited right after it goes under the cover. As these floes accumulate,
the thickness of the ice cover increases and a hanging ice dam forms. If
inCOming ice floes are hardened ice pans or ice plates, which is often the
case in large rivers, this hanging dam will be a fragment hanging dam.
The local thickening of an ice cover can also be induced by internal col­
lapse of the ice cover when the total force acting on the cover exceeds
its strength. During the buildup of the hanging dam, the surface slope of
the river will also change. This change will alter the Froude number up­
stream of the leading edge and the magnitude of forces acting on the cov­
er. All of these changes could again allow the cover to progress up­
stream. The thickness of the hanging dam is limited by the available sup­
ply of ice floes and the stability of the ice floes within the accumula­
tion. This stability criteria may be expressed in terms of a critical
Froude number, a critical velocity, or a critical shear stress (Tatinclaux
and Gogus, 1981).

2~
 After a stable ice cover is established, frazil ice will be produced
in open water areas during the winter. Due to the limited travel dis­
tance, frazil ice produced in these open water areas is usually in the
form of frazil suspension or slush, which will be entrained under the ice
cover. Near the leading edge of this ice cover, the frazil particles are
active. In this region, almost all of the frazil particles that reach the
ice/water interface are deposited. As the frazil particles remain en­
trained in the flow, they gradually become inactive. Therefore, farther
downstream from the leading edge, frazil particles will be deposited under
the ice cover only in regions of relatively low flow velocity. For a
hanging ice dam, which is located near the leading edge of an ice cover
and is formed at the beginning of the ice-cover season, a relatively soft
outer layer of frazil slush could form on its surface later during the
winter, due to the accumulation of frazil ice particles produced in the
open water area. In the St. Lawrence River both fragment-ice and frazil­
ice hanging dams have been observed, as well as combinations of the two.

Hanging Dam Profiles

Earlier field observations in the St. Lawrence River indicate that
major fragment-ice hanging dams are formed each winter in the Vicinity of
Sparrowhawk Point and Pinetree Point. Frazil~ice hanging dams have also
been observed in the Ogden Island region.
During the winter of 1981-82, ice covers in the International Rapids
section of the St. Lawrence River were formed between 11 January and 18
January 1982. A reconnaissance survey indicated that a hanging dam about
2000 ft long with a maximum thickness of more than 20 ft existed near
Sparrowhawk Point. Four control lines, as shown in Figure 1, were set up
on the ice cover. Field measurements were then carried out on a weekly
basis along these control lines. Detailed results are presented by Shen
et a1. (1982).
Typical cross-sectional profiles of the hanging dam along the longi­
tudinal and middle transverse control lines are presented in Figures 2 and
3. These figures show that the thickness of the dam varies during the
winter. The variation in thickness was closely related to the air temper­
ature, which affected the frazil ice production. The shape of the hanging
dam was clearly affected by the channel geometry. This interrelationship
is obvious because the distribution of ice is affected by the flow distri­
bu tion.

244
 -~;;;;..:::::.:::=.:-~-=-= -­
'<:::::.::: '~. ./-;. /1' - ­ 2F,b
. ____ . \ /./ - ­ gF,b
.--r..../ - - ­ 2Mar
\.1 - ·· ­ 12 Mar
- - ­ 16Mor
- - 1 9 Mo r
Flow

60

800
~---L---~L----L----2~000

Longitud inal Disfance (It)

Figure 2. Longitudinal hanging dam pro­

files along line L-L, 1982.

- - - 3 re b
- - 9 Fe b
- --- 23 Feb
~ .- 2 Mor
o 60 . - I'2M()r
. ... . 19 Mat

80

1000~--~L---2
~0~OLQ
~_ _-L---4~
OO O

Dis ion ce fr om V.S Shore (II)

Figure 3. Hanging dam profiles along

transverse line 6-6.

o 1000 II
~

• POint of mox irr~ u m ve lo c ity

Figure 4. Flow pattern and hanging dam cross sec­

tions near Sparrowhawk Point.

245
 To further examine the relationship between the hanging dam shape and
the channel geometry and flow pattern, typical cross-sectional profiles of
the hanging dam are presented in Figure 4, along with major currents and
maximum velocity along the channel estimated from a stream-tube analysis.
In addition a hanging dam profile surveyed in 1979 by Batson et al. (1979)
is included. Figure 4 shows that the shape of a hanging dam is governed
by the flow distribution. The maximum thickness at a cross section usual­
ly coincides with the location of maximum velocity. This is because the
progression of the leading edge stops, and the entrainment of the ice floe
at a river cross section begins at the point of maximum velocity. Once an
ice floe is entrained, it will deposit under the leading edge of the ice
cover, since the velocity of entrainment is less than the critical veloci­
ty of deposition.
A comparison of Figure 4 with the channel bottom topography shown in
Figure 1 indicates that when a hanging dam is formed in a river reach that
has a nearly constant cross-sectional area, the dam tends to form where
the river is deepest. At a given cross section the local depth-averaged
velocity is approximately proportional to the local depth of flow (Shen
and Ackermann, 1980). Thus, at a cross section where there is a large
transverse variation in depth, there will usually be areas of high veloci­
ty that may cause the underturning of ice floes. This will prevent fur­
ther progression of the ice cover upstream and will also result in an ac­
cumulation of ice floes underneath the ice cover. This process will con­
tinue until the hanging dam changes the flow conditions sufficiently to
allow the ice cover to proceed upstream.
The critical condition for ice cover progression can be quantified by
means of a Fr·oude number, Fr = V/!gJ, where V = local depth-averaged velo­
city; g = gravitational constant; and d = local flow depth. It is there­
fore reasonable to assume that the highest Froude number found at the
leading edge of an ice cover approximates the critical Froude number above
which the incoming ice floes will become entrained and the ice cover will
not progress upstream. In a similar manner the critical condition for de­
position of submerged ice particles· on the underside of an ice cover can
be quantified by a critical depth-averaged velocity. At flow velocities
above the critical velocity of deposition, submerged ice particles will be
transported along the underside of the ice cover until they reach an area
where the local depth-averaged velOCity is less than the critical veloci­
ty.

246
 The dam of 1978-79 was formed at a discharge of approximately 219,000
ds. The d'am of 1981-82 was formed when the discharge was approximately
210,000 cfs. The larger discharge in 1979 is believed to have caused the
hanging dam of that season to form approximately 3000 ft downstream from
the 1981-82 hanging dam. The leading edges of the ice covers of both win­
ters were located approximately 2000 ft upstream from the midsection of
the hanging dams.
To estimate the critical Froude number for leading edge progression
and the critical velocity of ice deposition, depth-averaged velocity dis­
tributions at all four cross sections shown in Figure 4 are calculated for
both the free surface condition and the condition with hanging dams (Shen
et al., 1982). These calculations indicate that the critical Froude num­
ber for the progression of the leading edge of the ice cover is approxi­
mately 0.06 for the 1978-79 ice cover and 0.057 for the 1981-82 ice cover.
The critical velocity of deposition for inactive frazil ice particles is
approximately 3 fps, which is in agreement with the observation of Michel
and Drouin (1975) in the La Grande River.

Roughness Coefficients
The local Manning's roughness coefficients of the undersurface of the
ice cover ni and the channel bottom roughness coefficients nb were calcu­
lated from information obtained from the measured veloCity profiles.
These roughness coefficients were determined using the formulation devel­
oped by Larsen (1979). As summarized in Table I, ice surface roughness
coefficients at the upstream side of the dam are lower than those at the
downstream side. This seems reasonable since the converging flow on the
upstream side of the dam would tend to entrain loose particles and smooth
out rough geometry, while the diverging flow on the downstream side of the
dam would tend to deposit ice particles irregularly. The averaging ice
cover roughness coefficient is 0.03, which is slightly lower than the

Table 1. Local roughness coefficients calculated

from measured velocity profiles.

Station No. Date n n

i b

Ll Feb. 24, 1982 0.028 0.048

L3 Feb. 24, 1982 0.026 0.055
L7 Feb. 25, 1982 0.022 0.057
L9 Feb. 18, 1982 0.037 0.029
112 Feb. 18 I 1982 0.036 0.047

247
 value reported by Beltaos and Dean (1981) for a hanging dam in the Smoky

River.

Summary and Conclusions

In this paper, results of a field survey of a large hanging ice dam
in the St. Lawrence River near Sparrowhawk Point are presented and ana­
lyzed. The major conclusions are: a) the channel bottom topography may
be used to provide a convenient guide for determining where a hanging dam
will form beneath the ice cover in a river reach; b) the shape of a hang­
ing dam is affected by the pattern of currents; c) the critical Froude
number for the progression of the ice cover and the critical velocity for
the depositing of ice particles underneath the dam in the reach between
Cardinal and Iroquois Dam are approximately 0.06 and 3 fps, respectively;
and d) the ice surface roughness at the upstream side of the hanging dam
is less than that of the downstream side. These conclusions provide use­
ful insights to the formation process and resistance characteristics of
hanging dams in rivers.

Acknowledgements
This study was partially supported by the St. Lawrence Seaway Devel­
opment Corporation, U.S. Department of Transportation; and by the New York
Sea Grant Institute, through a grant from the National Sea Grant Program,
NOAA, U.S. Department of Commerce. The final manuscript of this paper was
prepared during H.T. Shen's sabbatical leave at the U.S. Army Cold Regions
Research and Engineering Laboratory.

References

Batson, G.B., Shen, H.T., Ackermann, N.L., Candee, K.I., and Landry, S.J.,
1979. Investigation of flow and ice conditions, Sparrowhawk Point to
Murphy Island, St. Lawrence River, winter 1978-79. Report No. DOT-SL­
79-552, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C.
Beltaos, S., and Dean, A.M., Jr., 1981. Field investigation of a hanging
dam. Proceedings, IAHR International Symposium on Ice, Vol. 2, Quebec
City, Canada, July 1981, pp. 475-488.
Hopper, H.R . , and Raban, R.R., 1980. Hanging dams in the Manitoba Hydro

system. Proceedings of Workshop on HydrauliC Resistance of River Ice,

National Water Research Institute, CCIW, Burlington, Canada, September

1980, pp. 195-208.

Kivisild, H.R., 1959. Hanging ice dams. Proceedings, 8th Congress of the
International Assoc. of Hydraulic Research, Montreal, Canada, August
1959, pp. I-SI-l, I-S1-3.
Larsen, P.A., 1969. Head losses caused by an ice cover on open channels.
Journal of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 56(1), pp. 45-67.
Michel, B., and Drouin, M., 1975. Equilibrium of an underhanging dam at
the La Grande River. Report GCS-75-03-01, Department of Civil Engineer­
ing, Universite Laval, Quebec City, Canada.

248
Pariset, E., and Hausser, R., 1961. Formation and evolution of ice covers
in rivers. Transactions of the Engineering Institute of Canada, Vol.
S( 1), pp. 41-49.
Shen, H.T., and Ackermann, N.Lo, 1980. Wintertime flOW' distribution in
river channels. Journal of the Hydraulics Division, ASCE, Vol.
106(HYS), pp. 805-817.
Shen, H.T., Van DeValk, W.A., Batson, G.B., and May tin, I.L., 1982. Field
investigation of a hanging dam in the St. Lawrence River, winter of
1981-82. Report No. DTSLSS-82-C-COI98A, U.S. Department of Transporta­
tio n, Washi ngto n, D. C.
Tatinclaux, J.C., and Gogus, M., 1981. Stability of floes below a floatin
cover. Proceedings, IAHR International Symposium on Ice, Vol. I, July
1981, pp. 298-308.
Tesaker, E., 1975. Accumulation of frazil ice in an intake reservoir.
Proceedings, Third International Symposium on Ice Problems, Hanover,
N.H., pp. 25-35.
Yapa, P.N.D.D., and Shen, H.T., 1984. An unsteady flow model of river ice
hydraulics. 7th International Symposium on Ice, IAHR, Hamburg, August
1984.

249
I

~ I
 lAHR Ice Symposium 1984
Hamburg

JAMMING TENDENCY OF FLOATING ICE

IN RIVERS AND RESERVOIRS

Dr.-Eng. Institute of POLAND

J. Kolodko Hydroengineering
Dipl. - Eng. of the Polish
B. Jackowski Academy of Sciences
Gd a nsk

INTRODUCTION

The problem of origination of ice-jams is undoubt-edly of

great cognitive and practical importance. It seems, how­

ever, that so far only preliminary theoretical studies have

been carried out (Starosolszky 1969, Ashton 19781. Because

of its extreme complex ity, the problem can be approached

only by means of very simplified models of particular phe­

nomena. One of them is the process of accumulation of

floating ice. If only an early stage of the process is re­

garded, a considerably simplified mathematical model can

be set up. Namely, it seems possible to obtain some valu­

able information on the jamming tendency of floating ice

by analysing merely the water flow conditions. This

approach may be also of some practical importance, as it

allows an approx imate forecasting of potential jam sites.

MAIN ASSUMPTIONS

In order to simplify as far as possible the mathematical

description of the process under consideration the follo­

wing is assumed:

1. The ice occurs entirely on the surfacE in a form of

well-spread floes. No interaction beetwen particular

ice-cakes is taken into account.

2. The floating ice is regarded as a passi v e surface con­
taminant, i.e. it does not affect the water flow, nor the
surface shear stress due to wind action.
J. The velocity of ice is approximately equal to the sur­
face velocity of water. In particular, no "sail effect'" is
taken into account.
4. Both freezing and melting processes are neglected.
The above assumptions allow to analyse a wide range of cases.
However, they have been formulated to cover mainly two spe­
cial cases, namely, flow in rivers and wind-affected flow in
reservoirs and river estuaries.

251
BASIC EQUATIONS
In the situations in qUEstion a good measure of jamming ten­
dency seems to be the local surface density of ice floes, de­
fined as the percentage of area occupied by floating ice.
This quantity will be denoted by S and referred to as cove­
t-age. Changes of S-field are governed by the planar continu­
ity equation (provided the assumptions 1 ~ 4 are fulfilled)

DtS + D,(SU) + Dv(SV) = 0, (ll

where D. - partial derivative, t - time, X,Y - planar co-or­

dinates, U,V - horizontal surface velocities in X- and Y-di­
rections, respectively. In the case of X-directed channel
and laterally uniform U- and S-distributions the well-known
channel appro xi mation can be applied, yielding the one-dimen­
sional equation

Dt(BS) + D,(BSU) = 0, (2)

where B - channel width.

RIVER CASE
In the case of a river the transit (gradient) flow prevails
over the flow induced by the wind, which therefore can be
neglected. Moreover, the surface velocity U in Eq.2 can be
with a good accuracy replaced by the mean discharge velocity
Uc=Q/A, where Q - volume discharge, A - cross-section area.
When the average depth H=A/8=Q/BU c is introdLlced, Eq.2 turns
after a few simple transformations into

Dt (S/H) + Ue Dx (S/H) = D. (3)

Thus the substantial derivative of S/H is equal to zero, i.e.

S/H is constant along the trajectory. It is worth to empha­
size that no direct influence of the channel width on the co­
verage occurs in this model.

RESERVOIR CASE
In the case of a reservoir or a river mouth the role of the
wind cannot be neglected. On the contrary, one of the mast
dangerous situations occurs when a strang wind blows against
the main (transit) flow. In such a case the upper layer of
water can be stopped and even turned upwards, forming a con­
vergence zone. The highest ice jamming tendency occurs in
the center of this zone, where U=O. Substitution of this
va~ue into Eq.2 yields

(4)

This equation can be integrated over time, yielding an expo­

nential time dependence of the coverage

S = So exp(-t D,U), (5)

252
whe~e So - initial cove~age. In the case of conve~gence
D,U is negative and a ~apid g~owth of the cove~age takes
place. On the othe~ hand, fo~ a dive~gence zone D, U is
positive and a rapid self-cleaning p~ocess should occu~.
The most impo~tant p~oblem is to dete~mine the position of
the conve~gence zone. This can be achieved by applying the
uniform eddy-viscosity dist~ibution what ~esults in the
symmet~y of ve~tical velocity p~ofiles. This, in tu~n,
implies the equality of f~iction velocities U. on the su~­
face and at the bottom. Thus

U. = F UA = Uc/C. , (6)

whe~e UA - wind velocity at 10 m. above the wate~ su~face,

F = (1.2 + 1.8) . 10-' - empi~ical wind facto~, C. = C g- '"
- dimensionless Chezy coefficient (C - t~aditional Chezy co­
efficient, 9 - g~avity). This implies a ve~y simple ~elation

(7)

whe~e K=FC •. The obtained ~ule enables a ve~y fast p~ediction

of the position of the conve~gence zone, p~ovided the back­
wate~ p~ofile is known. Some details on the p~oblem of compu­
tation of the backwate~ p~ofile in t~e p~esence of wind can
be found in Kol'odko and Jackowski (1984).
Eq.7 was used fo~ analysing the 1982 ice flood at the Wl'oc­
l'awek Rese~voi~, placed on the Vistula Rive~. With F~0.0017,
and C.~12 the value K~D.02 was obtained. Conve~gence zone
positions whe~e the sensitivity to the st~ength of the wind
was lowest, tu~ned out to coincide closely with the obse~ved
ice-jams ..

CONCLUSIONS
1. In the case of ~ive~ flow, the ice cove~age has a tendency
to inc~ease propo~tionally to the ave~age channel depth. The
influence of the channel width seems not to be ve~y signifi­
cant.
2. In the case of a ~ese~voi~ o~ a ~ive~ mouth with a st~ong
wind blowing cont~a~y to the main flow a convergence zone
can a~ise. Such zones a~e c~ucial f~om the point of view of
ice cont~ol se~vices since they a~e ~egions of an exponential
g~owth of the floating ice cove~age. Positions of conve~gence
zones can be easily p~edicted by means of Eq.7. Conve~gence
zone positions of the lowest sensitivity to the wind velocity
may be ~ega~ded as potential ice-jam sites.
3. Both ~ive~ and ~ese~voi~ cases give some p~actical guides.
In both cases the bottom should be as flat as possible. Hol­
lows as well as shoals tu~n out to be unsuitable f~om the
point of view of ice flood p~otection.

253
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was partly supported by the Government Project

PR-7.04.09.04. The authors are indebted to Dr. i:i.Starosolszky

for discussions that significantly contributed to the presen­

ted solution. Hearty thanks go to Mrs. O.Carstens for her ex­

tensive help. Last but not least special acknowledments are

owed to Dr. S.So k olowski who kindly reviewed the manuscript

and rendered accessible his Apple Personal Computer for edi­

ting purposes.

REFERENCES

Ashton, G.D., 1978. River ice. Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech. ill,

p. 369-392.
Kolodko, J., Jackowski, B., 1984. Ice flo o ds caused by ~ind
action. In Proceedings of International Conference on Hydrau­
lic Design in WatEr RESources Engineering, Southampton,
11-1 3 April 1984.
Starosolszky, i:i., 1969. Ice in hydraulic engineering. Insti­
tutt for Vassbyggning, University of Trondheim, Rep. 70-1,
Trondheim, Norway.

254
 WlR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

BACKWATER PROFILES ON HYDROELECTRIC

RESERVOIR II'ITH ICE COVER

Wojciech MAJEWSKI The Polish Academy Poland

Doc. dr ing. of Science s
Institute of Hydro­
Engineering, Gdansk

In winter 1981/82 due to coincidence of unfavourable me­

teorological and hydrological conditions severe flood took
place along hydroelectric reservoir on the Middle Vistula.
Extreme water elevations were caused by high discharge and
the presence of ice cover with numerous hanging dams. Conse­
qutive spills over flood dykes were moving in the upstream
direction along the reservoir during 2 day s over the length
of 30 km causing the innudation of large areas of agricultural
land.
Hydroelectric reservoir is a typical lowland reservoir
formed by the construction of the dam with the head of 11 m.
Average volume of the reservoir is about 400.10 6 m3 • The
depths in the reservoir range from 4 to 12 m and the widths
of water surface are varying from 0 . 6 to 2.0 km.
During winter flood measurements of ice thickness and
its spatial composition, longitudinal water surface profiles
for various discharges, and velocity distribution under the
ice cover were carried out. These data formed the basis for
the assessment of roughness coefficients of ice cover and
composite roughness coefficient for the flow with ice cover.
Mathematical model was developed for the determination
of backwater profiles for various discharges with ice cover
over the reservoir. It includes also the effect of ice-free
channel formed by the ice breakers. Results of calculations
\.,ere compared with data obtained from 'direct measurements
during winter flood.

255
 1. INTRODUCTION
Hydroelectric project Wloclawek (Vistula Rive~ was
completed in 1970. This large reservoir was formed by the
construction of earth dam with 10 spillways, hydraulic power
station,and navigation lock. Maximum head is 10.7 m above
average water elevation in the river before dam construction.
The main aim of the project is the production of electric
energy and improvement of navigation conditions. Secondary
aims were the possibilities for industrial water intakes and
recreation. Reservoir has an elongated shape 64 kID long and
total volume 408.10 6 m3 at the normal water elevation. Opera­
tional volume of the reservoir is 55.10 6 m3 which for the
discharge Q1% = 9200 m3 /s does not present any flood prote­
ction. Wloclawek project was designed as one of the seven
reservoirs forming the cascade of Lower Vistula. Up till now
it operates, however, as a single project with natural river
conditions upstream and downstream from the reservoir. Re­
servoir has varying width and depth along its length. The
depth range from 4 to 12 m and the width from 0.6 to 2.0 km.
The right hand side bank of the reservoir is high and incre­
ased water elevations do not present any problem. The left
hand side bank, on the other hand, is in its predominant
part in depression with relation to the present water surface.
Therefore it is protected by means of the side dykes of earth
construction.
Formation of the reservoir substentially changed ice
conditions over the reservoir. Increased depth and thus dimi­
nished flow velocities resulted in earlier formation of ice
cover and its longer duration. As the result of the existence
of natural river upstream from the reservoir, are inflows of
large amounts of frazil ice which are deposited under ice
cover in the form of hanging dams. During one winter season
formation of ice cover on the reservoir was observed once,
twice and even three times. SpeCial instruction was elaborat­
ed for the operation of the reservoir during ice period.
It includesthe period of ice cover formation and ice break up.
Reservoir has a flotilla of ice breakers for breaking ice
cover or forming an ice-free channel.

256
2. WINTER 1981/2 FLOOD ALONG THE RESERVOIR
December 1981 was characterized with low air temperatures
which resulted in the formation of ice cover over the reser­
voir and the whole reach of Lower Vistula. Ice cover of the
reservoir reached the thickness of 15-20 cm which was covered
with snow layer up to 0.5 m. The formation of ice cover was
typical for the period after the construction of the dam.
River discharge was low, typical for that period of time
3
( Q < 1000 m / s ).
On 29 December came a spell of warm temperature (up to
0
8 C) with rainfalls. This resulted in snow melting, increased
water discharges and water elevations, and finally break-up
of ice cover and its passage. Reservoir was prepared for this
situation by ice breakers which made ice-free channel. Near
the 5th January there was an immense inflow of ice floats
into reservoir. There was, however, no passage of ice down­
stream because of strong west and south-west winds which
stopped or even caused drifting of ice upstream from the dam.
The axis of the reservoir has WNW direction. In front of the
dam there was open water surface about 2 km long. On the 5th
January the discharge reached 3000 m3/s and was still rapidly
increasing.
On the 6th January came a sudden drop of air temperature
which together with a clear sky during nightime caused a
rapid head radiation into atmosphere. During 2 days (6th,7th
January) the whole ice which assembled in the reservoir was
solid frozen. Open water surface in the upstream part of the
reservoir and along upstream Vistula reach (where flow velo­
cities were'" 1 m/ s) started to produce immense quantities of
frazil ice which moved into the reservoir and deposited under
ice cover. This caused considerable increase of flow resis­
tance which connected with high discharge resulted in rapid
increase of water elevations. The first overspill took place
on the 8th January when water elevations with ice cover
exceeded the crest of side-dyke. Subsequent overspills hap­
pend on the 9th and 10th January moving in the upstream
direction. Altogether more than 10 000 hectars of agricultural
land on the left hand side of the reservoir were flooded.

257
 3. FIELD MEASUREMENTS DURING ICE FLOOD
Field measurements which were carried out by several
institutes and organizations concerned backwater profiles
along the reservoir, ice cover thickness and its composition,
and velocity distribution under ice cover.
The backwater profiles were essentially based on the
recordings from 5 gauging stations situated along the reser­
voir. Ice-cover thickness and its composition was measured
in 21 cross-sections. Velocity distribution under ice-cover
presented a most difficult problem. In several stations with
thick frazi-ice deposits flow velocities were very low (less
than 2 cm/s ) thus presentig technical problems. Thick ice
cover (frazil deposits) and low air temperatures caused
additional difficulties.

y 17~~V7;7;7;7;7,~7;7;~~~~~~H
(m)
2
4
cover (m)

~~~~~~~-r~~~~~--~~~60
--
6
8
10r-~+---~--~--~~~~~~~~~+-~~59

12

r---r---~~----~~~~-+--------~--+58

57.30
~ _ _~ _ _~ _ _ _ _ _ _~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~ _ _ _ _ _ _- L_ _~57

km 640 650 660 670

Fig. 1. Backwater profiles during winter 1982

258
 In Fig. 1 four backwater curve s are s hown. They were re­
corded within a period of about 3 week s . First curve repre­
s ent s maximum water elevations whic h appeared during 5-9 Janu­
ary with t he di s charge 3900 m3 / s . Three subs equent curve s
were recorded for diminishing di s charge. It has to be pOinted
out, however, that for each backwater profile flow cond itions
could be regarded a s s teady. Pre s ented results include 43 km
of the reservoir length beginning from the dam located at
km 674.5. In the same figure average depth of the reservoir
and average thickness of ice cover (in perpendicular cross­
sections) i s shown.
Fi g 2 shows one of the reservoir cross-sections with a
compound fra zil ice deposits in s ome place s reaching the
bottom. Cross-section averaged ice thickness I = 3.05 m and
the ratio Ai/A = 0.55 (cross-sectional area of ice and total
cross-sectional area).
solid
km 652.5 57.80m

~~~-#~~~~~~--~----+-----~52

o~----~~~~--------~~#-------~~------50
500m 1500m
2 2
B=1860m I=3.05m A=10340m Ai =5670m
A/A =0.55
F i g . 2. Reservoir cross-section with ice cover
F i g . 3 shows a Vi s tula cross-section upstream from the
reservoir recorded in the beg inning of March.The character of
ice conditions was similar to t hose observed in the reservoir.
In this figure scheme for the calculation of roughne ss coef­
ficients based on the logarithmic velocity distribution is
presented /Calkins et.al. 1980/.
Calculations carried out for Vistula river cross-section
/Fig. 3/ based on the a ssumption of logarithmic velocity
di s tribution gave for 10 stations values of (ni) in the range

259
0.101 to 0.35 (the average ni ~ 0.55) while the magnitude of
(nb) varied from 0.038 to 0.011 giving the average nb = 0.023.
Left solid
'bank

o :100 200 300 400 SOOm

A=2021m 2
Ai=S03 Ao =A-Ai=1S18m Ai/ A =0.248 Q. =S87m'ls
V =0.39m/s

ni

b
f =1.28 (Vmax
V
_1)2 nb=V fb
8g ~
y %
Y Fig. 3. Velocity distribution under
2 ice cover.

4. DETERMINATION OF ROUGHNESS COEFFICIENTS FOR CALCULATION

OF BACKWATER PROFILES

Formation of ice cover results in higher water stages

than for the flow with free surface. This is due to decrease
of flow cross-section by the area of submerged ice, increase
of wetted perimeter, and resistance along wetted peremeter.
In some caSeS friction of the lower surface of ice cover can
substentially overcome friction of the banks and bottom of
the river or reservoir.
In wide open channels ice cover floats over water sur­
face following the changes in water elevation and free water
surface is always somewhat below the upper surface of ice
cover. Direct measurements carried out on Wloclawek reservoir
for various ice thickness and its composition gave relation,
that submerged thickness of ice was equal to 0.96 of its whole
thickness.

260
 Calculation of back profile requires the determination
of composite roughness coefficient (no) based on bottom
rouehness coefficient (nb) and roughness coefficient of the
lower surface of ice cover (ni) • Based on Uzuner (1975) ana­
lysis of formulas developed by various authors for the deter­
mination of composite roughness coefficient, in this study
the formula 0 Pavlousky was assumed

B (nbJ21 Vi.
no=nb(-I+p fif/
f+~
p

where: B - width of the reservoir along lower surface of

ice cover
P - wetted perimeter of bottom and banks
f'1easured back-water profiles (Fig. 1) for given dis­
charges and data for ice cover conditions along the reservoir
allowed to calculate composite roughness coefficient in 13
cross-sections by means of 1-dimensional model for steady
nonuniform flow (Henderson 1966) including the influence of
ice cover. Ice thickness was averaged over the width of each
cross-section. Bottom configuration of each cross-section
was given in the form of x,y values.
Using simi lIar technique bottom roughness coefficients
were also determined from two known backwater profiles with
free water surface. With known bottom roughness coefficient
for free surface flow and composite roughness coefficients
for ice cover conditions the values of roughness coefficients
for the lower surface of ice cover were calculated. Bottom
Manning roughness coefficients were in the range 0.016 to
0.031 giving the average value n = 0.023. Roughness coeffi­
cients for ice cover had a wide variation along the reservoir
and for various discharges. Maximum value ni = 0.116 while
minimum ni = 0.016.
It is necessary to emphesize that althoug calculated
roughness coefficients have their physical meaning, they are
parameters of a particular model for calculation of backwater
profile and cannot be arbitrary assumed in other calculations.

261
 5. FORMULATION OF MATHEMATICAL MODEL FOR CALCULATION OF

BACKWATER PROFILE WITH NONUNIFORM ICE COVER.

Measurements "in situ" during winter 1982 on the Wlocla­

wek reservoir indicated large variations of ice cover along
the width and length of the reservoir. They varied from
smooth ice cover to frazil ice deposits reaching in some
places bottom of the reservoir, and eventually free water
surface which appeared due to the formation of ice-free
channel by ice breakers. There is a limitted possibility to
include all these compound ice conditions in a 1-dimensional
model where all data are averaged over the cross-sections.
This may also lead to considerable errors.
Formulated model is based on the division of each cross­
section into several subsections characterized by means of
simillar bottom and ice conditions. This technique was widly
used for open channel flow /Henderson 1966/. This model was
developped for steady nonuniform flow. Calculations are car­
ried out from the cross-section No.1 (dam) where discharge,
water elevation and cross-sectional parameters are known.
Geometry of each cross-section is given by means of (x,y)
coordinates. Scheme for the calculation is shown in Fig. 4.
Each cross-section was divided into 5-6 subsections. For
every subsection the following initial data are necessary:
ice thicknesB /i/, bottom roughness coefficient /nb/, and
roughness coefficient of the lower surface of ice cover /ni/.

y 2 3

Q.
...-Dam
Reserv

•
calculations

Fig. 4. Scheme of the model

In croBs-section No 1 where both discharge (Q) and water ele­
vation (y) are known the following values are calculated:

262
width of the subsection along bottom surface of ice cover (B)
wetted perimeter (p) • composite roughness coefficient (no)
cross-sectional area under ice cover (Ao), hydraulic radius
Ro c Ao/P+B and finally conveyance (K)
K=AoRo2IJIna (2)
Subsequently average velocity in the whole cross-section V
the elevation of energy line H and slope of energy line S
are calculated using formulas 3,4,5. and 6
H=yt- 0( V~9
(5) (6)

For the second cross-section water elevation (Y2) is assumed

I
and all values calculated untl11 H2 = H2 with assumed
accuracy (c)
H;= H1 t-L':JX(s, +S.2.)/..e I
11.2, -1/,2. =E.
The same procedure is used for subsequent cross-sections.

H
CD 200m
ice- free channel (m)
@ ice - free channel 300 m
~--~~-r--------r-------~--------T---_+6QO

Q= 1650m% (ice cover)

measured
~-------r---""-~c_-----:---:----t---------T---_+59.0

f-----=c...-f"'-.::::---+-~-----j------t-----t58'O

57.3
L-----+-------+-----+-------1f------' 57.0
630 ( kmJ 640 650 660 670

Fig. 5. Results of calculations

263
 This model was used for the calculation of backwater
profiles for Wloclawek reservoir with discharge and ice cover
conditions during winter 1982. Considerable lowering of back­
water profile may be achieved by means of ice-free channel.
Results of these calculations are shown in Fig. 5.
6. CONCLUSIONS
Calculated roughness coefficients for the lower surface
of ice cover showed considerable variations in their values.
This may be result of inacuracies in measured water elevations
in natural conditions. On the average,roughness coefficient
of the ice cover with frazil deposits many times exceedes
values of bottom roughness coefficients.
Developed procedure for calculating backwater profiles
with compound ice cover was verified for prototype conditions.
It proved to be very useful for calculations for ice cover
with ice free channel. This was not possible by means of
previous technique.
REFERENCES
Henderson, F.M. (1966). Open channel flow. The Macmillan
Company. New York.
Uzuner, M.S.(1975). The composite roughness of ice covered
streams. J. Hydraulic Research Vol. 13, No 1.
Calkins, D.J., Deck, D., Martinson, C.(1980). Analysis of
velocity profiles under ice in shallow
streams. Proc. Workshop on Hydraulic
Resistance of River Ice.
Canada Centre for Inland Waters.

264
 lAHR Ice Symposium 1984
Hamburg

STRATEGIC HYDRO POHER OPERATION

AT FREEZE-UP REDUCES ICE JAMMING

Lennart Billfalk Swedish State Power Board Alvkarleby

Alvkarleby Laboratory Sweden

ABSTRACT

In order to facilitate ice cover formation and thereby reduce ice jamming
at freeze-up on the river reach downstr eam of Vittjarv hydro power
station in northern Sweden, exstensive ex cavations have been undertaken .
In spite of the wor k carried out, ice jamming still occured resulting
in head-losses and inundations.

As a measure against the i ce jamming it was suggested to decrease the

discharge when ice formation starts and keep it low until the river is
satisfactorily ice covered. However, the problem is to reduce the flow
in the lower part of the river and still be able to generate electricity
at high capacity in stations along the upper parts of the river . This
requirement can partly be met by prelowering of a "mid-river" reservoir.

Considering the planning needed fo r the operation of the whole river

system it is extremely important that the right time for the low discharge
period is correctly predi cted. The method worked out to cope with this
problem includes monitoring of water temperatures and water levels,
weather fore-casting, ice surveys etc.

To speed up ice cover formation a specially designed ice boom has been
tested. Also ice breaking and ice-sawing on reaches with rapid shore
ice formation have been used. The paper presents details of the indicated
method together with two years of practical field experience.

265
 INTRODUCTI ON

Vittjarv hydro power plant is located in the lower part of Lule River, in
the north of Sweden. See Figure 1. The station has a head of 6 m and a
capacity of 690 m3 /s and it was taken in operation during the winter
1914/15. Already the first year of operation serious ice jamming occurred
during freeze-up . Downstream of the station ice jams caused a head-loss
of more than 2 meters.

Figure 1. Overall map of Lule River.

I
TH ( ARCT IC
-"
CTj:jCL t" ~·\-
\ ....... .... _........ f~ ~?llER 1M

---_........-----
'\ LAx,.£DE

so JOO KM

'-...,

".. . r...r . . ,(, " T OWN OF

V I TT J"ARV BODEN
. BODErI'..\ "\. ~~~~A. Of
\ .........
GULf OF
BOTHN I A.

To facilitate ice cover formation and thereby reducing frazil production

and ice jamming, extensive excavations have been undertaken in the river.
These works were terminated 1978. The details regarding these works as
well as experienced ice problems are reported by Jensen (1981). A sketch
of the river between Vittjarv and Boden powerstations is shown of Figure 2.

In spite of the work carried out in the river, ice jamming still occurred
after 1978. These ice jams resulted not only in head-losses in Vittjarv
power station but also in inundations and inflow of water to pump stations
and houses located on the banks of the river. Figure 3 shows water profiles
between Vittjarv and Boden measured after the excavations were finished.
The profiles refer to somewhat different discharges but clearly show that
some years were much worse than others. For example, due to incomplete
ice cover formation in the early ~Iinter 81/82, frazil was produced along
the ice free reaches upstream the TrAngfors bridge. The ice deposited into

266
 Figure 2. Sketch of the river
reach between Vittjarv and Boden
power stations . Excavations under­
taken during 1976 to 1978 are
indicated.

I
hanging dams and it was necessary to temporarily decrease the flow from
600 m'j s to 40G m3 js ' in order to stop further rise of the water level.
The water profile dated 811218 on Figure 3 shows the effect of the hanging
dam created downstream of Tr~ngfors. The flow reduction lasted for 6 days
and the extra cost for alternative power production was estimated to
4 million Swedish Crowns (about 0.5 million dollars).

The experienced ice problems cause economic losses. More important,

though, are the plans for winter-time peak power generation . Ice problems
might increase if strong peak power regulation is introduced (Billfalk,
1982). It is therefor most important to find methods whereby also peak
power operation can be handled without causing serious ice troubles. To
meet this requirement further excavations as wel I as an increase of the
maximum permissible reservoir level at Boden power station are considered.
To improve the situation before such measures could be undertaken a
procedure for strategic operation of the river during freeze-up has been
worked out. This procedure will probably be required even as a complement
to further excavations etc.

267
 MOH
1~0 JlAl.E. DIS~HAR!i~
.-. 790103 563 Mo/s
0--0 800208 577 ..
l<-IC 810122 486 ..
14,5
0-0 811218 615 .
t:>--C> 830211 583 .
<>-0 840208 523 ..
14,0

13,5

13,0

40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 r 30 KM
VITTJARV TRANGFORS BODEN

Figure 3. Measured water surface profiles for winters after 1978.

PROPOSED METHOD

After the difficulties experienced 1981 / 82, an investigation about the

cause s of the problems was undertaken. This investigation clearly
indicated the role of the discharge rate. Low discharge at freeze-up
results in rapid ice cover formation and negligable ice jamming while
high discharges result in incomplete ice cover formation and ice jamming.
As a measure against ice jamming it was therefor suggested to decrease
the discharge when ice formation starts and keep it low until the river
is sati sfactorily ice covered. However, this simple principle can be hard
to accomplish from a power production point of view.

Upstream of Vittjarv a number of the most important hydro power s tations

in the country are situated; see Figure 1. The problem is to reduce the
flow in the lower part of the river and still be able to generate
electricity at high capacity in stations along the upper part of the
river. This requirement can be met by pre-lowering one or two major
reservoirs, where the surplus of water from the upper part of the river
can be stored, while low discharge is maintained along the lower part.
For example, running Lets i power station in the southern branch of the
river adds 200 m3 /s to the main river. Requiring a flow rate of 300 m'/ s

268
at Vittjarv means that most of the water coming from the stations in the
upper part of the main river must be stored in the Messaure reservoir.
By lowering the Messaure reservoir prior to such an operation the
required discharge rate at Vittjarv can be kept for a couple of days.
More extended periods with restricted flow may require reduced production
even in the stations upstream of Messaure. This might be possible without
economic losses if hydro power installations in other rivers are not
fully utilized.

Considering the planning needed for the management of the whole river
system, it is extremely important that the appropriate time for the low
discharge period is determined with highest possible certainty. A second
attempt with repeated lowering of the Messaure reservoir etc., may probably
not be possible . The method worked out to cope with this problem includes
monitoring of water temperatures and water levels, weather fore-casting,
ice surveys etc. Information gathered during the critical time period was
discussed within a small management group. This group suggests when and
how to decrease the flow and what extra measures should be taken. Before
discussing practical field experience, these extra measures as well as the
data acquisition methods will be briefly presented.

The most important parameter for the prediction of the time when ice
formation starts, is the water temperature. Water temperatures are
measured every morning at most power stations along the river with
mercury thermometers, accurate to whitin ~ 0,01 °C. In addition a quartz
thermometer has been installed in one of the inlet sumps at Vittjarv
power station. Data from this instrument is transmitted to the operation
center for Lule River, situated in Vuollerim.

Upstream and downstream water levels are measured continuously at both

Vittjarv and Boden power stations. Just upstream of the Tr§ngfors bridge
an extra water level gauge has been installed . Data from this gauge is
also transmitted to Vuollerim. The purpose of these measurements is to
detect the beginning and evolution of ice jamming downstream of Tr~ngfors.

Observations of the evolution of shore ice and later on the formation

of fragmented ice covers are made by the local hydrologic departement,
responsible for field surveys in the area. During the critical time

269
period this department produces maps showing the extension of surface ice
along the actual river reach.

Before and during freeze-up, long term weather fore-casts (5 days) are
ordered daily. These weather fore-casts, together with information about
water temperatures and the actual surface ice situation, form the basis
for a discussion within the management group responsible for the
descission to reduce the flow-rate. This group consists of representatives
from the local and the central operational departments, the local
hydrologic survey department and from the Laboratory in ~lvknrleby . . Up-to­
date information is transmitted to the members of the group by means of
Telefax. Discussions can be held daily through telephone meetings, which
has proved very useful.

The narrow section at the Trlngfors bridge (Trlngfors means "Narrow

Rapids" in Swedish)iS one of the key points to the experienced difficulties.
Even at low discharges the progression of the ice cover, starting from
Boden power station, is halted downstream of Tr~ngfors. In order to
secure rapid ice cover formation upstream of Trlngfors an ice boom has
earlier been tested upstream of the bridge. The boom proved effective
in initiating an ice cover upstream of its location . Downstream thereof,
however, a long reach of the river maintained open water until late in
the winter. Ice production on this reach caused underhanging dams further
downstream and the boom was therefor removed after a one year test
(Jensen, 1981).

Trying to avoid the drawbacks with the old ice boom a new concept
has been tested. The new boom is located at the previous location.
See figure 1. The new idea is to keep . a 100 m long section in the central
part of the boom open at the beginning of freeze-up, permitting drifting
ice to pass so as to contribute to the build-up of an ice cover from
downstream. When the ice cover has reached close to the bridge the
opening in the boom should be closed and an ice cover could start
progressing from the boom leaving just a short reach with open water
downstream of the bridge . At the left bank the boom wire is equipped
with a force meter permitting continuous registration of the load.

270
 LOADCELL

RIVER LU LE ALV

100 200 300 M

Figure 4. Ice boom at TrAngfors with a central gap that can be closed.

The time period with low discharge at freeze-up must for economical
reasons be made as short as possible. It is therefor important that
cold weather, promoting rapid ice formation, prevails once the flow
has been reduced. If natural production of drifting ice is low,
ice-breaking from areas where shore ice has formed could attribute
to the growth of the fragmented ice cover. This technique as well as
ice-sawing has been tested. Experience from these works will be
discussed in the following section.

FIELD EXPERIENCE

The described measures for achieving more complete ice cover formation
were first tested during the winter 1982/ 83 (Billfalk, 1983) . Early
that winter the discharge at Vittjarv was reduced to 300 m3 /s when
conditions for ice formation seemed favourable. Ice covers then rapidly
developed from Boden power station to section 32.5 (km) and also from the
ice boom at TrAngfors to Mannbergsholmen, in spite of the opening in
the boom (see Fig 2) . Bridging obviously occurred at about section 35 at
the low discharge and the boom opening never had to be closed that winter.
The load on the boom did hardly increase during freeze-up compared to
open water conditions.

271
In order to speed up the ice cover formation from section 32.5 towards
TrAngfors, breaking of shore ice from the wide sections between section
34 .0 and 34.4 was started. The boat used for that purpose was a steel boat
about 5 m long, which previously had been used in connection with timber
floating. By running the boat towards the shore ice, long cracks could
be created, thereby loosening floes sometimes on the order of 1000 m2 •
If cracks did not appear the boat could be run back and forth creating
a track whereby a big floe could be loosened, provided the ice thickness
was less than about 0.1 m. Although the boat was somewhat small for the
job, about 70.000 m2 surface ice could be broken in less than 2 days.
The ice front was thereby artificially moved about 500 m upstream .

After initial ice cover formation the discharge was kept at 300 m3 /s
for about 1 week. The flow was then gradually increased to about 600 m3 /s .
The avarage flow during the rest of the winter was on the order of
450 m3 /s.

The autumn in 1983 was extremely rainy and all reservoirs were almost
completely full at the beginning of the winter. It was therefor important
not to reduce the flow until it was absolutely necessary . Due to a very
sudden cold spell, some trouble with frazil formation, which temporarily
clogged the intakes at Vittjarv, occurred before the flow was reduced to
300 m'/s this winter. At the beginning of freeze-up drifting ice passed
the opening in the ice boom and the ice cover progressed to section 33.0
in a couple of days. However, even this year ice cover formation occurred
fairly early upstream of the ice boom in spite of the open gap. The load
on the ice boom wire this year raised to about 70 kN during the ice
formation process.

Due to the high degree of reservoir filling the discharge was kept at
300 m'/ s not more than 3 days. The flow was then gradually increased
to about 550 m3 /s in 4 days.

Even 1983 ice-breaking was used to reduce the open water area downstream
of TrAngfors. Due to cold weather this work had to be stopped after
a few days. The ice front had at that time reached section 33.5, leaving
about 1 kilometer of open water downstream of TrAngfors. Downstream of
Vittjarv power station it was open water down to Mannbergsholmen. Due to
cold weather ice production on the open reaches was high and hanging dams
started to develop downstream of these open reaches. In order to further
reduce the open water area a specially.designed ice saw was used (ice
breaking with the boat was no longer possible). The ice saw is mounted
on a sled and is driven by a 30 HP engine. By this machine the ice front
downstream of TrAngfors was fed with large floes of shore ice. The front
thereby moved to section 34.0 and the remaining 500-600 m open reach
was considered acceptable.

One experience of the two years of "controlled" ice cover formation is

that the discharge might be kept somewhat higher than 300 m3 /s at freeze­
up. Bridging might thereby be avoided upstream of the ice boom and the
ice cover front may reach closer to the TrAngfors bridge without ice
breaking or sawing . Once the ice front has reached there the gap in the
boom should be closed.

The open water area at TrAngfors after initial ice cover formation and
complementary ice breaking and ice sawing is shown on Figure 5.

\ \\ \ NATURAL ICE FORIIATION

'111111 ICE BREAKING

1111111 ICE SAWING

Figure 5. Open water area at TrAngfors after initial ice cover

formation as well as after breaking and sawing of shore ice.

273
 CONCLUSIONS

Two years of experience of the method with reduced flow and supervision

of the early ice cover formation are now available for the river reach

between Vittjarv and Boden power stations. This short time period does

of course not permit any general conclusions. The following preliminary

conclusions have been drawn, however:

Reduction of the flow at freeze-up permits rapid ice cover formation

and the development of significant hanging dams is avoided. Considering
head-losses caused by ice jamming the two latest years were as good
as the best year experienced before; see Figure 3 (note that the
profiles refer to different discharge rates).
Having a management group for descissons of how to handle various
problems that arize at freeze-up is of major importance. More or
less daily contacts within this group during the critical time period
have shown to be very useful.
People involved in the local operation of the river have shown great
interest for the tested procedure. These people now have been able
to get a theoretical background to their practical experience. This
"educational effect" wi 11 probably be very favourable in the future.
The specially designed ice boom has so far been of minor use.
However, the boom will probably be of vital importance when trying
to achieve rapid ice cover formation at higher discharges than 300 m3 /s.
Both breaking and sawing of shore ice have proved to be useful
methods for building up fragmented ice covers. A boat may be used for
ice breaking at the early freeze-up. When the shore ice has grown
thicker only ice sawing is possible. It must be pointed out, though,
that both methods are quite time consuming and that the applicability
depends on local conditions.

REFERENCES

Billfalk, L., 1982. Ice Cover Formation and Break-up of Solid Ice

Covers on Rivers. Bulletin No TRITA-VBI-113-Paper I. Hydraulics

Laboratory, Royal Inst. of Tech., Stockholm.

274
Billfalk, L., 1983. Ice Cover Formation Vittjarv-Boden during winter

1982/83 - Evaluation of tested methods (in Swedish).

Swedish State Power Board, Alvkarleby Laboratory.

Jensen, M., 1981. Ice Problems at Vittjarv Power plant - Measures and

Results. IAHR - Int. Symp . on Ice, Proc. Vol.l, pp 238-251, Quebec.

275
 1AHR Ice Symposium 1984
IA
•
Hamburg

THE LA GRANDE RIVER

A FULL SCALE ICE HYDRAULIC LABORATORY

Marc Drouin James Bay Energy Corporation, Montrea .i , Canada.

Head, Hydraulic D ept.
Rene Hausser LaSal le Hydraulic Laboratory, Montreal, Canada.
President

ABSTRACT

Since the beginning of reservoir filling in 1~78 and commissioning of

the LG 2 powerhouse (5 328 MW), the winter flows in the downstream
reach of the La Grande River have increased from a few cubic metres per
3
second to 3 850 m /s. This increase is the result of the nearly
completed Phase 1 of the James Bay Hydroelectric Complex, which
includes three (3) powerhouse installations totalling 10 269 MW and
two (2) permanent nordic river diversions. As future development may
3
increase the winter discharge even further to 5 950 m /s, ice surveys
and studies are being continued. The aim of this research is to
quantify the ice regime along the river, do~~stream of a future power­
house which will be located 37 km from the sea and 75 km downstream of
LG 2.

The economical implications associated with the winter water levels

along this 37 km reach of the La Grande River are of such magnitude that
a precise understanding of the ice behaviour is mandatory . Extensive
field measurements and interpretations obtained over a period of years
are necessary to provide sufficient confidence in the analytical
procedures.

This paper deals with the natural ice conditions in this reach of the
river and describes the ice regime for a wide range of flows. Results
obtained from numerical models are compared with measured field data.

277
 1. INTRODUCTION

The La Grande Complex shown on Figure 1 is located in the Canadian

Shield, 1 000 km north of Montreal. The La Gran de River which i s
0
800 km long flows we stwa rd, generally paralleling latitude 53 50'
north and discharges into James Bay, the southern extension of
Hudson Bay. In the last ten yea rs, three power stations having a
total capa ci ty of 10 269 Ml,J were built along the river. LG 2,
lo ca ted at km 112, has an installed capacity of 5 328 Ml1 while LG 3,
with a capacity of 2 304 MW, is locat ed at km 23 8. The last power­
house on the river, LG 4, with a cap acit y of 2 637 MH, is located at
km 463. The possibility of building two more power stations on t he
La Grande River is now under s tudy. The first will add more units
at LG 2 and will increase the capac ity of that station to 7 326 MW.
The second, LG 1 , will have an i nstalled capacity of 1 368 MH and
will be located downstream of LG 2 at km 37 wh e re a temporary
diversion was bui lt in 1979 to take advantage of the filling at the
LG 2 reservo ir.

Figure I Geoq rop hl c Locol lon o f the La Gran de Co mple x

278
 The LG 2 development causes substantial changes in the ice condi­
tions in the downstream part of the river, which may be further
influenced by fut ure projects. Under natural conditions the for­
mation of the ice cover occurs at the end of November and coincides
3
with the initial period of decreasing winter flows of 1 650 m /s to
3
1 450 m /s. Presently, the production of electricity is at its
maximum during the months of December, January and February so that
3
the ice cover is formed or subjected to a flow up to 4 300 m /s .
3
This flow will eventually increase to 5 950 m /s if the proposed
sites are built. The building of the LG 1 powerhouse, the use of the
river by the native peoples together with environmental aspects
require that the studies done 10 years ago, should be validated.

2. THE LA GRANDE RIVER DOWNSTREAM OF LG 2

The downstream part of the La Grande River is subjected to the cold

continental climate of the subar c tic zone which is characterized by
warm short summe rs and long co ld winters. The average daily air
temperature is less than OOC betwe e n the end of October and the end
of April. The average total degree-days of freezing during this
0
period amounts to 2 650 e-days. December, January and February are
0
the coldest months with an average temperature of -lSoe, _23 e and
0
_21 e respectively and cold spells which can reach -50°C.

Th e river downstream of LG 2 is almost straight for most of its 112

km length. It has a drop of 32 m, which is concentrated mainly in
two locations; km 37, the future site of LG 1 powerhouse and between
km 87 and km 102. Before the building of the La Grande Complex, the
3
long term mean f low of the river at LG 2 was 1 700 m /s. The
permanent diversion of three peripheral basins namely, Eastmain,
Opinaca and Caniapiscau shown on Figure 1 allowed the long term mean
3
flow to be increased to a value of 3 320 m /s.

2.1 - From the Mouth of the River to km ' 37 (LG 1.)

This river stretch is an estuarY'where the average tide reaches 1.5 m

height at the mouth of th e river and a few ce ntimetres at km 37.

The rive r banks are relat ive ly steep which implies that the surface

area of the flow changes very little with res pec t to the water level.

279

- -
 The average width of the river is about 1 km and the average depth
4.5 m for mean flow and open water conditions. The bottom profile,
and typica l summer and winter water profiles are shown on Figure 2.

-tJ

-.. +.------~------~----~-------,-O------~~-------,~O------~~----~----~
DISTANCE In klloma'at'1l

Figure 2 - THE BOTTOM PROFlLE AND TYPICAL SUMMER AND WINTER WATER PROFlLES

The ice cover under natural conditions formed in several stages.

First the channel was covered with floating ice and slowly closed
from the banks over a period of about one month. Then as the flow
diminished and the air temperature fell, an ice bridge was formed
at approximately km 3. This natural barrier blocked the ice coming
from upstream and an ice cover was formed progressively up to km 35
during the next few days. Normall y , the river was completely
covered with ice by the 1st of December; the average flow at that
3
time was about 1 450 m /s. As a result of the ice cover formation,
the temporary increase of the water level was negl ig ible downstream
of km 10 but averaged 1 . 5 m at km 21 and 2 m at km 35.At the end
3
of winter, the average flow of the river was about 400 m /s and the
water levels in the estuary were at their lowest in the year.

280
 2.2 - From LG I to the LG 2 Powerhouse (km 37 to km 112)

The river over this 75 km length is characterized by steep banks.

Between km 37 and km 87, the water levels are fixed by the upstream

sill of the temporar y diversion channel at LG I and are substantial­

3
ly higher than the were naturally . For a discharge of 4 300 m /s,
the mean water velocity is 0.6 mls and the Froude Number is in the
order of 0.060. The ice cover formed in this stretch of the river
is thin and remains thin due to therma l erosion and is stable for
any hydraulic conditions. Upstream of km 87, there are permanent
open water conditions due to the high flow velocities (1.5 mls to
2.2 m/s) and the water temperature which are well above OOC.

3. THE CALCULATED AND OBSERVED ICE CONDITIONS

At the start of the LG 2 studies in the beginning of 1970, the ice

cover formed under natural conditions was investigated in detail.
However, since the ice cover always fromed under relativel y low flow
3
conditions of generally less than 1 650 m /s, it was necessary to
calculate the water leve ls and the characteristics of the ic e cover
under conditions which would occur aft e r the project was developed.
Methods which were used considered small floes forming a non
cohesive cove r.

Once commissioning of the LG 2 powe rhouse started, ev en though the

flow in the river during the ice cover formation period had not yet
3
passed 3 300 m /s, the field measurements indicated that there were
certain differences between the actual conditions and the calculated
values.

The differences between the calculated and the measured results were
found in the thermal regime, the characteristics of the ice cover
and the water levels.

3.1 - Position of OOC Isotherm

One of the first steps in the calculations of the ice conditions
downstream of a reservoir is to establish the position of the OOC
isotherm so that the section from which the ice begins to form can

2~
 be located. Starting with a known or estimated temperature of the
water c oming from the reservoir, calculations consisted in determi­
ning the heat exchange between water and air required to lower the
water temperature down to the freezing point. The average value of
the air-water heat e xchange coefficient used for the calculations
2 o
was 460 kcal/m / C/day (Ref. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 11, 12, 17, 18). To
verify thi s value, a back anal ysis was done by using actual water
temperatures measured alon g the downstream part of the river, air
temperatures and river flows. Typical result s obtained during the
1983-1984 winter are shOlm on Figure 3.

As c an be seen, the coefficient s of heat exchange between the watet

and the air obtained may be s ubstantially smaller than the values
used for the calculations. Howev er, there is a fairly good agree­
ment with values proposed by certain authors (Ref. 4, 5, 7, 11).

".,j--- -j---+---+- -r-l- - f -- +-- ---!-- :.:::;:-=::j:::;;-;noj==t,1

1,6f--- j i - -- j'- - -j

,,_}-----1i----;;

- I,> f-- - j i - -- j- - ; --I'''-l

··
~ l,ai------1i----'='''''

~~. ~~.'4>
;
0,6

0,_

o,>r-- -t- - - jl- - -t-

OISTAHCE "RO" THE MOUTH or TH[ L. CIt.HOE RiVER tKMl

Fi;ure 3 ~xamplel of Water Temperature ProfIles and Heal Exchonge CoeffiCIents

282
3.2 - Ice Formation
According to the method of ca lculation presently in use , the ice
sta rts to form at a certain distance downstream of the OOC isotherm
wh ere the water is in a slightly supercooled state.

However, the results of the field measurements and observations show

that the ice sometimes appears upstream of the OOC isotherm, that is
to say on "warm water". Figure 3 exemplifies with year 1983-1984
that the floating i ce appeared on the river even though the water
temperature 10 centimetres below the surface was O.soC in a zone
where the average flow velocity was 0.5 m/s.

Although the result s of this observation may appear paradoxical at

first, it had already been observed and documented by Newbury who
noted a similar case. Water from Gull Lake had a temperature of
0
1.67 C, and within 600 m or 12 minutes exposure time at an atmosphere
temperature of -34°C ... "ic e s heets formed that were several inches
thick and roughly equal in length and breadth to the width of the
open central channel" (Newbury, 1968, Ref. 8).

A possible explanation for this phenomenon i s that on one hand, the

surface layer of water loses a certain quantity of heat to the air
wh ich is due only to climatic conditions. On the other hand, the
same s urface layer receives from the water a certain amount of heat
which is a function of turbulent diffusion. These two phenomena
are practically indep en dent. The first may override the second and
cause the cooling of a very th in sup erficial flow layer which would
be sufficient to generate ice.

3.3 - Formation and Thickness of the Ice Cover

The first analysis considered small floes forming a non cohesive
cover , the thickness of whi ch obeys the flow conditions so as to
resis t the hydrodynamic forces (Ref. 9, 10).

Recent observations show ' that the ice c over of the La Grande Ri ve r
actually forms mainly by the juxtaposition of extended ice plates
of small thickness. Plates have a width and a length about equal

283
 to the width of the open channel. In areas of low or average flow
veloci ties this juxtaposi tion is produced without significant
deformation of the plates; in the fast er zones the collision of the
plates produce partial overlapping which causes the hUIDIDocked
appearance of the cover. But in all cases the Cover keeps a thick­
ness related to that of the very thin plates, that is to say 5 to
15 cm.

The consequences of this type of formation result in clear difference

between the calculated and the measured ice cover thickness. The
calculated cover thickened with the increase in flow and attained
a thickness of two to three metres, while the measured thickness is
almost independent of the flow and reflects that of the floating
plates. To explain this mode of ice cover formation, the two
following co nditions must be satisfied:

a) Plate Stability
Each plate that arrives again s t the upstream edge of the ice cover
must juxtapose itself without being pushed beneath the cover. In
order to do this, the Fe value in the expression:

which characterizes the equilibrium of the plate, should be suffi­

ciently large to conform to the equation even for small values of
thickness of the plate and relatively high value s of flow
velocity vu

In the case of the La Grand e River, the value of tiL is very

3 5
small and in the range of 10- - to 10- . The observations made on
t he river clearly show that the thin plates forming the ice cover
are ind iv idually stable. Given ice plates 5 em thick and flow
velocity of 0.6 mis, they correspond to Fe values at lea s t equal
to 3. Such values are on the high side as compared with laboratory
data obtained by various authors (Ref. 1, 9, 13, 14, 15, 16). To
be noted however is the fact that they have not covered as small
tiL values in the i r experiments as those actually found in the La
Grande River.

284
 The other factor which can limit this mode of formation of the
ice cover is the resistance to crushing.

b) Resistance to Crushing of the Ice Cover

The plates which make up the cover take up almost the whole width
of the river channel and attach rapidly to the border ice because
of the very low atmospheric temperatures which normally occur at
the end of December during the formation of the ice cover. The
equilibrium between the hydrodynamic forces which act on the cover
and the adherence to the border may be exp.ressed in a simple
manner as follows:

BV 2
-y-~
u 2 °s
p g
C
Where B is the width of the river, Vu the (Low velocity beneath
the cover, C the Chezy coefficient, Os the shear resistance of ice,
the thickness of the cover and p g the specific weight of ice.

Considering that the shear resistance of this ice Os is about 5

to 7 kg/cm2, this expression is almost always satisfied even for
very thin plates. Therefore, the ice cover is stable provided
that it actually adheres to the border.

3.4 - Flow Resistance

Measurements have shown that the water levels rise as the ice cover
forms and then fall slightly afterwards. This suggests that the
flow resistance varies accordingly with time during the winter season.

In order to obtain the laws of flow resistance, the results of

measurements taken during the winter 1982-1983 were used to calculate
the Chezy coefficient for the different sections of the river. This
coefficient, which was supposed to be constant and equal to 40 ml/2/s
in the previous studies, in fact varies not only from one section to
another but also for different periods of the ice season. The
calculated values obtained from the field measurements vary between
l 2
10 and 80 m / /s. To establish basic flow resistance relationships
both at, and after the ice cover formation, the results of the

285.
 measurements were first plotted on Figures q and 5 by using the non­
dimensional terms:

Wh e r e h is th e flow de pth beneath the cover, i the energy gradient

and q the discharge per unit width.

IOOOr:: ::

'oo~~----------~--~----------}---~-----------~
~ I .,.: ­
~ V ­
'/ ­

Figure 4. Hydraulic Parameter Relationship

at the Ice Cover Formation

IOOO ~--~-'~-r~~r---~-'-'-r~~r---~-'~==~

~
Si
'oo~---------+----~---------+----~--------_~
=
-
-

Figure 5. Hydraul ic Parameter Relatjonshlp

After the Ice Cover FormatIon

286

I
It should be noted that the same non-dimensional terms were used
before by Beltaos (Ref. 2) to analyse ice jams. In his case h was
replaced by H and included not only the depth of flow beneath the
cover but also the submerged ice depth, the two being related by:

H h + L t
P
According to Figures 4 and 5, the results present very little
dispersion and yield the relationship:

h
Bi

with k 0.82 at the time of the ice cover formation

k 0.60 after the ice cover formation

The Chezy flow resistance coefficient deduced from this relation­

ship is:

0.375
C 6.5 Gi) mt /s during the ice cover formation
0.375 }
C 11.5 Gi) m /s after the ice cover formation.

3.5 - Water Levels

The preceding relationships enabled water levels to be calculated
for different flows along the river, from the sea to LG I, 37 km
upstream. The calculations being based on winter 1982-1983
measurements, the water levels obtained at different stations
naturally correspond well with the same measurements. To verify
the measured water levels from other years, the calculated water
levels near LG 1 (km 35.4) have been compared to those measured.
The results are shown on Figure 6 which gives the calculated water
levels at the time of the formation of the ice cover (curve No.2)
and the levels measured since the commissioning of LG 2. The
3
comparison is good at least for discharges up to about 3 000 m /s.

287
 Figure 6 gives also the calculated levels and the measurements after
the ice cover was formed. The calculated water levels were esta­
blished for a cover which ha"d attained a thickness of 0.50 m
(curve No. 2a) and 1.0 m (curve No. 2b) as a result of thermal
thickening. For comparison purposes, curve No.1 of the same figure
gives the water levels obtained by the method which considers the
accumulation of ice floes and no cohesion instead of the plate
juxtaposition mechanism. Further research and field investigation
is required to assess which of the two above mechanisms will prevail
at larger flows than those which were experienced to date.

IOr---------,---------,----------,----------,---------,-------__-.

· .~------~~------_4--------_4---- __~_4----~~~--------~

·
~ . ~--------~----------t--?~----~~~------~~~~~~r_--------~
/

- •r------------i

·•
~ - .-1883-84
.. -1982-83
.-1981-82

-/- .....
D-'98O-81
O-,g19 · IO
.. -1978 - 1'
.-1971·",
" - 1916-7}
v-191~-76
·-1914-7~
·-'913-74
0-1912·7]

I _________~~------~~-=p=~=.=
..=R.='.~,,~,"~'=Io=C='="=.'="O="=.~A~"~~~I='.=C=O=='='=OI=~~'~
= lOOO .. )DOO..~.=~=.='="=C="d=.=.~

"
Ocr 1000 2000 4000 6000
OISC"A"G[ (lIIl/SI

FI(~lJre 6 SfQ~e
- Olscharoe Relollonshlps near LG I (Km 35,4)

Nol,. (wn... or.,. obtaln,d 101,. computo.,on .. n.I~ po,n', n'" 10 PfotOIJ'P' m.,nUI.mlnll.

I
&uumulolion 01 let 1'011 wlll10ul coI\IlolOn
2 &I, ,,,.'opolillon ot.ce pial"
' In CO"., /0'",01101'1
, A',., lo,mohon b, IUI10po.illo" ollu plollt. I'·
O,~ml
. •",r 10lmoholl b" jllalQPO'ihon 01 let plol" (,. 1,0rn)
3 . OP." wal.r cOllddion,

288
4. CONCLUSIONS

The results of the measurements taken along the downstream reach of

the La Grande River since the commissioning of the powerhouse at LG 2
when compared with the results of previous studies, indicate that the
conditions were less Severe than predicted.

The ice which was not supposed to form on the river until the tempe­
rature of flow had reached the freezing point or even a slightly
lower value, had in fact formed on water which was above the freezing
point or at least measured as such a few centimetres from the surface,
even for flows relative ly fast and in the order of 0.5 m/s.

Contrary to the prediction that the ice cover would form by the
accumulation of ice floes and would be very thick because the flow
in the river was significantly increased, the ice cover formed
generally by juxtaposition of large ice plates and produced a thin
cover which was independent of the flow at least for the discharges
experienced to date. After the cover had been formed, the thickness
increased normally by thermal transfer to attain a value of about
1 metre at the end of the winter.

As far as the flow resistance is concerned, it had been considered

in the previous studies that the resistance coefficient was constant
for a given stretch of the river during the whole ice season. The
present investigation revealed that this coefficient varies from one
section to another, and also as a function of time. For a given
discharge value, the resulting water levels are higher during the
formation of the ice cover and gradually decrease afterwards.

REFERENCES
1. Ashton, G.D., 1974. Stability of ice blocks beneath a cover. Limited
distribution technical note, CRREL; Hanover, N.H., June.

2. Beltaos, S., 1983. River ice jams: Theory, case studies and applica­
tions. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, Vol. 109', No. 10, October.

3. Devik, 0., 1964. Present experience on ice problems connected with

the utilization of water power in Norway. Journal of Hydraulic
Research, Vol. 2, No.1.

289
 4. Hausser, R. and Beauchemin, R., 1959. Rate of ice production on an
open water surface. Proceedings, 8th Congress, IAHR, Montreal,
Vol. III.

5. Majewski, P., 1974. A study of the thermal balance of the St.

Lawrence River in winter regime, IAHR River and Ice Symposium,

Budapest.

6. McLachlan, D.W., 1926. Report of the joint board of engineers on the

St. Lawrence waterway project. Appendix E.

7. Michel, B., 1970. Winter regime of rivers and lakes. Monograph 111­
BIA, CRREL, Hanover, N.H.

8. Newbury, R., 1968. ~he Nelson River - A study of subarctic river

processes. Thesis, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland.

9. Pariset, E. and Hausser, R., 1961. Formation and evolution of ice

covers on rivers. Transactions of the Engineering Institute of
Canada, Vol. 5, No.1.

10. Pariset, E., Hausser, R. and Gagnon A., 1966. Formation of ice covers
and ice jams i n rivers. Journal of the Hydraulics Division, ASCE,
Vol. 92, November.

11. Pruden, F.W., Wardlaw, R.L., Baxter, D.C. and Orr J.L., 1954. A
study of wintertime heat losses from a water surface and of heat
conservation and heat addition to combat ice formation in the St.
Lawrence River. N.R.C. Canada, Division of Mechanical Engineering,
Report No. MD-42.

12. Robinson, L. and Witherspoon, D.F . , 1974. Practical application of

probability forecast water surface temperatures of the St. Lawrence
River. Seminar on Ice Thermal Regime. Universite Laval, Quebec.

13. Sinotin, V.I. and Guentin, Z.A., 1970. Etude du plongement des gla­
~ons sous un obstacle. Proceedings, First IAHR Symposium on ice and
its action on hydraulic structures, Reykjavik, Iceland.

14. Tatinclaux, J.C., 1981. Stability of floes below a floating cover.

Proceedings, IAHR S)~posium on ice, Quebec, Vol. I.

15. Uzener, M.S., 1977. Stability analysis of floating and submerged

ice floes. Journal of the Hydraulics Division, ASCE, Vol. 103, July.

16. Uzener, M.S. and Kennedy, J.F., 197 2 . Stability of floating ice
blocks. Journal of the Hydraulics Division, ASCE, Vol. 93, December.

17. Wardlaw, R.L., 1954. A study of heat losses from a water surface as
related to winter navigation. N.R.C., Canada.

18. Wemelsfelder, F ., 1954. The influence of an ice Cover on the

discharge conditions of a river (St. Lawrence). Proceedings, Int.
Union of Geodesy and GeophYSics, Int. Ass. of Scient. Hydr., Vol. 4.

290
 WIR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

CXl.'ICEPT AND EXPERIlliCE IN OJiVI'ROLING '!HE ICE

RffiIME (lII '!HE YUGOSLAV RElICH OF 'lliE DANUBE

AFTER THE <X't'JSTRlJCTI(lII OF '!HE lRUI GATE DAM

S. PI:.'TKOVIC Faculty of Forestry Yugoslavia

Dr.Civ.Eng.Professor University of Belgrade

R. PAVUNIC "Jaroslav Cerni" Institute

Dr.Civ.Eng.,Res.Eng. Belgrade

S. VAFGA "Jaroslav ~rni" Institute

Civ.Eng. , Res. Eng. Belgrade

The paper represents an analysis of the concept for the control of the
ice regime on the Yugoslav reach of the river Danube. The largest part of
this reach is under the influence of the backwater fran the Iron Gate llim
I. After its construction. the hydraulic and morphological factors
influencing the ice regime on the Umube changed significantly. As a
result, the ooncept of the ice control is based on the analysis of the
natural regime (before the dam was constructed) ani the character of the
changes that occurred.

The adopted ice protection ooncept requires that the natural conditions
of the ice regime should be established. This should be done by lowering
the water level in the reservoir as well as by using icebreakers that
need to cut the ice cover ani in this way enable the faster evacuation of
ice alony the reservoir. Sane elements of this concept for the control
of the ice regime were tried out ani checked during the winter of 1981/82
when the ice cover had formed on the entire Yugoslav reach of the
Umube. The existing experience has shown that the adopted ice control
concept represents a good basis for successful ice protection.

291
 1. INTRO[)UCTION

The river Danube flows through the territory of Yugoslavia covering a

length of 587 km. From the geomorphological point of view, it is pos­
sible to point out two characteristic zones (Fig. 1):

- the zone of the lowlying littoral between the Yugoslav-Hungarian

border and the mouth of the river Nera;
- the gorge type zone (called Djerdap) i.e. the "Iron Gate" stretch
between the mouth of the river Nera and the border between
Yugoslavia and Bulgaria.

The rivers Drava, Tisa, Sava and Velika Morava are major tributaries
flowing into the Danube as it flows through Yugoslavia. Several bigger
towns have also been built alongside the Danube, among them Belgrade, the
capital of the country as well.
The ice occurrences on the Danube depend on the climatic conditions in
the basin area. In times of colder winters, the ice occurrences are more
intensive and last longer. As is the case with other rivers too, the ice
on the Danube can be the cause of siginificant problems. Besides making
navigation difficult or even ir., possible, the accumulation of ice and the
format i on of ice barriers on reaches can be the cause of greater danger
for the littoral. This is why ice :; or,~ rol has already for a long time
been a component part of flood protectiul. on the Danube.

=='""~=_= Rive r
_____ R~servoir of

the Iron Gate Dam

1HEP IRON GATE I I·

HEP IRON GATE II

Fig. 1 - Hap of tile Uanube flowing through Yugoslavia

292
The construction of the Iron Gate Dam I, finished in 1972, greatly ef­
fected and influenced the changes in the water regime, as well as that of
sediment and ice on the Danube.

The water regime, as well as that of sediment and ice on the Danube have
greatly been changed as a result of the construction of the Iron Gate dam
in 1972. The construction of Iron Gate Dam II is now under way 80 km
downstream of Iron Gate Dam I (Fig. 1). This dam will also effect the ice
regime on this sector of the Danube. That is why it is important to
consider the joint impact of both Iron Gate Dams I and II when analyzing
the ice protection concept.

2. BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ICE f(EGHIE ON THE DANUBE ElEFORE

AND AFTER THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE IRON GATE 0111-1

The frequency of ice appearing on the Yugoslav stretch of the Uanube

varies between 70% and 90%, while the mean frequency of a hard ice cover
is around 40%, with significant variations along the flow, depending on
the hydraulic and morphologic conditions on the Danube.

The ice regime on the Danube is characterized by the existence of two

critical reaches, i.e. by the upstream reach stretching between the
borderline with Hungary and the mount of the river Drava, and the
downstream reach, i.e. the Iron Gate gorge. The unfavourable morphologic
conditions in these reaches, with the many narrow points for the passage
of ice have been the cause of serious ice control problems and even ice
floods.

In natural conditions, the ice regime in the Iron Gate gorge has resulted
from specific morphologic and hydraulic characteristics of the river. At
certain profiles the narrow points were the cause of ice stoppages while
the high flow velocities caused ice jams. However, taking into
consideration the relatively big drops in the water levels along this
stretch of the Danube in the natural regime, the water level of the
backwater caused by the ice jams was limited. The water level in the
zone of the ice jams did not treaten the settlements on the littoral
because of the steep banks in the Iron Gate gorge. It can therefore be
concluded that in the natural regime of the Danube, the very existence of
the Iron Gate gorge has had a favourable impact on the ice regime since
293
it r:lade it possible for large amounts of ice to accumulate without nega­
tively effecting the littoral.
In the more recent period, there have been significant changes in the
natural ice regime on the Yugoslav sector of the Danube. They are a
result either of direct interventions in the ice regime, as was the case
in the sector upstream of Novi Sad, or of the indirect influence
resulting from the changes of the hydraulic and morphological factors of
the regime, as was the case in the zone of the backwater of the Iron Gate
Dam. In the first case, the organized ice protection, with the help of a
fleet of icebreakers changed the natural process of ice formation both in
time and space on this sector of the Danube. This system of ice
protection almost provided a complete solution to all the basic problems
related to ice on the Danube since the danger of ice floods, that had
been quite frequent in the past, was now almost completely eliminated.

As a result of the construction of the Iron Gate Dam, the hydraulic and
morphological factors of the ice regime were changed in the entire
backwater zone from Iron Gate Da~, all the way up to Novi Sad. However,
the effect on the ice-regime is not the same on the whole stretch: in the
zone of the basic reservoir, starting from the dam up to V. Gradiste, the
ice regime is more suitable than under the natural regime, since the
hydraulic conditions are no more suitable for the formation of ice jams
in the Iron Cate gorge. However, in the zone where the backwater from
the Iron Gate ceases to exist, i.e. between V. Gradiste and Novi Sad, the
ice regime becomes worse when compared with the natural regime, because
of the reduced discharge capacity of the channel for the flow of ice (as
a result of the decreased flow velocity) and the changed contour
conditions (at the Ojerdap sector, instead of a shorter duration of the
ice run), as was the case under natural conditions, the ice stoppage will
be of a longer duration at ti~es of colder winters. Therefore the basic
changes of the natural ice regime on the Danube in the backwater zone of
the Iron Gate consists of the fact that the ice related problems are
somewhat extended from the stretch of the Iron Gate up to the upstream
stretctl. The only difference is that owing to the favourable conditions
for the formation of ice, the ice jams on the Iron Gate stretch did not
cause any catastrophic damage to the littoral. However, in the upstream
sector, because of the lowlying character of the littoral and because of
the many towns located in the area, (Smederevo, Pancevo, Beograd, Novi
Sad) the ice jams could be the cause of catastrophic ice floods. It is

294
therefore clear that ice protection is a much more serious and delicate
problem in the backwater of the Iron Gate than in the natural regime of
the Danube.

For the time being, the natural ice regime has been changed on a rela­
tively short reach (around 30 km) on the sector downstream of the Iron
Gate. Because of the hydraulic and thermodynamic effects that are the
result of the operation of the hydropower plant, the ice regime is more
favourable than in the natural regime. Since the Iron Gate Dam II is now
also being built, the ice regime will soon be more favourable then in the
natural conditions on the whole sector from the Iron Gate Dam I up to the
mouth of the river Timok as it will be exposed to the effects of both
hydropower stations.

3. ICE CONTROL CONCEPT FOR THE YUGOSLAV SECTOR OF THE DANUBE

From what has been said so far, it is quite clear that the natural
conditions for the formation of ice on the Yugoslav sector of the Danube
have been changed both in respect of time and space so that there cannot
be any more discussion about the natural ice regime. As for how these
changes have effected the conditions relevant for ice control purposes,
it can be said that the flow of the Danube can be divided into the
following 3 sectors on the territory of Yugoslavia:

- sector of the Upper Danube, from the Hungarian border up to Novi

Sad,
- the zone of the backwater of the Iron Gate Dam I, from Novi . Sad up
to the dam,
- the sector from the Iron Gate Dam I up to the Dulgarian border.

As has already been pointed out, the system of ice control in the Upper
Danube has been functioning successfully for over ten years. The
protection has been legally regulated by the Hungarian-Yugoslav protocol
on cooperation in the field of water resources, and icebreakers from both
countries are involved and are in action when the need arises.

The sector located downstream of the Iron Gate Dam 1 should not be ex­
posed to any more serious ice problems because of the favourable effects
which the already existing and future hydropower plants have on the ice
regime. From the aspect of ice control, this sector can probably be

295
 regarded as the safest. This is why it is not necessary to undertake any
special ice protection measures or plan any special means of protection
(icebreakers, etc.). The only thing that needs to be considered is that
it is important to synchronize the evacuation of ice over the spillway of
the dams (the Iron Gate Dams I and II).

From the point of view of ice control, the backwater zone of the Iron
Gate Dam represents the most difficult sector or the entire flow of the
Danube through Yugoslavia. Because of its position on the Yugoslav part
of the Danube, the population and the importance of the littoral, as well
as because of the hydraulic and morphological conditions of the
watercourse and the contour conditions of the ice regime, the backwater
zone of the Iron Gate Dam is of major importance and plays a very
significant role in the ice control on the Danube.

The ice control concept and the manner of protection in the backwater
zone of the Iron Gate Dam I have been given in detail in (Ref. 1).

In the given conditions of the backwater from the Iron Gate Dam I, the
basic concept for controling the ice regime in the considered reach of
the Danube is based on the conclusion that under the natural regime of
flow, there had been no danger of ice floods occurring in the reach
upstream of the Iron Gate gorge. Therefore, in accordance with this, the
concept for controling the ice regime is actually based on the idea of
achieving such hydraulic factors of the ice regime when constructing a
dam that would be similar to those in the natural regime. As it would be
irrational to maintain this throughout the entire period of ice
formation, it is suggested that such factors be established only during
the most critical period of ice run during the spring season.

In order to be able to establish this similarity between the ice regime

during the regular exploitation of the Iron Gate Dam I and the natural
ice regime in spring when the ice starts moving, the following two basic
conditions must be met:

the natural hydraulic regime of the Danube upstream of the Iron

Gate gorge must be established,

the boundary conditions for the ice run must be similar to those

under the natural regime.

296
 -,

",1.e first comition can De fultili.au oru.y L,t' 10l,erill-,j tbe water lev"l" i"
the Iron Gate U>m I which, up to certain uischarges, limit the influence
of the back-water up to tI,e gor,:!e 0:': the I.-em Gate. ';.'he second condition
requires that the factors of the ice regime on this reach should be
similar to those in the lliltural r"':lihl'" Defore the ice rur, besir.s in
spring. In the reach upstsream of the gorge of the Iron Gate, it is
essential to establish the rigl lt ccndi tions for the poiSbagl' ot ice
through the downstream read l ; i n t h is case this is only possible with the
help of an icebreaker.

'!'he hydraulic analys is of t h e e ffects o f the .,ater level lower in.,;' ill the
Inn Gate Dam in conditions of the ice regime showed that the first
condition consistin8 of contro ling the ic~ was satisfied in tl~ Lackwater
zone of the Iron Gate Dam. In order to satisfy the second condition for
the purpose of ice control, it was deterrnilled based Oil the total icc
mass, the available time and the capacity of the river channel that a
fleet of icebreakers (4 uni ts 1 "JaS nece "':;U1Y to erJfu..le the ice rur,
through the narrow points i n the channel.

The canplete concept of ice control on the Yugoslav stretch of ti~ UmuD..,
requires an absolute coordination of all actions along the flow. This
means that the ice control in the reach upstream and downstream ot the
l:;e.ckwater of the Ircn Gate dam must be done in accordance with the ice
control in the mentioned zone. It is fran this principle that all the
basic guidelines for the control of ice in the reach upstream of the
backwater zone of Iron Gate Dam I are derived:

- DurilB the ice nm in autumn, it is important to achieve a continuous

flow of the ice on the entire stretch of the I:e.nube on Yugoslav territory
fo r as IOlB as the ice keeps comilB fran the upstream reach (fran
Hungary l. This can be achieved for as long as the conditions in the
backwater zcne of the Iron Gate Daro I are right for the ice run. LUring
this pericd, icebreakers s}lO.lld maintain the continuity of the ice flow
ani intervene in cases of =casional jams.

- 'J'o..Jards the end of the autlIDUl season ani the ice run during this pericx1
of the year or, in other words. at the beginning of the ice steppage, the
role of the icebreakers would be to control the ice stoppage and ensure
the formation of a stable ice cover of a more or less uniform thickness
along the watercourse. In this phase, it is essential to completely

297
 synchronize the actiCll of too icebreakers in the upstream reach \Jith the
CJlJer<.ltioCial iJ.ction IJJ.an for t1le cuntrol of ice 111 UiG backwater zone of
the Iron Gate dara. Duriny the process of ice fomlation in the backwater
zone, it is necessary to griJ.dually reduce the arrount of ice comin" in
fram the upstream reach. This can be achieved by directing some of the
ice into the small arms of ti,e c}1dnnel or into points where it is
somewhat widened. Once the ice =ver has been made in the backwater zone
of the Iron Gate dam, the inflow of ice frolll the upstream reach must be
brought to a complete stop. 7his will result in the formation of an ice
=ver on tIle reach beh,/een l~vi Sau and the Yugoslav and Hungarian border.

- Duriny the critical phase of the ice run (duriny the spring season),
the action ot tlle icebreakers in the upstream reach must be =mpletely
syncrhonized with the ice protection measures in the zone of the
backwater of the Iron Gate dam. 'J.'his means that the ice in the reach must
not start moving downwards before the =nditions in the backwater zone of
the Iron Gate dam are such that they enable the passage of ice. 'i'be ice
run in spriny in the upstream reach would begin when the conditions in
tlle tackwate r zone of the h -on Gate are such that they can enSlll-e the
=ntinuous pasaye of ice. In this phase, tle icebreakers would ensure the
=ntinuous flow of ice, anti intervene in the case of a possible ice jam.

Pram the point of view of ice =ntrol, the easiest part of the Lenube to
cOntrol is the one between the Iron GateI:ern and the Yugoslav arid
Bulgarian border. The ice regime in the reach will be exposed to the
effects of two hydropower stations - i.e. the Iron GateI:erns I and II.
Because of the favourable effects of the power stations on the ice regime
in the downstream rench, it is reasonable to assume that the intensity of
ice occurrences on the Lenube in the reach downstream of the IrCll Gate
cam I will be si<jnificantly reduced in col1lfXirison ",ith tllese occurrences
in the upstream reach. This is why no special ice control measures need
to be implemented in this reach.

In verj cold winters, the following ice Conditions should be expected in

the reach downstream of the Iron GateI:ern I:

- Cbwnstream of tile Iron Gate cam I, in the areas effected by the

hydropower plants, i.e. cca. 30 kIn in lenyth, the Lenube would be
completely free of ice (it is possible that smaller ice formations could
form towards the end of the zone).

298
- In the do.mstream pcu:t of the backwater fram tl,e I ron Gute Lrn.l II, on a
length of arourO 40-50 Jan, the production of ice will te ruuch more
intensive. lbwever, the unstationary character of the operutiorli:il re<jime
of the Ir= Gate Lam II will make the formation of the ice cover in this
zone more difficult.

- The sector do.mstream of the Iron Gate Dam II, i.e. up to the J::onler
tetween Yugoslavia and Bulgaria, will te exposed to the more favourable
influence ccming from the hydropower plants and will tl~retore te
practicaly without any ice.

4. EXPERIllU RLLi\'i'ED TO Ic!:; CXlHf«.JL 00 'IHL DIIM.JBE

In the past twelve years of exploitation of the Iron Gate dam, ice
occurrences were of a relatively short duration. The ice most often
appeared in th= secon:! half of January as a result of the spell of cold
weather, effecting the littoral of the Danute, this being typical for
this part of the year. 7he ice occurrences were of a relatively uniform
duration along the entire reach, while ice jams were quite rare. The
most si':jnificant ice jam OCCUlTed in 1979 on the Upper Danute, not Ilitllin
the backwater fram the Iron Gate dam. As a result, the water level was
locally increased up to 2.5 m. However, this ice Jam was easily broken
with the help of icebreakers.

Fig. 2 - Ice Cover in the Reservoir of the Iron Gate Lam I

299
 Sanewhat more critical ccn:1i ticns of the ice regime en the Lanube
occurred during th. winter of 1981/82. ';.\,e temperatures alon" the
littoral of the Lenube were rather 10.. duriaj the whole lOClnth of January
1982 (ut' to -lOoe) causing the forr.ation of an ice =ver on IIOSt of the
Lanube, flo..iaj through Yugoslavia. Towards the end. of January, the ice
started IrOviaj fra.l the upstrear.l reach of the Lanube, ani lar<,le ice
formaticns quickly started reachiaj tlle reservoir of the Iron Gate dam.
'Illis resulted in the a=unnnulation of ice blocs so that the ice cover
quickly =vered a leajth of aroum. 30 lcrn. Because of a quite high
uncertainty as to what would happen next, all personnel and responsible
authorities were put on the alert ani intensive preparations were made
for the eventual evacuation of ice over the spillways of the dam.
Several attempts were made to evacuate the ice by lowering the water
levels in the dam, arx:I increasing the veloci ty of the water on the
spillways. However, this only resulted in the lOClvement of a few isolated
blocs so that the obtained result ,;as really insigniiicant. It was
therefore obvious that icebreakers had to be used. 'Ille ice =ver had in
the meantime become rather canpact so that the ice needed to be broken
into smaller pieces ~ usiaj icebreakers, and then pushed towards the
spillways of the dam. CKlly in this way, with the inevitable loss of
water and energy, was it possible to achieve positive results that were,
however, only of a local character. 'l'o.-Iards the end of January, the

Fig. 3 - Icebreakers at work: ice breakiaj and pushing down of the

iL~ towards the spillways

300
meteorologic ard hydrologic =nJitions on the Lenube have improve.}, the
ice run was slowel: ilI'Li the ir.-,meciiate ice threu.t Ira" over' . r.1,,-, ice lTd"

allowed to stay ard melt in the reservoir when meteorological =nUitions

improved. That is wl.clt actually diu hilppen later.

The experience acquired during the winter =nJitions of 1981/82, "hicl;

had actually not been as hKI as many others in the past, showed tllCit ice
control on the Danube was, in fact, a very serious and delicate ~tter.

It becillne obvious that it VIas very difficult to evacuate the ice tror,l the
reservoir under the given =nditions, and this haa been one of the basic
measures of the ice cOlltrol regilile. It .Iill te very difficult to cio UJ.s
even when the =ndi tions for the implementation of other planned
protection measures are ri~ht ' (94uippi~ the fleet of icebleakerS).
Therefore, in very cold winters and critical situations I,ith ice
occurrences, it will be necessary to ir,lplement the second IJasic ice
protection measure - i.e. it Ilill be necessary to lo.ver the I-l ater levelin
the reservoir and ensure the naturill re,)iI:\€ upstream of t1.e ,;0rc;e of the
Iron Gate. The icebreakers will then need to break tr~ou9rl the narrow
points and enable the passa':Je of ice, prevent the development of ice jams
and ensure the undisturbed flow of the ice towards the part of the
reservoir close to the dam.

5. CU'lCWSIctlS

Before the =nstruction of the Il:on Gate dum, the ice regir.le on the
Yugoslav part of the Lenube was characterized by tlooO critical reaches:
the upstrear., reach between the Hungarian !:order an.. tile mcuth of tile
river Drava, and the downstream reach of the Iron Gate gorge. 'i11e
=ntrol of the ice resir.le in the upstrecu.i reach is done wi th the help of
icebreakers.

Once the Iron Gate dam was built, the factors of the ice r~jime were
changed in the entire zone of the backwater, all the way fr= the dar.l up
to Novi Sod. Cbwever, the changes were not unifon.. : in the ;xJ[le Letween
the dam and the Iron Gate gorge, the ice regime is IrOre favourable tllilll
it had been in the ruturili regime since the coo::'litioru; neccssarj for the
development of ioe jams do not exist any lOC>re. In the upstreahl part of
tile reservoir, the ice regime is l,orse than it used to Le since the
discharge capacity of the channel has been reduced for the ice run, arx1
301
the downstredJ.l contour concll tiuns tor the pab»aye of ice ilCive been
changed. 7he ice control concept in the reach of the Iron Gate reservoir
is rosed on the idea of achiuvin<j such hj:draulic coruitions of the ice
regime that they should be siruilar to the factors in the natural regime
(before the daru construction). 'ihese CO!'X.iitions are realized by
implementing two basic measures:

- by lowering the water level in the daru and in ttlCit way limiting the
size of the backwater to the short reach between the dam and the Iron
Gate sorge, and
- by using a fleet of icebreakers in order to ensure the passage of ice
through this reach.

'1he control of ice on the reach upstream of the reservoir is done with
the help of icebreakers, while there are no major ice-related problems in
the reach between the dam and the Bulgarian rorder because of the
positive effects of the Iron Gate Dams I and II.

No extremely critical conditions of the ice re.,Jime have =curred on the

Qmube since the construction of the Iron Gate dam. The only exception
was the winter of 1~81/82 when an ice run had developed on the entire
reach and ice formations had then filled the entire zone of the lower
part of the reservoir. Attempts Here made to evacuate the ice over the
spillways of the dam. This proved to be a very delicate task.
Nevertheless, the acquired experience shOWed that the adopted concept of
ice control represents a good basis for successful ice protection.

rojuskatirovic D., Petkovic 5., 1983, Ice Regime on the f:enube and Its
Control after the Construction of HU'S Djerdap, IAHR Congress, ~obskow,

Vol. A , pp. 140-148.

302
 lAHR Ice Symposium 1984
Hamburg

ICE MANAGEMENT FOR

BEAUFORT SEA PRODUCTION HARBOURS

Per F. Andersen Consulting Engineer, Vancouver, B.C. Canada

Norman F. B. All yn Swan Wooster Engineering Co. Ltd. Canada

ABSTRACT

An ice management technique has been developed for maintaining winter

access to ice bound harbours which employs stationary wave machines and
icebreaking service tugs. Specifically, the proposed ice management method
identifies a practical sol ution to the major problem of docking large ships
in an enclosed harbour, which could otherwise be inhibited by ice huildup.

The wave machines would be installed at the back of the harbour enclosure,
facing the harbour entrance. At suitable time intervals, machine-made wave
action will be employed to break-up static ice formation in the harbour and
transport the broken ice seawards for disposal into the moving ice outside
the harbour. Service tug s will provide ice clearing outside the harbour,
if required, and will assist at dockings.
The orientation of the harbour and its entrance gap wi 11 be based on
directional ice drift, wave and wind statistics so as to mlnlmlze ice
problems outside the harbour entrance and facil itate the disposal of the
harbour ice.

Ice breaking and ice transportation by wave action have been studied in
field and tank tests. By applying the results of these tests and using
recently developed machinery, the ice management technique is proposed as a
practical and safe method of maintaining year round operations in an oil
production harbour in the Beaufort Sea. In addition, conventional berthing
procedures, dock fenders and wharf structures can be used with this scheme.

303
 Figure 1. Arctic Harbour

I NTRODUCTI ON

Several potential methods of suppressing ice formation and of manipulating

ice in Arctic harbours have been proposed. A list of some of these schemes
was presented in a POAC 79 paper entitled "Concepts for Ice Management at
Arctic LNG Tenminal" (CalT11laert et al, 1979).

For a Beaufort Sea harbour, an example of which is shown in Fig. 1, the

only practicable ice management methods are probably:

- ice breaker tug service

- wanm water discharge

- machine-made wave action

and combinations of these methods. This paper will concentrate on the last
concept, ice management by machine-made wave action.

BACKGROUND TO DEVELOPMENT OF CONCEPT

Ice management hy artificial wave action including ice prevention, ice

transportation and ice breaking has been demonstrated in field tests, as
exemplified on Fig. 2, and in simple tank tests (Andersen, 1972). The
tests took place at Rainy Lake in Northern Ontario in 1962 and at Quesnel,
B.C. in 1968. Outstanding effects of wave action on a water surface which
can he utilized for ice management comprise:

304
- mixing of water to a depth of one hal f the wave length

- mass transportation of water and floating matter in il "wave train" of

steep waves

- abil ity to break-up a thin ice cover

- long range action from a solitary wave making installation

The earl iest tests at Rainy Lake confi rmed the breaking up of ice by wave
action and ice prevention by wave induced mixing. Further field tests
demonstrated mass transportation of floating ice, including locally formed
frazil, in the direction of wave travel, and open air tank tests
established ice production rates in a cold water surface.

Tests at Quesnel, B.C. were carried out to study the transport capacity of
a wave train and to demonstrate accelerated melting of ice cover resulting
from underlying wave action.

-~. ..

Figure 2. Field Test at -19 0 C, Ice Clearing by Wave Train

305
 The early testing established the principle of ice management by wave
generation and it was concluded that, with certain limitations or
constraints, the principle could be useful for ice management at cold
region harbours. Applied to harbours, the ice management technique would
depend on continuous transportation of formed harbour ice by wave trains
from inside the harbours and seawards through the harbour entrance gap.
The disposal of the harbour ice outside of the harbour would depend on
exi sting incomplete ice cover, on icebrea ker activity, or on a natural
drift or current away from the entrance.

For salt water harbours, it was concl uded that the harbour entrance must
extend to deep water to facililate the dispersion of bro ken ice cover and
frazil ice from the harbour.

Furthermore the development of wave making machinery suitable for

install at ion in tidal waters and in exposed harbour areas would be
required.
In 1981, additional experiments were conducted at Frederikshavn in Denmark
to test the operation of floating wave generators developed especially for
ice management in harbours (Andersen, 1981). Test measurements of mass­
transportation velocities induced by wave action underlined the importance
of developing machinery that can produce steep waves with H/L (Height over
Length) ratios of an order of magnitune of 1/10.

THEORY - EFFECTS OF WAVE ACTION IN FREEZING WATER

'Certain effects of wave action in ice prone or freezing water are

predictable. Mi xing, temperature equal ity and scour effects to a water
depth of one half wave length are well known.

Mass transportation generated by wave action has generally received limited

attention due to its low velocity. For natural waves with H/L ratios (wave
height over wave length) in the range of 1/40 to 1/30 incl uding swell, the
generated mass transportion would be inSignificant. However, machine-made
waves with H/L ratios of 1/20 to 1/10 range can produce significant mass
transportation velocities.

Example data of wave induced mass transportation based on calculations and

reliable reference formulae (Wiegel, 1%4) have been tabled on Fig. 3 for
1.5 metre high waves and H/L = 1/12.

Ice clearing in harbours by wave generation can be achieved in two ways:

- with continuous wave generation, in which case the ice formation in the
wave train may consist of frazil ice;

with intermittant wave action which woul d produce broken ice in the wave
train.

306
 legend :

l = Wav e length
H = Wave Hei ght

HO'" Initial Wav e He ight

HI = Ho x [biB
C = Wave Velocity
Assume 3 Wave Machine Uni ts : b = 40 m and B = 14 0 m
T : ; : Wave Period
distance of wave tra ve l 5l I 50l I 100l I 500l I
H after diffraction HII 0.8H: I 0.7H 1 1 0.61111
Vz = ( o" / L)2 x ex [e-4oz / L_Ll 4 od) ( ~Iie ge l 1964 )
Z = Dis tance Bel ow
Example: l = 18 m, C = 5.3 m/sec, T = 3. 4 sec, d = 22 m Water Surface
find mas s tranportation velo cities for Ho = 1.5 m
b = Breadth of Wave
Depth at whic h fla ss Dis t ance of Wave Trave l Machin e Un; ts
Trans port is Cal culated 100 m I km 2 km 10 km
B = Initial Breadth
at Z = 0 (surfa ce) 918 588 450 331 of Wa ve Train

at Z = 0.5 m depth 629 402 306 226 d = Tot a I Water Dept h

at Z = \.0 m dept h 425 272 208 153

Ta ble of f1ass Tran sport Rat es in m/hour
Figure 3. Mass Transport by Wave Action, H/L = 1/12

ICE MANAGEMENT FOR BEAUFORT SEA PRODUCTION HARBOURS

With the advent of deep water oil exploration in the Beaufort Sea,
considerations have been given to the establ ishment of oil production
harbours outside the landfast ice. Located in the shear lone, such harbour
would have its entrance gap in deep water and it would be surrounded by
moving ice in conditions that would favour applying new ice management
techniques incl uding wave generation, and icebreaker tug operations as
proposed for cold region harbours.
Production Harbour
An arctic production and loading harbour as generally conceived could
accommodate processing and storage facilities as well as docking facilities
for tankers, serVlce tugs and scows, fuel · storage facil ities and
warehousing, a power generating station and crew accommodations as shown in
Fig. 4).

It is assumed that a production and tanker loading harbour would he located

astride an offshore oil field, allowing development by directional drill ing
of many wells from the harbour area proper (Dome Petroleum, 1981).
Additional crude oil could also be brought to the loading harbour from
neighbouring production islands via suhmarine pipelines.

307
Site Condit ions

The Beaufort Sea area now being considered for oil recovery 1 ies near 70
degrees North latitude, which will, in most years, have essentially open
water for some period during the summer season.

During summer the melting trend (mean air temperature above freezing point)
ex tends on the average for four months from approximately June 1st to
October 1st each year and the open water season extends from approximately
mid-July to ea~y October.

The general wind and wave cl imate in the Beaufort Sea is less severe than
that of the North Sea. In general a significant wave height of 6 meter
will be exceeded for only 3 hours every 100 years. Coinciding occurrences
of maximum ice free fetch and extreme winds could conceivably produce a 12
meter significant wave height, but with a very long return period. Tidal
action in the Beaufort Sea is minor (Swan Wooster Engineering, 1982).

During winter, fast ice will reach from shore to the 20 meter depth contour
by late winter. The shear or transition zone extends seaward to the
continuously moving polar pack, with an increasing content of multi-year
ice. The direction of ice drift in deep water varies continuously with
time but most frequently parallels the direction of the shoreline and the
edge of the fa st ice.

As a result, and depending on the tanker si ZP., the loading harbour shoul d
preferably be located outside the fast ice where it would likely be
surrounded by open water or moving ice.

AccCJ'm1Cld.o 'ions
Con lrol Tower
Wave GeneralOfS Wa re housing
Motion 01 Pack Ice
~ Prevalent O!rec!ioli
Wharf with Crane

,
I LNI 0 Ion ltHl )()4'11I!
)
Scale lf1 Metres

Prcp)6&d harbour arranrpnenl is a

varial;on of the AP LA concept as
proposed by Canadian 0,1Companleg

Figure 4. Lay-Out of Beaufort Sea Production Harbour

308
 Total Days ­ 2711 Total Distance 11 .010 km

,
Ncrlh ,
Ncrlh

'3%~9%
~I-~:~~\­
4%

_ East _East
'~7%
\o\esl_ 12% 5%

7% 7% 5%5% 6%
5%
6%
6% 5% 6% 0%

,
Soulh Soulh

Rosette of Time ( Dural)on of Ice Movements) vs. Dtrectk:ln Roselle of Distance of Ice MOIIEment \IS . DIrection

Figure 5. Beaufort Sea Ice Movement Rosettes

lncidenlal Direction of

~
Qpen Lead

-t Ice M<wemenl

o 3km
IL---'-_L---"

Figure 6. Harbour Orientation

In such a location the exterior of the harbour enclosure could be impacted

by drifting multi-year ice, and thus must be designed to absorb any
conceivable ice event with acceptable damage.
Harbour Entrance Location
The arrangement of an offshore production harbour will be influenced by ice
conditions in and around the harbour, particularly ice movement directions.
The moving pack ice may create a lead of open water or 1 ight ice cover on
the lee side and may also cause an accumulation of ice floes on the
upstream side of the harbour enclosure, lasting until the ice drift changes
direction. A rubble field of grounded ice may remain on the outer berms
(Allyn and Charpentier, 1982).

309
The probability of pack ice accumulations taking place just outside the
harbour entrance will be greatly reduced by orienting the harbour gap to
face the predominant "downstream" direction. Statistical information about
pack ice movements at the chosen harbour site can be obtained by studying
the dri ft tracks of Random Access Measurement System (RAM S) buoys
(Thorndyke and Cheung, 1977). An analysis of publicly available position
data for RAMS buoys has produced the ice movement rosette s shown on Fi g . 5
(for areas of the Canadian arctic). The data is based on a number of buoys
representing about 2,700 days and 4,000 kilometers of combined
observations. It should be noted that the probabil ity of substantial ice
movement from the SW sector is very low, hence the orientation of the
harbour gap in a SW direction should be favourable for most harbour sites
in the exploration area, as shown in Fig. 6.

An analysi s of wind records shows a low probabil ity of wind from the SW
sector, so that a South Westerly orientation of the harbour entrance would
minimize not only ice accumulations at the harbour entrance, but
wind-driven wave action as well.

Ice Management Scheme

The proposed ice management scheme has been designed for a harbour
arrangement as shown on Fig. 4, with a configuration using only one harbour
opening. The orientation of the harbour and its single entrance gap will
be based on directional ice drift statistics so as to minimize ice problems
outside the harbour entrance, see Fig. 5 and Fig. 6.

Figure 7. 3 - Ton Wave Machine Unit, Prototype (patented)

310
 Figure 8. 3 - Ton Wave Machine Unit, Experimental (patented)

The main wave machine installation in the harbour consisting of an array of

identical wave machine units as shown on Fig. 9 will operate
intermittently.

The service tugs will assi st during periods of adverse drift of pack ice
outside the harbour by clearing a receiving area for the unwanted harbour
ice.

Together and by complementary action the wave machine and the tugs will
clear the tanker berth and a 1,500 meter long approach track of floe ice
and excessive brash ice accumulations prior to each tanker arrival. The
tugs will al so assist at tanker dockings.

It is important to emphasize that orientation and drift will be of great

importance. In addition, it will be necessary to design a harbour entrance
which does not promote the formation of grounded rubble. Within the
harbour the effects of wast heat from th e processing systems may be
beneficially combined with the wave machine.

311
 WAVE MAKING MACHINERY - TESTING
A floating wave machine component of simple design has been developed by
Per Andersen, which has its machinery housed above water level and meets
the following basic requirements:

- Power efficiency and automation

- Easy maintenance and prolonged operation
- Survival against environmental forces

A 3-ton prototype vers i on of th is machi ne is shown on Fi g. 7. Based on

te st i ng with thi s un it and others, see also Fi g. 8, and re 1yi ng on model
laws, the physical dimensions of a 400 ton wave-machine component suitable
for use in an Arctic production harbour has been established.

With an adj ustabl e crank and 600 HP motor, the 400 ton wave machi ne
component would be capable of generating waves of period T=3.4 sec, a wave
length L=18 m and wave heights up to H=1.5m (the example wave action
analysed on Fig. 3). Waves with di fferent periods could al so be produced.
A wave machine installation consisting of 5-400 ton wave machine components
suitable for an arctic harbour is shown on Fig. 9.

Extensive testing using a wave machine installation with medium size units,
for example the 48-ton units as shown on Fig. 10, is recommended with
initiaq testing at an easily accessible site and follow-up testing at an
arctic location, before the final design of the 400 ton wave machine is
undertaken.

I I --.~:=~ ~ I

"no L....

1 f-;::,,~ ~ I
t C<rr4<'''!I
Rods l ~ Fo_~\ rT
TntSl 1e
"'- -----..
L ""'''' LJnes ¢J
50
I Plan - Five Parallel (400 Ton) Wave Generators
Scale in Metrlts

600 KWMQIOf

Nole 230 m ~1It'Id DrrYe

~ w;IICI"OduI:e
511('-52 m) ~ WIM!:I.

Section A-A

Figure 9. Proposed Wave Machine Installation for Arctic Harbour (patented)

312
 P"meM()¥ef
120M.F! EJectOC ~Of
Synchronous w'ilh Lufli'" AH1 r i .rid
Cyl~ P!51iDf1 AsaeInb6y
R PM. Con trol
Ll~ Pislon
(A~ flrNaut. 4(J() PS/G)

Front Elevation - (48-Ton) Plunger and Drive Assembly Section B-B

5 10
I I
t !
No!e cB·i,vI PI~aI'Cl Ol""~ wllf
~ 311 ( O.e2 m )~ waw&.

Fig ure 10. Typical Plunger and Drive Assembly (patented)

The proposed ice management scheme for the arctic harbour provides, by
means of multiple units a margin of safety against temporary mechanical
fail ure or extreme environmental events, as it is capable of breaking a
substantial ice cover (Carter et al, 1981). During times when ice
conditions at sea overwhelm the tugs, however, it will be necessary to wait
until the drift of sea ice changes direction. lee breaking may be required
to clear rubble to unblock the harbour entrance and restore the artificial
wave trai n. Thi s agai n emphasi zes the importance of harbour entrance
configuration and orientation.

CONCLUSIONS
A method of clearing ice from harbours has been developed, and which is
ready for testing to full scale. If satisfactory results are achieved
under moderate winter conditions, the unit size may be expanded gradually
to allow the technique to be used for maintaining relatively ice free
conditions in arctic harbours including offshore production harbours.

If thi s can be achieved, an advantage of the proposed scheme is that

conventional wharf structures, fendering and tanker loading equipment, with
suitable modifications, wil l suffice, and quick turn-around time for
tankers can be anticipated.

313
 REFERENCES

Allyn, N.F.B. and Charpentier, K.J., 19B2, "Modeling Ice Rubble Fields
Around Arctic Offshore Structures". Proceedings OTC. Houston.
Andersen, Per F., 1981, "Surface Agitation in Ice Prone Waters",
Proceedings POAC 81, Quebec City.

Andersen, Per F., 1972. "Ice Free Harbours", The Engineering Journal, Jul.­
Aug •• 1972, The Engineering Institute of Canada.

Cammaert, A.B., Miller, D.R. and Gill, R.J., 1979, "Concepts for Ice
Management at Arctic LNG Tenninal", Proceedings POAC 79, Trondheim.

Carter, D., Ouellet, Y. and Pay, P., 1981. "Fracture of a Solid Ice Cover
by Wind-Induced or Ship-Generated Waves", Proceedings POAC 81, Quebec City.

Dome Petroleum Limited, 1981 and 1982, "Beaufort" Magazine, Vol. 1, No's 1.
2 and 3.

Swan Wooster Engineering Co. Ltd., 1982. "Environmental Impact Statement,

Study of Production Structures, Beaufort Sea Oilfield Development", Report
dated August 1982 for Dome Petroleum Limited, Esso Resources Canada Ltd.
and Gulf Canada Resources Inc.

Thorndyke, A.S. and Cheung, J.Y., 1977, "AIDJEX Measurements of Sea Ice
Motion," AIDJEX Bulletin No. 35.

Wiegel, R.L., 1964, "Oceanographic Engineering" Prentice-Hall Inc.,

Englewood Cliffs, N.J., (pp 32, 61 and 180-194).

314
 WlR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

TYPES OF ICE RL~

AND CONDITIONS FOR THEIR FOffi,lATION

Vaclav Matousek Water research Prague

Senior Scientific Officer Institute Czechoslovakia

Abstract

Basic ice pro~esses occurring in the period of the

first appearance of ice in rivers are freeze-up and ice run.
Ice run is correlated with the occurrence of skim ice, brash
ice, frazil and slush ice. The basic types of ice run are
skim ice run and run of frazil. In this paper these basic
types are discussed.
Using new findings about the freezing-up of the water
surface by a sheet ice, mathematically formulated conditions
are derived which demarcate the formation of frazil and skim
ice. The validity of the theory is confirmed by the results
of observations and measurements on rivers with various
riverbed roughness.

315
1. Introduction

On the arrival of frosty weather ice processes and ice

phenomena begin to appear in rivers. Basic ice processes in
this period are freezing-up and ice run (drifting ice).
Freezing-up is connected with the occurrence of shore ice,
ice sheet and ice cover. Ice run is connected with the
appearance of skim ice, brash ice, frazil and slush ice. The
basic types of ice run are skim ice run and run of frazil.
Skim ice are called flat aggregates of ice crystals floating
on the surface resembling grease stains or very thin floes.
Skim ice appears and spreads on the surface and is formed of
surface ice. Skim ice run on the river can change to brash
ice run, when the thin floes of skim ice break up during the
passage over weirs into small pieces of ice. Frazil run
passes gradually in slush ice run. Fraz1l grains aggregate
in the water flow, float to the surface and form ice slush.
Up till now it was not quite precisely known what
affects the occurrence of freeze-up and what the ice run and
in which cases the former or the latter ice process is to be
expected. The same is true about the occurrence of the
different kinds of ice runs. The formation of freeze-up is
explained in the paper of Matou~ek (1984) presented in these
Proceedings. The paper also shows the unambiguous condition
for the freeze-up of the surface by sheet ice or predomi­
nantly sheet ice. Applying these findings, a theory about
the formation of ice run and its types was developed.

2. Regularity of ice run formation

In the mentioned paper (Matousek, 1984), the relation

for the coefficient of heat transfer between water and sur­
face has been derived and by applying it we can write the

316
thermal balance equation of the surface in the form

IVI.m- 21 (1)

where qo - net heat flux per unit area due to the heat
exchange between the surface and atmosphere
-2
IW.m I,
v - mean water velocity in the cross-section,
b - coefficient dependent on the surface width in the
wind direction, with values in the range from 15
to 45,
w - wind velocity at an elevation of 2 m above the
surface 1m. s -1 I,
th - temperature of the water surface lOCi,
tv - mean wate~ temperature in the cross-section lOCi.
Simultaneously it is shown (Matousek, 1984) that the
surface freezes over at th S; -1.1 °e. This finding leads to
the conclusion that at a surface temperature of
(a) t === 0 °e ice phenomena do not occur,
h
(b) - l . l - th -= 0 lOC I ice is formed on the surface and
ice run appears in flowing waters,
o
(c) t === -1.1
h
e the water surface in flowing waters
freezes over by sheet ice or predominantly sheet
ice.
The relation for the determination of th can be derived
from Eq. (1)

( 2)
th = tv + 1130 v + b.w
The qo values can be determined from the relationship pre­
sented in previous papers (Matousek, 1981, 1982).

3. Regularity of frazil and skim ice formation

Ice crystals forming in the supercooled surface layer
can remain on the surface or can be stripped from the sur ­

317
[ace into the current. Let us analyse in detail these cases
and let us find mathematical relationships that would des­
cribe these pro cesses .
First of all let us find the forces by which the
crystal formed on the surface is bound to the surface and
the forces that act in the opposite sense ~nd cause the
crystal to be pulled under the surface .
Ice is lighter than water and floats on the surface .
When we sutmerge an ice crystal into standing water, it
rises to the surface with a settling velocity that we de­
signate as u i • The settling velocity of ice crystals depends
principally on their size. Zacharov (1972) and other authors
express u by the relation
i
u. = 167 • 'i • dO. 67 U)
~

where V - kinematic coefficient of viscosity, for water

-1
'I = 0.0179 I cm.s I,
d diameter of ice grain Icm/.
From relation (3) we can determine that the ice crystal
'th a d'~ame t er
W~ 0 fd =1
cm has u = 30
i
• cm. s -1 • an d"rith
,,~

l
d = 0.2 cm u 1.0 cm .s- . The initial size of ice crystal~
i
their shape and growth ve locity are dependent on supercool­
ing. The relationship between the shape and crystal size and
supercooling is given by Ramseir (1970). He shows that with
a supercooling of -0.2 °c the initial crystals are of disk
shape with a diameter of 0.2 cm and thickness 0.01 cm and
with a supercooling of -1.0 °c predominates dentrite growth
accompanied by a second and third branching.
To solve our problem we have to express the settling
velocity in relation to the surface temperature, i.e. to
find the relation in the f orm

318
 J

For the s urface temperature th = -0.2 °c we ~et u.l ~

, -1 o -1
0.01 m.s • AssUIDln g that at th = -1.0 C, u i = 0.03 cm.s
and the function f(t ) is the equation of a strai g ht-line,
h
then

( 5)

Against the settling velocity acts a verti cal fluc tua ting
component of the water velocity v". Karaushev (1960) quotes
z
the finding of Makaveyev that the fluctuating comp onent of
the vel o city is dependent on the expression Vg / (0.7C + 6)~
Assuming that the vertical fluctuating cOll!ponent of water
velocity is g iven by the relation
yg
v
z
• v Im.s -1 I (6 )
5 ¥(0.7C + 6)C
-1
where v - mean water velocit y in the cross-section /m.s I,
~, s coe ff"lClent I m1/ 2 .s -II ,
C - Ch~zy
g - acceleration due to gravit y .
~elation (6) is valid for 10-< C c::::60.
Let us now compare the settling velocit y of ice crys­
tals with the vertical fluctuation rate.
(1) 'ilhen u. ~ v" then all ice crystals that are formed on
l z
the surface in the supercooled layer are stripped by the
vertical fluctuating component of the water velocity
into the turbulent flow. In case that the mean tempera­
ture in the cross-section t ~ 0 °C, then the ice o rys­
v
tals dissolve in the flo wing water, the water is further
cooled, but no ice run occurs. 'ilhen t <: 0 °C, the ice
v
crystals stripped into the flowing water grow in the
supercooled water and develop further. In this way
frazil and anchor ice is produced. Now frazil begins to
drift passing gradually into slush ice run.
(2) In the case opposite to the preceding one, where vz~ u
i

319
 all crystals forming in the supercooled surface layer
remain on the surface. Here also the crystals permanent­
ly grow and aggregate in horizontal direction. In this
way skim ice is formed that resembles at the beginning
grease stains on the surface. With increasing ice thick­
ness, the stains beco~e floes of thin transparent ice.
Du~ to the variable velocity on the surface, the floes
pile up on each other and in this way their thickness
increases.
On weirs and their stilling basins the skim ice floes
break up into small pieces and produce thus brash ice.
Skim ice and brash ice runs occur even at t=-O °C.
v
From the above it is possible to derive the regulari­
ties of frazil and skim ice formation.
Frazil is produced and its run occurs when the follow­
ing conditions are met simultaneously:

(7a)
-1
(b) vz =- u i 1m. s I (7b)

( c) t ~ 0 (7 c)
v
Skim ice is produced and its run occurs, when the
follol'li ng conditions are met simultaneously
( a) -l.l--t
h
-= 0 lOCI (8a)

(b) v~~ u
i
Im.s -1 I ( 8b)

This shows that decisive for the occurrence of run of

frazil on the river or skim ice run is mainly the vertical
fluctuating component of velocity which is dependent on the
mean water velocity in the cross-section and Ch~zy~ coeffi­
cient C. This coefficient can be determined from Pavlovsky's
relationship
1/2 -1/
/m .s (9 )

320
where n is the roughness coefficient of the riverbed
R - hydraulic radius Iml
y 1.5 Vn at R~l

y 1.3 Vn at R~l

Chezy's coefficient expresses the hydraulic roughness

1/2 -1
of the riverbed. Mostly C-values from 20 to 50 m .s are
encountered. The effect of coefficient C on the occurring
ice run types is clearly shown in Fig. 1. The occurrence of
ice run and its different types depends on the surface tem­
perature t , vertical fluctuating component of water veloci­
h
ty v', settling velocity u. and mean temperature in the
z ~

cross-section. From expression (2), (5) and (6), we know

what the parameters t , u i and v~ are dependent on. If tv
h
= 0 and the wind velocity wand coefficient b are constant,
the type of ice run is dependent only on qo' v and C. Fig. 1
shows the relation between the type of ice run and these
-1
parameters assuming that w = 0.5 m.s and b = 27. In the
graph, with coordinates v and qo' the line representing C
values indicates the border between skim ice run and run of
frazil. The line designated with the value C expresses the
condition v' = u .• On the right of this line, i.e. in the
z ~

part of higher water velocities, is the region of run of

frazil and slush ice and left from it is the region of skim
ice run. The picture shows also the region of freeze-up.
Assuming the parameters tv' wand coefficient b to be
constant, tbe occurrence of freeze-up is only dependent on
qo and v.
From Fig. 1 it is evident that in smooth riverbeds with
C 2: 40, the run of frazil occurs only at high water veloci­
ties. The values of velocities are dependent on the magnitu­
de of qo. The skim ice run occurs in these riverbeds even
at higher water velocities. In rough riverbeds wi th C ~ 30,

321
w W-ri\2
""""
t
qa

-350

- 300 i-S//S L 7 / P/7/7 / 7/7(7/7 / / L}II '-It' '-Sf 7 ....., I7 II I '1 '-'I I

2 50 V / 7 / /// 47 / 7 / 7 / /// f7Z

- 7 II rI Y JI I rI jI I JI rI I J{

-200 I////X//A- I I" I II I / / I / /~---'------

RUN OF FRAZIL

-15 0 ~/,v7{ II I -+l---f----1I+/-+/-tbf--/------t/'---¥-y-----,----.--~

-100
o 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0.7 0,8 Q9 1.0
v ___ m,s1
Fig. 1 Relationship of ice run type and freeze-up and q , v and C at tv 0,
-1 0
b = 27, w = 0.5 m.s
the run of frazil starts at much lower water velocities than
in smooth channels and the skim ice run is limited to a re­
latively narrow ~one of low velocitie s .

4. Results obtained in the verification of the theory

The theory of the formation of ice run and its types

has been verified on three channels with different roughness
and that on the Middle Labe in the reach Obfistvi - Kosto­
mlaty and on the middle and lower reaches of the river Ohfe.
On the Middle Labe the different weir backwater have Ch~zy's
1/2 -1
coefficients C from 37 to 45 m .s • Under the meteorolo­
gical and hydrological situation in January 1982, during
high discharges and in consequence also high water veloci­
ties, the run of frazil and slush ice started. Vlith sinking
discharge, conditions for the formation of an ice cover in
some weir backwaters were produced and in turn also condi­
tions for the formation of hanging dams. By the further low­
ering of water discharge, the water velocities in the ice
I
free weir backwaters were reduced to such a degree that only
skim ice began to form. Only in the Kostelec backwater, in
which the velocity range is so great that in sectors of
greater velocity at the end of the backwater also frazil was
produced to a small extent. The observation and measurement
results are summarized in Tab. 1 and graphically represented
in Fig. 2. This figure confirms the correctness of the given
theory about the formation of the ice run types. The lines
representing the occurrence of slush ice run in the differ­
ent weir backwaters exceed in three instances somewhat the
border line, but also this fact is in agreement with results
obtained from the observations and investigations of the ice
phenomena. Slush ice contained a larger share of sheet ice
than was observed e.g. on the river Ohfe and, around the

323
w
.,.
!\.)

T8ble 1
RESULTS OF OBSERVATIONS AND MEASUREMENTS ON THE MIDDLE LABE DURING ICE RUNS

Date Site of weir C Observed ice

backwater
=::::========== e~:;::l~;:;::Lee~:;::eJ:a~;;:: m
1/2 •s
-1 phenomenon
========================~

Jan. 11'1 Kostomlatky -161 205 0.48 .. 1.33 o 0.2 37 .; 40 slush ice run
1982 Celakovice -177 210 0.53 .. 1.11 o 0.2 40 .;. 43 slush ice rlm
Brandys -177 243 0.62 .. 1.21 o 0.2 35 -:­ 38 s lu sh ice run
Kostelec -177 243 0.54 .. 1.33 o 0.2 39 + 42 s lu sh ice run
Lobkovice -177 243 0.71 of 1. 23 o 0.2 39 .;. 42 slush ice run
Obristvi -177 243 0.73 T 1.58 o 0.2 44 -I­ 47 slush ice run

Jan.18'1 Kostomlatky -289 122 0.28 T 0.79 o 0.4 37 -7 40 skim ice run
1982 Celakovice -267 124 0.44 .. 0.65 o 0.4 40 ". 43 skim ice run
Kostelec -267 149 0.33 .. 0.81 o 0.4 39 ". 42 skim ice run+
run of frazil
Lobkovice -267 149 0.44 -:­ 0.75 o 0.4 39 ... 42 skim ice run

Jan. 20'1 Kostomlatky -200 104 0.24 .. 0.67 o 0.3 37 of 40 skim ice run
198 2 Celakovice -148 106 0.38 .. 0.5 6 o 0.3 40 -I­ 43 skim ice run
Brandys -148 130 0.42 .. 0.54 o 0.3 35 ... 38 skim ice run
 · -2 .'.;:: :-:-:::t.:: :<·::~.:.<·.:
W ·m

t REGION OF SKIM ICE RUN

qo
,::·:;".JREGION OF RUN;·:i·:'·:
:'/::"./ OF FRAZIL AND:.~.: ::

- 300
.);::':·~)i. SLUSH ICE .:Y}\)

- 200 I/////v//// I I .' I I /

x,-..:- )I-[)I.- x- v­

-100
0 0.1 0.2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0.7 0.8 0,9 1.0 1.1
v_m·s-1
Fig. 2 Evaluation of the types of ice runs on the Middle Labe, Jan. 13, 18 and 20, 1982

in relation to qo and v.

w
I\)
U1 observed skim ice run -,,-X-'lC- observed slush ice Y".ln
pa ns of slush ice. on the surface, skim ice could be seen.
The middle reach of the river Ohre in the sector
IGasterec - IJubina weir (15 kID downstreams of Karlovy Vary)
1
has a broad stony bottom. At discharges of 15 - 25 m3 .s­
the avera ge water depth in the riverbed is about 0.5 m.
Chezy's coefficient C ~ 20 . In thi s river reach a water flow
3 -1
of Q <::: 14.5 m • s did not occur in the winter period for

the last 15 years. 'N ith a Q = 14.5 1il 3 .s- the mean water
-1
velocities in the cross-section are from 0.46 to 0.57 m.s
Daring t he period of 15 years, in which ice phenomena have
been observed in the whole river reach, no skim ice run has
been encountered but always only run of frazil and slush
ice. These findings are in accordance with the presented
theory. From Fig. 1 it is evident that with C = 20 and go
from -100 to -200 ·'II.m-2 runs of frazil occur at water velo­
citie s v==-O.37 7 0.46 m.s- l .
The thermal and ice regime on the lower reaches of the
river Ohre i s affected by the Nechranice reservoir. The
re s ervoir dam is situated at kID 103 of the river stationing.
Under s evere f rost conditions t he ice phenomena start to
occur mos tly only from km 74. In the s ector between kID 3
..;' km 74, the river bed has an average width of 50 m and a
1
water depth of about 1 m when Q = 16 ~ 32 m3 . s - . Chezy's
1/2 -1 " 3 -1
coefficient C is about 27 m .s • Jhen Q = 16 m.s ,the
l
mean velocities in the cross-section are 0.19 to 0.68 m.s- •
Tbe ob se rvations of the ice phenomena indicate that with
thi s discharge run of frazil occurs in the upstream part of
t his sector and in the downstream part , where low velocities
are encount ered, skim ice runs. The run of frazil and slush
1
ice starts in th e whole river reach at Q ; 36 m3 .s- , when
t he me an water velocities in the cross-section vary within
-1
the rang e of 0.43 to 0. 8 4 m.s This finding i s in agree­

326
ment with the presented theory as is evident from Fig. 1.

References

Karaushev, A. V., 1969. Recnaja gidravlika. 1st edition.

Gidrometeoizdat, Leningrad (in Russian).
Matousek, V., 1981. VYmena tepla mezi vodnim proudem a okol­
nim prostfedim. (Heat exchange between the water flow and
ambient environment). Vodohospodarsky casopis, Vol. 29,
(2), p. 165-187.
~ilatousek, V., 1982. Zjednodusene ::uodely kratkodobe pfedpove­
di teploty a pocatku ledovych jevU. (Simplified models of
short-term forecasts of water temperature and beginning of
ice phenomena). '!odni hospodafstvi, Vol. 32, (8), p. 203­
-209.
Matou s ek, V., 1984. Regularity of freeze-up and heat ex­
change ·oet'lleen water body and water surface. }Oroc. IAHR
Ice Sympo~ium, Hamburg.
Ramseir, R. 0., 1970. Formation of primary ice leyers.
IAHR, Proe. of Ice Symposium, Reykjavik.
Zacharov, V. ? , Bej1inson, M. M., §atalina, I. N., 1972.
Features of Ice Conditions in Rivers and Reservoirs of
Central Asia. Proc. of IAHR Symposium Ice and its action
on Hydraulic Structures, Leningrad, p. 224-228.

327

- - -
I
,.v wm Ice Symposium 1984
Hamburg

r"ETIlODS OF ICE CONTROL

FOR WINTHR NAVIGATION IN INLAND WATERS

Guenther E. Frankenstein, Chief Cotd Regions Research and USA

Ice lOngineering Research Branch EngineerlnG Lrthnra tory

Prof. C. Allen Wortley, Ch air University of Wisconsin­ USA

Dept. of Engineering & Applied Science F.xten sion

Abstract
Successful method s of contro lling ice ln rivers and hrtrbors where
winter navigation is maintained are descrIbed. These methods are
deve loped from field a nd labo rator y research stl~les and From operRtlng
experiences. The control of ice is achieved through la you t Dnd design
of harhor faciUties, management of traffl c operations, and hy IIslng
chemical, electrical, me chanical, and thermal methods including Ice
breaking channel and flow moctificatinns, air huhhllng , warm ,",,,ter
d1sch~rge9, resi stance heating, coatings, and con trol structures. The

control methods used mu s t he evaluated in terms of reliability, safety,

energy co nsumption, and enviro nmental impact for costs and effectiveness
for both docks and harbors. Thermal method s and mec hani ca l method s a r c
most favored by these cr iteria.

329
lnlroduc.tion
Tc~ pro~l emR in inlAnrl WAter~ VHrv ~re~tl y And rlepenrl on
geograrhic~l condi tions Rnd the t yp e of traff ic using the waterway.
TrH ffic types incllirle single ve.ssel~, such as ocei1 n ann lake c~rriers,

Hnd ri ve r barge fleet s pushed or pulled hy towboats. The proper ice

co ntr ol method to be userl mAy he different in harhors anrl in rivers.
For example, in harbors ships requ ire large areas of open water to
mHneuver into Dnd away from docks. Ice which for ms around docks must be
removed in order for the ship s to moor.
In r ivers , ice forms on n~vig~tjon lock walls ann gAtes And
interferes with operations. The interference may he with gate openings
and c losings or with vessel pasAage he twee n ice-coateri lock walls.
Design procedures taking ad van ta ge of l ocal va riati ons in ice
res;imes, Stic h AS those varia tion s resultlng from topography and cu rrent s ,
minimi ze hnrhor ice problems. Monitoring i c e c onni tions can aid in
their prediction. Good Inform~tJon on ice conditions can also minimize
vessel routi(\8 and traf fic problems.
I c e control, the practice of holrli ng Ice in plR ce o r d ire c ting its
grow th and movement, i s usuRll y Rccomplished hy one o r a combination of
the followin ~ methods: cheI'l ical, electrical, me c.hanlca!, and thermal
(Frankenstein and Hanamoto , 1983) . These four methods are briefly
reviewed ~nd mec haoical and thermal meth od s are most fav o red considering
relia b ility, safet y, energy, effe c ti veness, costs, and environmental
f ac tors.

Chemical Methods of Ice Contro l

Salt p la ce d ~rounrl do c ks renuces ice g r owth. Although sAlt usen in
this '-lay can be successful, i t often i s environmentally un acce ptable as
we ll as unreli ah le and cos tly.
Ice on lock walls c hemically coated ca n he rem oved more easily than
from uncoa te d surfaces. Presently there is no ch~ mi ca l coating which
prevent s ice aclh esion and build-Ilp but researc h i s co ntinuing . HOI,e ver,
" c oating has bee n developed which reduce s the adhesive f o rce of ice to
s trilctures. (F'r""ke nstein et a!., 19 76) . The coating is a long chain,
block co polymer compound of A pol y(demethy lsiloxane)-blsphenol-A­

polycarbonate.

330
 Using an active heat source, such as steam, in comhinatlon with thi s
passsive coating, Is an effective way to remove lock wall ice huild-up.
In fact, steam removes ice t",n Urnes faster from coated walls than from
uncoated walls.

Electrical Methods of Ice Control

Heating cable, used successfully for many years In roa~ways and
walks, are effective in preventing lock wall ice hulld-up. Installing
c!CIbles at existing navigation locks is costly and difficult. "Ie I' 10c<s
should have cables emhedded in the walls.
Thomas (1976) discusses a successful demonstration of electrical
heating at a Canadian lock on the St. Lawrence Seaway. Heating cables
were emb",dded in slots cut into the lock wall which was suhsequently
patched. The optimum cahle spacing was about ISO mm with an emhedded
depth of 76 mm. The system, operating !CIt 4.3 amps and 115 volts AC,
produced 3.05 w/ m2 which was sufficient to prevent Ice hulld-up. At
an ambient air temperature of -5.6 0 C the concrete nearest the cable
0 0
was 4.4 C and mid-way he tween cables was 3.3 C. The daily
operating cost was $0.066 per linear meter. The system can be turned
off when no ice is forming.

Mechanical Methods of Ice Control

The use of ice breaking vessels, high flOlJ air sereens, and tee
booms are methods of mechanical ice control.

Ice Breaking Vessels

Ice breaking vessels control ice by hreR'(ing the Ice sheets and
refrozen brash ice such that other vessels may navigate with little or
no rlifficulty. Brash ice is broke n up shee t ice formed hy continual
vessel movements in restricted channels . It impede s such movements, and
if channels become clogged with brash ice, movement will be severelv
restricted. This co ndition is the major conCern of ship operators who
must transit these channels. Vance (19RrJa) and Mellor (IQnO) report on
investigations to remove brash accumulations; however, to date no way
has ben found economicall y to remove bra s h ice once it ha s heen

generated.

331
 The hull shape of a vessel affects the resistance in ice, and the
efficiency of a particular hull is a function of the forces to break and
clear the channel ice. Breaking ice basically occurs by a vessel
rining-up on top of the ice and failing the ice in tension in the upper
and lower areas. After the ship breaks the ice, it must clear the
fr.gments from the channpl. This is done by pushing the fragments down
or to the side. The resistance of the ice to breaking and clearing is a
bnction of the friction hetwe(>n the vessel ann the ice, and of the
lateral pressure in the ice. Germany (Schwarz personal communication)
h~s developen ann successfully tested a new type of icehreaker that
leaves river and sea channels clear of ice.
I ce hreakers are classifierl rtccoring to their working environments
which determine the characteristics of the vessels. Harbor icebreakers
break and clear ice within harbors and around docking facilities. They
also tow vessels and must have excellent maneuverability. River
icebreakers are restricten by the shallower water usually found i n
rivers, and are required to pass under bridges and through navigation
locks . Lake and coastal icebreakers are similar to one another and may
even be identical for use in large lakes. These vessels IHe the largest
icebreakers and must maintain channels in thick ice areas.
Special ice breaking prows are also used to control ice in some
rivers. The prow is essentially an ice breaking bow easily attached to
a river tug or towboat.
The air cushion vehicle (A~V) is another type of Icebreaker. At low
speeds, ice breaking is achieved by the introduction of an air cavity
under the ice sheet. This causes the sheet to fail under its own
weight. At higher speeds a wave is generated in the ice sheet behind
the ACV. This leads to cracking and depending on the ice sheet
thickness, it can be broken with several passes. Sandkvist (1983) notes
that ACV's are most suited for rivers and channels with currents swift
enough to move out broken pieces.
Snow cover, although it has little effect on the mechanical
properties of ice, is of concern to icebreakers. It greatly increases
friction hetween vessels and ice. Vance (19S0h) reports on a vessel
bubbler system which has reJuced the required power for moving

332
through ice hy as ~uch as 50 percent. This buhhler system, which WB~

developen hy Wiirrsilii, l1elsinki, 1,,'>rlcAtes tl,.. h"lls of ,"Ips "nr!

reduces the snow cover fr iclon .

High Flow Air Screens

High flow A[r screens keep drifting hrash ice ~wuv from docking
facilities and out of navigati o n locks. The rising air flow entrains
and accelerates A large c olum n of wa ter which deflect s laterally upon
reaching the surfa ce. The reffillting surface current prevents ice from
bein~ carried tlerns,':::; the ;dr Scrf>0.n 11t1e (lI.S. Anny Co rp~ Dr r.:ngine{'r~,

1982) .
The design parameters for air screens are the s uhmerg ed nepth,
supply line size, orifice spacing and siz e, air supply flow r ate and
pressure, and air screen manifold line lenp, th and size. l1[gh flow air
screen systems have been placed across navigation channel lork entrances
in water 5 to 10 m neep. A hi gh flow through hottom nozzles is
nec essa ry to gener~te the required surface current. A high pressure [s
also nece ss ary to overcome the hyorostatlc head and supply lin~ pressure
losses, and to leAve ample pressure at the orifices for the required
nozzle flow.
Hanamoto (1978) discusses one successful installat io n of a 73.5-m~

manifold pipe placed across the gate sill of a lock. The nozzles were
10.4-mm diameter and spaced 3 m apart. A 0.52 m)/s compressor
supplieo air at 6119 kP.1 through a 73.5-mm ltne to the man[foln .
Although high pressure air screens can effectively create horizontal
surface currents, in restrictpd areas mechnnical pumps mA y also he used
with success.

Ice Booms
Perham ( 19 83 ) states that ice booms are the most common type of ice
control structure. Originally ice booms were used by hydroelectr ic
companies to minimize fra zi l i ce formation and therehy kee p heAn losses
to a minimum. Now ice booms are used as navigation aids. They hold Ice
broken hy Ship's passage in place, and prevent it from flo"ing
downstream and blocking channels. Booms are also used to protect

333
d() (~ "ing fa e llities and keep them operCitional ,~nd, to help form ann
rptn[n stahle ice covers, thllS keeping nrtvi~;.ltiol1 tracks free from

drifitng ice.
Bnom~ have heen hutlt in mrt.ny cOl1fiRurRtions. ~ome hoom~ cross an

~ntire channel, some have a Rap to allow for s111~ pas~~ge, and some

r~tAtn tce only on nne sirl~ nf ~ channpl. Som~ detailR of a common type
of han'll 1 n use today are sho"n in Figure 1. f)ep~nding on load, bottom
>lnrt ~hnre Flnc hors "re ~r"cerl at 30 to 130 "~t"r intervals. Rooms can he
instnlled in l oc n Linns where the 9urface velocity is less than 0.67 mls
."i.lld the Frourle :1llr71h[>: less than 0.08. Ice hoom s 3.re desl~ned to allol.. .

lce ~o override them when the ice load heco'lles ex ce ssi ve . Typi c ally a
sinp,le honm has a 10'1<1 c'1::lilclty of 7.0 ','1/",; dnd, 3 :! o"hle hoom ",aoe
Ernm pdrallel tirober s , a capacity of 70 kN/m.

\
1
Ice T fce

Steel Coble

Figure 1. Common ice boom details.

Thermal Hethods of Ice Control

Air hubbler systems sur~rpss ice formFltion and therehy allow

navigation in harbors, por ts, Dnd waterways during periods when thick

334
ice wouln otherwise halt navigation. They are also u~ed to suppress ic~

in and ·a round dock structures. A bubbler system is similiar to an a I r

curtain except that much less air flow is required; and, the prinicpal
design objective is thermal melting of ice rather than surface water
currents.
The design of compressed air bubbler deicing systems is discussed by
Wortley (1984) and includes parameters of water temperature and depth,
air quantity a nd pressure, supply and diffuser line sizes , 'orifice
diameters and ambient weather conditons. Fi gu re 2 skematically shows a
compressed air huhhler dei c ing system.

ICE

"WARM' WATER

AIR LINE
FROM COMPRESSOR HARBOR

Figure 2 . Compressed a ir bubhle deicing sy stem skematic.

Warm WAter is the most i mport8nt requirement for go od bubhler

perfo rmance . In most harbors winter water temperatures are not as high
0 0
as 4 C, but are generally more than 0. 2 C above the freezing
point. With an adequate air flo'. rate this "warn" hott om water has the
necessary thermal energ y to suppress an i c e ocver. Typical air
dis charg e rates used in fielrl instAllations have rang en between 0.007 to
3
0.010 m /sec/100 m. Supply and dHfllser line rliameter s should ,>"
large enough to minimize friction pressure losses and maintain uniform
air di sch8rge rat es at the diffusers.

335
 TypIcal ori fice rllameters for di ffusers are about 1. 2 mm, anci spaced
at a distance of about one-third of the submergence depth. the submer­
~ ~nce depth Is generally ~ove rned by operational limitations such aR the
depth of the water body or the required c learance Eor vessel draEts.
The deeper the submergence, the ~ore water will be moved by a given
discharge rate, and hence the greater the suppression effect. A larger
comp res sor is requIred as the depth increaRes anrl at very great depths
it may be desirahle to suspend the diffuser line above the bottom.
Warm water di9chargeR from inrlustrial plants can be useci to control
ice in harbors. This warmer water must be directed at the problem Ice
to he an effec tive control method. If It is not, the open water area
produced will not be of any help to navigation. Because warm water is
heavier than co lefer surface wat"r, wflrm wat"r discharged near the harhor
bottom will not reach the ice sheet to suppress it. Compressed air or
mechanical pumps will he neerlecf to transfer hottom diRchargeci warm water
to the surface.

Surnm'lry
Considering, reliability, costs, an" other factors, I ce control for
winter navigation in Inland waters can ·be most effectively accomplished
with mechanIcal and thermal methods. Chemical and electrical methods
m.1Y also be used but are not as favored.

336
Ref ere nce oS

Frankensteln, C. ann '3. Hanamota 19.Q3. .' 1ethonA of lee control. In

DeAign for Ice ForceA, eds. S. R. r.a1dwell and R. D. Crissma~.

New York: A;nprl c A." :locfety of Civi 1 F.n~1I1eer.s. 20 4-t5.

Franke~st~in, et a l. 1976. Icc removill from the walls of ~avlgation

lock s . Proceedlngs of the Symposillm 011 Inland 1\l fl~er ~~avi?-3t(on,

noon r.ontrol dnd \,ater Diversions, r.olorano State University,

August 1976. New York: l\merican Society of Civi 1 Englneers,

14fl7-14Q6.

Hanarnoto, B. 197R. Ic.e control at navigation locks. 'J.S. Army Corps

of Engineers Ell 1l10-2-237. Department of th~ Army, Corps of
Engineerq, Offi c e of the Chief of Engine~rs, Was~ington nc o l-6.
l·te1Ior, M. 1930. Ice hreilkl.ng concepts. USAe RREl Specialist Report
30-2, U.S. Army r,ol~ Re,,,io~s R"c.earch and F.ngine"ring l"horatory,
!-{anover :-IH.
Perham, R. 19R3. I c e sh"ec retention structures. l.lSAr.RREl ll.eport
83-30, U.S. Army Colrl Regions Research ann F:ngineering Laboratory,
Hanover Nli.
Sandkvl st, J., erl. 1(j8l. Report of PlANe Working Group on Tce
Navigation (in press).
Thom"., J. A. 1076. ~I"ating on lock "aIls for prl'vention of ice
formation. File No. 60-24-1-1, The St. Lawrence Seaway Authority,
Hontr~al, March 1976.
U.S. Army Corps of Engin"e~s. 1982. Ice Engtne~_ ring: engineering
and design: engIneer milnua1 EM 1l10-2-1612. Depilrtment of the AI'lllY,
Corps of Engineers, Office of the Chief of Engineers, Washington DC.
Vanee, G. P. 1980a. An~lysis of the performance of a 140-foot
G~e'lt l'lkes icebreaker: USCGC KatamI Bay. USACRREL Rpon 80-8,
U.S. Army Colrl ~eRions ll.e ~ earch a~d Engineerlng l"horatory,

Hanover, "lfl.

Vance, G. P. lQ80h. Cle"ring ice-clo~ged shipping channQIs.

USACRREL Report 80-28, U.S. Army CoIn Regions Research ann Engineering
Lahoratory, Hanover Nfl.
{,ortley, C. A. 19R4. Great lal<es' small-craft harhor and structure
design for ice connitlons: an engineering mAnual. Sea r,ra~t Advisory '

ll.eport WIS-SG-84. ~adison: UnIversity of Wisconsin Sea Grant

Ingtitute.

337
 lAHR Ice Symposium 1984
Hamburg

ICE SHEET RETENTION STRUCTURES

Roscoe E. Perham U.s. Army Cold Regions Unlted States

Mechanical Engineer Research and Engineerlng
Laboratory, Hanover, N.H.

ABSTRACT

Ice sheets are formed and retained in several ~ays in nature, and an
understanding of these factors is needed before most ice sheet retention
structures can be successfully applied. Many retention structures float
and are somewhat fleKible; others are fiKed and rigid or semirigid. An
eKample of the former is the Lake Erie boom and of the latter, the 110n­
treal ice control structure. Ice sheet retention technology is changing.
The use of timber cribs is gradually but not totally giving ~ay to sheet
steel pilings and concrete cells. New structures and applications are be­
ing tried, but with caution. Ice-hydraulic analyses are helpful in pre­
dicting the effects of structures and channel modifications on ice cover
formation and retention. Often, varying the flow rate in a particular
system at the proper time will make the difference between ~hether a
structure will or ~lll not retain ice. The structure, however, invariably
adds reliability to the sheet 'ice retention process.

339
1NTRODUCT [ON

Frazil lr.e aclheres to the screens and grates of water intakes and
severely restricts or completely blocks the flow. Municipal and indus­
trial water supplies are affected, and a few hydroelectric plants have
been shut down by frazil ice blockages. Frazil does not form, however,
when the water body has an ice cover. Consequently, if a stable ice cover
call form and be maintained, these blockages can be avoided. The use of
navigable waterways in winter can also be economically beneficial if the
ice caller can remain stabilized.
The purpose of this paper is to de~cribe some representative struc­
tures and techniques that are used to help ice covers form and persist
throughout the winter. Structures built for this purpose may be flexible
or rigid. Some structures such as dams, built for other purposes, may
also help in forming or retaining ice Callers. SO~ techniques of ice con­
trol do not involve structures.

NATURAL IC~ SHEETS

In river reaches where the mean velocity is low (0.15-0.3 m/s), an

ice cover will grow fro~ the banks out across the river as it does in a
small lake, mainly by the horizontal propagation of ice crystals. If the
mean stream velocity on the river is 0.38 mls or higher (McLachlan, 1972),
the ice caller forms instead by the accumulation of the ice floes against a
downstre81Q ice cover or other obstruction. If the ice floes formed by
frazil masses are numerous and the water velocity is not too great, the
floes will jam mechanically in a neck or narrows of the river and form a
stable ice arch.
The upstream edge of an unconsolidated ice cover will proceed up­
stream until it comes to a river reach where the velocity is about 0.7 mls
or greater. Here the hydrodynamic forces at the ice edge begin to cause
ice floes to be drawn under. Larger floes are generally more resistant to
these forces. This phenomenon, one of the most important factors in ice
control, has been investigated by Latyshenkov (1946), Pariset and Hausser
(1961), Uzner and Kennedy (1974), and Ashton (1974). Theoretical consid­
erations suggest that the Froude number, Fr, at the ice edge is a criteri­
on for whether or not the floes are drawn under (Kivisild, 1959).
Ice cOllers generally form quickly and easily on lakes, but ice prob­
lems can be found there, too. A cold wind blowing over an open lake can

340
generate frazil ice that, for instance, has clogged water intakes 7.5 m or
more deep (Oevik, 1964; Foulds, 1974). Further, rafted ice floes, often
found on large lakes, which are moved about by the wind have a high poten­
tial for damaging structures.

CHOOSING AN ICE CONTROL STRUCTURE

Ice control structures often simulate natural processes. Many char­

a cteristics of the water body must be considered in choosing a suitable
ice control structure.
Most ice control structures, such as ice booms, simulate the upstream
edge of an existing ice cover. That is, the ice floes floating on the
surface and moving downstream with the water currents collect against s
floating bsrrier and are held against it by the water flow. The water
continues along beneath the barrier unimpeded. Where the water velocities
are too high, ice floes are drawn under the ice edge by hydrodynamiC
effects, and the flow velocity must be reduced. The channel could be
straightened, deepened or have obstacles removed (Lotter, 1932); a weir or
sill could be installed downstream to deepen the river; or the flow rate
could be reduced by a flow control dam. Flow control dams are more effi­
cient downstream of the site because the reduced flow is accompanied by a
water level increase. An upstream control, however, causes the water to
become shallower at the site, which tends to counteract the benefit of
reduced velocities. After an ice cover has formed and solidified, it can
usually withstand the forces and effects of a return to the higher flows.
In some locations (mainly reservoirs) the water level can be held
fairly constant, but water must sometimes be spilled. If ice followed it
over the spillway, the discharge would almost certainly create an ice jam.
At such a location a fixed boom could be used.
Structures like artificial islands, light towers, groins and timber
cribs function like islands or boulders. Artificial islands are generally
armored with large stones to resist the impact and abrasion of moving ice.
Most stationary structures, however, have a layer of ice that develops at
the water line which helps to protect them against this damage.

FLEXIBLE STRUCTURES

Flexible cable or wire rope structures are used to hold floating ice
barriers in place. The structures themselves are compliant yet strong,

341
and their ability to stretch or flex in response to the impact of moving
ice sheets has prevented failure (Perham, 1977).
The most important advantages of flexible structures are: I) the
main structural components usually have a negligible effe c t on water
flows; 2) the structures (except for buried anchors) are readily installed
prior to the ice season and removed afterward; 3) the structures can with­
stand the passing of ice breakups; 4) a variety of standardized components
are available for a wide range of loads; and 5) the structures can be
worked on using common maritime equipment, such as barges, · cranes, winches
and tugs.

Ice booms
Ice booms are the most widely used type of sheet ice retention struc­
ture. An example is shown in Figure I. The largest boom built in recent
times was placed in Lake St. Francis upstream of the Beauharnois Canal in
Canada. It was designed to accommodate ship navigation and was extensive­
ly tested as a model (Boulanger et al., 19j5).

Figure 1. Typical ice boom arrangement.

342
 Figure 2. Array of lines.

A boom of similar construction, using steel pontoons, was built in

1982 on the Allegheny River upstream of its confluence with Oil Creek at
Oil City, Pennsylvania. Oil City has a long history of ice jams and
floods. Deck and Gooch (1981) discovered large deposits of frazil ice
downstream of the confluence in a deep section of the river. The accumu­
lations especially restrict flows from ice breakup on Oil Creek, which
precedes ice breakup on the Allegheny River. A stable ice cover upstream
of the boom will eliminate the primary source of frazil ice.
A representative list of flexible ice booms is given by Perham (1983)
who found that loads measured in major ice booms on the St. Lawrence River
varied in terms of a distributed load from 8.4 kN/m to 43.8 kN/m.

Line arrays
Another fleKible type of device useful in anchoring ice in particular
locations is an array of lines which is anchored by wire ropes (Fig. 2).
An ice cover will readily grow on the lines even in rapidly flowing water.

~IGID OR SEMI~IGIO STRUCTURES

Rigid or semirigid structures mayor may not have moving parts. They
are appreciably more rigid than a typical ice boom and are generally un­
yielding. Because of this stiffness they are particularly susceptible to
ice sheet impact and thermal expansion loads. The state of the art in

343
 Figure 3. Fixed ice boom at Sigalda Reservoir, Tungnaa River, Iceland.

design today is generally based on the conservative design values of load

and stress developed for dams and bridges (Carstens, 1980).

Pier-mounted booms
Floating booms. The Montreal ice control structure was built primar­
ily to compensate for the ice conditions caused by the narrowing of the
St. Lawrence River due to construction of the Expo '67 world's fair. The
structure, which is permanent, uses floating steel booms or stop logs set
between concrete piers to collect ice floes and help stabilize an ice cov­
er earlier in winter than would normally be the case. Pariset et al.
(1966) described the hydrotechnical aspects of the design, and Stothart
and Croteau (1965) described many physical characteristics of the struc­
ture. As a reference, the floating booms were desig ned for a distributed
loading of 73 kN/m and the piers for a distributed loading of 146 kN/m.
Fixed booms. Reinforced concrete beams of great depth can be used at
a reservoir to restrain ice while water is being discharged over a spill­
way or into a canal. The spillway barrier shown in Figure 3 is located on
the Sigalda power project reservoir on the Tungnaa River in Iceland, about
165 km east of Reykjavik. The space below it provides 5 m of clearance.
Ice is held on the reservoir under all but the most severe flood condi­
tions.

Stone groins
A groin is usually a rigid structure built out from shore to protect
it from erosion, to trap sediment, or to direct the flow. A groin ar­

3M
rangement is used for ice control at the Manasan Falls control structure
on the Burntwood River in northern Manitoba, Canada. It was built to in­
crease the upstream water levels sufficiently to promote the formation of
a stable ice cover. Two rock-filled groins create a trapezoidal opening.
The two groins have upstream filters and seals, and the ends of the groins
are protected by 0.9- to 1.2-m-diameter armor rockfil!. The armoring ma­
terial has remained stable at average water velocities in the gap exceed­
ing 6 m/s. The opening has provided the required stage-discharge rela­
tionship and promoted the desired upstream ice cover (Janzen and Kuluk,
1979). A larger, hydroelectric dam planned for a nearby site will providp­
the ultimate solution to the problem.

Artificial islands
·In the same manner that natural islands help hold ice in place, arti­
ficial islands can be used to help form, stabilize and retain an ice cover
in certain locations. One e~ample is the Lake St. Peter section of the
St. Lawrence River, about RO km downstream of Montreal, Canada.
Several ice control structures were evaluated in various parts of
Lake St. Peter and at Lavaltrie upstream in the river. Ice booms were
successful but pile clusters did not perform well. Danys (1975) suggested
that the lake bed was probably too weak for the pilings to sustain the
high ice forces. Artificial islands of three types were built in the
lake.
In 1980 three artificial islands were constructed in Lake St. Louis
on the St. Lawrence River. The islands are permanent,and located east of
lIe Perrot and north of the navigstion channel (Fig. 4). The islands were
designed and constructed to help stabilize the ice cover north of the
navigation channel, particularly during the spring breakup and the opening
of the navigation season, eliminating the problem of large ice floes ob­
structing navigation. The effectiveness has not been fully assessed.

Quarry Malerlal
. : o . ~:·

Figure 4. Ice-anchoring island, 3 used, Lake St. Louis, St. Lawrence

Rive r, near Chateauguay, Canada.

345
 Figure 5. Ice holding timber cribs in the Narragaugus River, Maine.

Timber cribs
Timber cribs are enclosed frameworks built of timber and packed \~ith

stone to make strong, stable structures.

An example of ice-restraining timber cribs 1s found at the Narra­
gaugus River flood control project in the seacoast town of Cherryfield,
Maine (Fig. 5). Three cribs are located ia a triangular pattern about 38
m upstream of a 2.1-m-high dam and spillway. The upstream face of each
crib is sloped. The ice cover normally contacts the crib at approximately
midheigh t.
They have remained in good condition for over 20 years and during
this period, severe ice jams have not occurred in the town. The dam, how­
ever is the most important part of the project.

Weirs
Weirs are low-head dams built across streams to raise the water
level. A weir of sufficient height forms a diversion pool with the low
velocities that permit the formation of an ice cover; this, in turn, pre­
cludes the formation of frazil ice and anchor ice at the intake (Hayes,
1974).
Weirs are used in combination with other structure9 to improve the
ability of these structures to form an ice cover by reducing the local
flow velocities in the pool. For example, a weir and stationary grating
were built on the Chaudiere River (Michel 1971). The grating collects ice

346
floes, and an ice cover forms as above an ice boom. The grating, however,
is stationary and supported far enough upstream of the weir crest to have
little effect on the weir's performance.

CONCLUSIONS

Ice sheets may be retained in many ways, including a wide variety of

structures, anchoring techniques, flow modifications and natural effects.
An engineer must understand the physical processes of ice sheet formation
and ice-structure interaction before selecting a structure for a particu­
lar application. Hathe'natical relationships are available for estimating
the effects of physical phenomena. Physical hydraulic model studies
should precede the design and installation of most prototype structures.

LITERATURE CITED

Ashton, G.D., 1974. Froude criterion for ice block stability. Journal of
Glaciology. Vol. 10(68), pp. 307-313.
lloulanger, F., Durnalo, E., Levan, D. and Raciot, L., 1975. Ice control
study - Lake St. Francis-Beauharnois Canal, Quebec, Canada. In Proceed­
ings of the Third International Symposium on Ice Problems, IAHR,
Hanover, N.H., August 18-21, pp. 39-48.
Carstens, T. (Ed.), 1980. Working group on ice forces on structures. USA
Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, SpeCial Report 80-26
(ADA089674) .
Danys, J.V., 1975. Ice movement control by the artificial islands in Lac
St. Pierre. In Proceedings of the Third International Symposium on Ice
Problems, IAHR, Hanover, N.H., August 18-21, pp. 81-91.
Deck, D. and Gooch, G., 1981. Ice jam problems at Oil City, Pennsylvania.
USA Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Special Report
81-9 (ADAI03736).
Devik, 0., 1964. Present experience on ice problems connected with the
utilization of water power in Norway. Journal of Hydraulic Research.
Vol. 1, pp. 25-40.
Foulds, D.M., 1974. Ice problems at water intakes. Canadian Journal of
Civil Engineering. Vol. t, pp. 137-140.
Hayes, R.B., 1974. Design and operation of shallow river diversions in
cold regions. Bureau of Reclamation Engineering and Research Center,
Denver, Colorado, Report No. REC-ERC-74-19.
Janzen, P. and Kuluk, A.G., 1979. Hanasan Falls control structure design
and construction aspects. Canadian Geotechnical Journal. Vol. 16, pp.
479-510.
Kivisild, H.R., 1959. Hanging ice dams. In Proceedings of the Eighth
International Association for Hydraulic Research Congress, Montreal,
Augus t.
Latyshenkov, A.M., 1946. Design factors for river ice booms analyzed.
Gidrotekhnicheskoe Stroitel'stvo. Vol. 15(4), pp. 13-19. Also USA Cold
Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Draft Translation TL485
(ADAOI4886) •

347
Lotte~, G.K., 1932. Influence of conditions accol1lpanylng lce fo~mation
and ice thickness on the des ign of dlve~sion canalli. Izvestiia Nauchno­
lssledovatel'skogo Instituta Gid~otekhniki. Vol. 7, pp. 55-81.
(Russian text, English summary).
McLachlan, D.W., 1972. Ice formation on the St. Law~ence and othe~
~ive~s. Appendix E, Joint Boa~d of Enginee~s Repo~t, St. Lawrence
Wa terway P~oject.
Michel, B., 1971. Winte~ ~egilne of ~ive~s and lakes. usA Cold Regions
Resea~ch and Enginee~ing Labo~atory, Monog~aph III-Bla (AD724121).
Pa~iset, E. and Hausse~, R., 1961. Fo~mation and evolution of ice cove~s
on ~ive~s. T~ansactions of the Enginee~ing Institute of Canada. Vol.
5, pp. 41-49.
Pa~iset, E., Hausse~, R., and Gagnon, A., 1966. Formation of ice cove~s
and ice jaros in ~ive~s. J ou~nal of the Hyd~aulics Division, ASCE. Vol.
92(HY6), pp. 4965-4989.
Pe~ham, R., 1977. St. Marys Rive~ ice booms: Design fo~ce estimate and
field measu~elDents. USA Cold Regions Resea~ch and Enginee~lng Labora­
tory, CRREL Report 77-4 (ADA037902).
Pe~ham, R., 1983. Ice sheet retention structu~es. USA Cold Regions
Resea~ch and Enginee~ing Labo~atory, CRREL Repo~t 83-30.
Stotha~t, C.D. and C~oteau, J., 1965. Mont~eal ice control structu~e.
In Proceedings of the 22nd Annual Eastern Snow Conference, Hanove r,
N.H., Feb. 4-5, pp. 25-40.
Uzuner, M.S. and Kennedy, J.F., 1974. Stability of floating ice blocks.
Journal of the Hydraulics Oivlsion, ASCE. Vol. 98(HYI2), pp. 2117-2133.

348
 wm Ice Symposium 1984
Hamburg

ANALYSIS OF RIVER ICE RESISTAN CE

FROM MEASURED VELOCITY PROFILES'

Kersi s. Davar Dept. of Civil Engineering Canada

Pro fessor University of New Brunswir.k
Fredericton, N.B.
Ian M. MacGougan
Research Assistant

ABSTRACT
The analysis of resistance of natural streams during winter is
complicated by the presence of an ice cover which forms an additional
boundary with complex undersurface configurations varying over time. The
roughness characteristics are difficult to directly measure in-situ.
Indirect estimates of the effective height of boundary roughness, k ' have
s
been suggested by Larsen and others based on the Karman-Prandtl relation
for fully turbulent flows over a rough boundar y ,

in 1. + B.
K k
s

A field program was set up for a 365 m nearly straight reach of

the Nashwaak River, New Brunswick. Estimates of ks were originally
obtained from open water velocity profiles and compared to the D84 oed­
material particle diameter. The results were encouraging but some
limitations were encountered. The method was extended to ice-covered
conditions to estimate k for the ice undersurface and ~ for the bed.
i
Several equations, des c ribed later, were introduced to calculate
resistance coefficients which were compared to actual resistance co­
efficients obtained from measurements of discharge, area, hydraulic
radius, and slope of the energy line for the reach.
The results are presented and discussed. The 'conclusions
indicate that the method is feasible for small orders of roughness, but
is not applicable for large irregular roughnesses. Guide criteria need
to be developed for the limits of applicability of this approach.

349
1. 0 INtRODUCTION
When an ice cover forms on a river during the winter season the flow
conveyance charac terist ics are altered. The increased resistan ce to flow
due to the presence of th e ice cover has important implications for river
engineers who must make decisions regarding reservoir re l eases , water
supply, and flood control.
This paper presents the results of a research project on a reach of
the Nashwaak River, New Brunswick, Canada. Measured velocity profi les,
were "used to estimate the compo site resistanc e to flow (ca used by both
ice cove r and bed of stream) .
2.0 FIELD PROGRAM OF DATA COLLECTION
Field measurements were obtained for both open water and ice-covered
flow condi tions in a straight, 365 m reach of the Nashwaak River. Width s
and depths in the reach are on the order of 100 m and 1.0 m, respectively.
A Water Survey of Canada Gauging Stati on is located about 1 km downstream;
there is no si gnificant increase in dis charge between th e reach and the
gauging sta tion. The Water Survey of Canada performed winter discharge
measurements in the reach as a contrib ution to th e study.
Open water measur ements were made to check the stability of the
reach cross-section, to determine the size distribution of the reac h bed­
material, to measure open water velocity prof iles, and to determine the
average slope of the energy line through the reach. A s UllllDary diagram of
the reach, the grid bed-material sampling, and the l oca tio n of velo city
profil e meas urement is shown in Figure 1.
Winter field measur ements were performed to obtain the av e rage flow
cross -section hydraulic radius, and slope of the energy line of the
reach, and to obtain winter velocity profiles for use in composite re­
sistance analysis . Measurements for cross-sectional area, hydraulic
radius, and slope were ob tained at Cross Sec tions 5, 6, and 8, while
velocity profi les were ob tained at least 10 locations at Cross Section 6
using a Marsh-McBirney electro-magnetic, uni-dir cc tional current meter.

350
 8' 111
k. !mm) 17I!207 IS7 126 37S
I

--GRID BY NUMBER SAMPL~

I
.D~Q:,,5~~~._._._ . II
Ds4" 169mm

Figure 1. Diagram Illustrating Layout of Reach,

Bed-Material Sampling, and Velocity
Profile Measurement
3.0 APPROACH TO ANALYSIS
3.1 The Karman-Prandtl Velocity Distribution
The basis of the analysis for composite resistance from measured
velocity profiles was the Karman-Prandtl velocity distribution for
turbulent flows over rough boundaries (Schlichting, 1968):
u1 In X + B, (3.1)
u* K ks
where u is the local mean velocity at a distance y from the boundary, u*
is the shear velocity,K is the Von Karman Turbulence coefficient, and B is
a constant for a given flow condition.
The often assumed values of K and B, 0.4 and 8.S, respectively,
were developed by Nikuradse from his experiments on flow in artifically
roughened pipes (Schlichting, 1968). The values of K and B may vary in
other applications such as flow in ice-covered natural streams.
3.2 Estimates of ks from the Pratte and Larsen Approaches
The first step in the analysis of the measured velocity profiles was
the estimation of ks by the Pratte approach (Pratte 1979):

351
 k = 10 BK/2. 3 10- (y' lei) (3.2)
where y' and a a re the ~ntercept and slope, respectively, of the best-fit
line through the velocity profile data plotted on semi-log axes
(u vs. log y). Alternatively, the Larsen approach (Larsen, 1969) gives:
ks = eBK Y e-(Ymax/Vm"",-Vm), (3.3)
where Y, Vmax ' and Vm are the depth, maximum velocity, and mean velocity,
respectively, of the flow zone.
In thi s study, a velo c ity profile was measured in each sub-area o f
Cross Section 6. Each velocity profile was divided at the location of
maximum velocity to define two flow zones, one flow zone affected by the
ice cover, and one zone affected by the bed. The Pratte and Larsen
app roaches were then applied to each flow zone with the actual values of K
bec aus e they varied significantly from 0.4, and trial values of B, be­
cause a relationship between B a nd natural bound a ry roughness could not be
found in the literature.
3.3 Estimation of a Resistance Coefficient from ks
The two equations used to estimate a resistance coefficient (in this
case the Manning resistance coefficient, n), employing ks from the Pratte
and Larsen approaches, were the Strickler Equation (Chow, 1959 ):
n = 0.0417 ks 1/6 (3.4)
and a modifi ed form of the Limerinos Equa tion (Limerinos, 1970):

R~/6 = 9.96 + 19.5 log (3k~R) (3.5)

where R is the hydraulic radius. The coefficients in Equation 3.5 were

developed by Bray (1980) while ~n Rss~ption wa s made by the authors that
ks=3.5 D . The Stri c kler and Modified-Limerinos Equations were applied
84
to eac h zone to obtain nb (B ed Zone) and ni (Ice Zo ne).
3.4 Estimation of the Composite Resistance Coefficient for a Sub-Area
of a Cross -Section
Utilizing the values of ni and nb for each sub-area, the composite
resistance equations of Larsen (1969), Hancu (Uzuner, 1975), Sabaneev
(Uzuner, 1975) and an arithmetic average of ni and nb were used to
estimat e n c , the composite resistance coefficient for a sub-area.
Larsen (1969) used the Prandtl-von Karman velocity distribution, th e
Manning Equation, and the continuity equation to develop the relation:

n
c
(3.6)

352
where Yb and Yi are the depths of the bed and ice zones, respectively.
Hancu (Uzuner, 1975) based his composite resistance formula on the
Darcy-Weisbach and Manning Equation and the assumption that
T,_,= Tb + Ti,
- -2 ­

where Tc, Tb and Ti, are the average boundary shear stresses for the sub­
area, bed zone, and ice zone, respectively. Hancu equated the Darcy­
Weisbach and Manning Equations to obtain:

:: ~;, (::)"6 [::J' {::)'(::)\ ~)"J (3 n

Sabaneev (Uzuner, 1975) used the Chezy and Manning Equations and
introduced the assumption Vc = Vb = Vi to obtain the relation:

~ = (1+ h/nJ3 /~ 2/3 (3.8)

nb 2 )

The arithmetic average of n and nb was also used to estimate nco

i
The Larsen, Hancu, and Sabaneev Equations were the most theoretically
sound of several essentially equivalent equations presented by Uzuner
(1975) .
3.5 Estimation of Composite Resistance Coefficient for the Entire Cross
Section, n "
t
The estimates of nc for each sub-area were combined to get a total
composite resistance coefficient for the cross-section by the equations
of Horton and Einstein (Chow, 1959), Pavlovskiy (Chow, 1959), and Lotter
(Chow, 1959), and by a weighted average formula.
Horton and Einstein (Chow, 1959) assumed that each sub-area has the

,.m, m," .""i', "',:6:'i~!;: ";:'i3/~ '/3

Pavlovskiy (Chow, 1959) assumed that the total force resisting the
flow in the cross-section was equal to the sum of the forces resisting
the f low in each sub area. He derived the equation:

" ~~J, ';, O'i~

1/ 2
(3. 10)

Lotter (Chow, 1959) assumed that the total discharge in the cross­
section was equal to the sum of the dis c harges in each sub-area to obtain :

353
 R 5/3

'of'
P
t t (3.11)
n

~k '0.R
t
>: 1 1
j ~l
c.
1
The weighted average formula (Pratte, 1979) has the form:

n =
(itl P Ci nc;)
(3. 12)
t Pt
3.6 Estimation of Overall Composite Resistance Coefficient for Reach n .
r
The overall resistance coefficient for the reach, n , was estimated
r

by applying the Manning Equation to measured reach data, which for this

study, has the form:

A
R 2/3 S 1/2
r r r
(3.13)
n
r Q
where Ar' Rr' and Sr are the aver~ge properties for Cross Sections 5, 6,
and 8 in the reach of area, hydraulic radius, and slope of the energy
line, respectively, and Q is the discharge in the reach. Results for n
r r
were used to compare with results for n obtained from measured velocity
t

pro fi les .

4.0 PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

4.1 Estimation of Effective Height of Boundary Roughness
The Mofified Pratte and the Modified Larsen approaches are the
best methods available to estimate ks and the results of the present
analysis suggest that the Modified Pratte approach is the more consistent
of the two. This approach gives more emphasis to the central portion of
'the flow zone, which is more indicative of the turbulence caused by the
boundary roughness elements. Two typical velocity profiles plotted with
smoothened data are shown in Figure 2. Trial values of B and actual val­
ues of K determined from the measured velocity profiles were used in both
approaches. It was found that each approach could great ly overestimate
values of ks when boundary roughness elements are large, so that the
limit ks~3.5Y, where Y is the flow zone depth, was required.
Velocity profiles were measured for both open water and ice covered
flow conditions, and the results are compared in Table 1. This table
illustrates three important points:
1. ~ is generally larger for open water flow conditions

than for ice-covered flow conditions. Therefore,

since nb is directly proportional to ~, nb must be

generally larger for open water flow conditions

than for ice-covered flow conditions.

354
 2. There i s co nsidera ble range in the result s for ~,

whi ch i s caused by the variability in K_, the von Karma n

turbulence coefficient
3. The ra tio of ~/D84 was bas ed on a grid-by-number
sam ple of b ed-materi a l taken surround ing the location
of ope n water velocity profile measurem ent .
I. 0 r-_-iPr-R;.:.O:..FI...:..::L.;E~'.:.6_-..:3_-,2..:C_-..:8..:3:"--T0::2c.-.,:.1V;.....,

-
.!:
0·2

E 0·1 Ie E ZONE
,;­ u-0 ·28 lo~ Y + 0·47

.
a: 0'05
<C k2=0 ·20m
CI
z 1(2. 0 '34
::> 0·02
0
'"
~ 0'01
0
...
a:
0·5

'"z
()

0-2
.,...
<C

-
CI 0·1
BED ZON E
0 -05 u =O'IV 10, y+ 0 ·44
k, -0·23m
0·02 • K, =0·115

0-0.
0 0·1 0·2 0-3
VELOC I TY, . , . 1.1
Fi gure 2. Typi cal Wint er Velocity Profile Plotted
with Smoothened Data.
4.2 Estimation of n and nb for each Sub-Ar ea
i
Th e Stric kler and Modified Limerinos equations were used t o estimate
n and nb for each sub-area, based on k and~ . The Modified Limerinos
i i
equation was more cons ist e nt in estimating resi stance coefficient proba­
ly because it in cludes the hydraulic radius.
For the complete data set n was found to range fro m 0. 011 to 0 . 089
i
while nb ranged from 0.0 17 to 0 . 098. Generally, nb was larger than n in
i
a sub- area , but exceptions often occ urr ed .
4.3 Estima tion of n for a Sub-Area
c
It was found from the present data that the Larsen (1969), Sabeneev
(Uzuner , 197 5), Han cu (Uzuner, 1975), and Arit hmetic Average Equations
to es timate nc for a Sub- Are a each gave approximately the same results
over the ran ge in ni/nb of 0.5 to 1.5.

355
 TABLE 1. Comparison of Velocity Profiles for Open Water and
Ice-Covered Flow Conditions
Ice/
Open y R ~
Profile I/O (m) (m) K (m)

6-1-11-83-08-16 0 0.36 0.22 1.13 0.78 0.06 12.5

6-2-21-83-08-16 0 0.52 0.52 0.69 0.21 0.84 2.5
6-3-35-83-08-16 0 0.66 0.56 0.48 O. 14 0.07 2.0
6-4-47-83-08-16 0 0.41 0.46 0.53 0.13 0.17 0.74
6-5-93-83-08-16 0 0.33 0.18 0.84 0.37 0.06 6.7
6-1-11-83-10-03 0 0.36 0.20 0.88 0.32 0.62 5.1
6-2-21-83-10-03 0 0.46 0.47 0.68 0.11 0.08 1.3
6-3-35-83-10-03 0 0.60 0.51 0.44 0.11 0.07 1.5
6-4-47-83-10-03 0 0.39 0.42 0.47 0.13 0.17 0.74
6- 5- 93- 83-10-03 0 0.29 0.17 1. 12 1. 02 0.06 18.1
6-2-15-83-02-25 I 0.31 0.27 0.44 0.12 0.06 2.0
6-3-25-83-02-25 I 0.08 0.30 1. 44 0.26 0.08 3.1
6-4-35-83-02-25 I 0.61 0.46 0.44 0.30 0.07 4.3
6-6-45-83-02-25 I 0.12 0.13 0.66 0.10 0.17 0.60
6-11-95-83-02-25 I 0.32 0.26 0.58 0.27 0.06 5.2
6-2-15-83-03-18 0.42 O. 38 0.46 0.12 0.06 2.0
6- 3-2 3-83- 03-18 0.30 0.34 0.51 0.10 0.08 1.1
6-6-35-83-03-18 I 0.64 0.59 0.47 0.56 0.07 8.0
6-8-47=83-03-18 0.35 0.44 0.53 0.09 0.17 0.55
6-13- 96-83-03-18 0.27 0.26 0.49 0.07 0.06 1.2
Note: table based on Pratte approach with B=4.5 for open water profiles
and B=7 for ice-covered profiles and calculated values of K.
The Sabaneev equation i s the mo st straight forward of the three
theoretical equations, and is based on reasonable assumptions. The Arith­
metic Average Equation is adeq uate for first approximations .
4.4 Estimation of n for the Cross-Section
t
For the Nashwaak River data se t, the Horton-Einstein (Chow , 1959),
Pavlovskiy (Chow, 1959), and Pratte (1979), equations gave similar, con­
sistent results. The Lotter (Chow, 1959) equation was less consistent in
est imating n giving large ranges. This is probably a result of the use
t
of hydraulic radius as a weighting parameter in the Lotter equation.
The Pavlovskiy Formula, which is theoretically sound and straight­
forward to apply is the peferred equation for the present data set. The
results for n and n , based on the Pav10vskiy equation and reach proper­
t r

ties, respectively, are presented in Table 2. This table shows that

trends in n and nr with time are not sim ila r because n was based on vel­
t t

ocity profiles measured at one cross section in the reach.

4.5 Comparison of Winter Discharges.

The discharges based on composite resistance, analysis were calcu­

lated by applying the Manning equation with nt, A, and R for Cross

356
 TABLE 2. Comparison of nr from Reach Properties
with n based on the Pavlouskiy Equation
t
Date of n fa r nt From Pavlouskiy Equation
Survey R~ach Mean S.D. Range
(S/Ml iJ ) (S/Ml/3) (S/Ml/3) (S/Ml/3)
1982-03-19 0.031 0.030 0.002 0.028-0.032
1982-03-26 0.023 0.0 34 0.004 0.030-0.038
1983-01-28 0.028 0.028 0.001 0.027-0.030
1983-02-11 0.041 0.038 0 . 008 0.030-0.045
1983-02-18 0.035 0.039 0.009 0.030-0.048
1983-02-25 0.040 0.038 0.008 0.030-0.046
1983-03--18 0.023 0.034 0.006 0.029-0.040
Note: Table Based on Pratte approach with B-7 and calculated values of K.
Section 6 and Q and S for the reach. These results were compared with
discharges obtained by integrating the measured velocity profiles and
with discharges measured by the Water Survey of Canada. These compari­
sons are summarized in Table 3.
TABLE 3. Comparison of Winter Discharges
Date of Q from Q from Q from Manning Equation
Survey Author I s W. S. C. wi t h nt from Pav lovskiy Eq.
Meas. Meas. Mean S. D. Range
(m' Is) (m' Is) (10' / s) (m' /s) (m' / s)

1982-03-19 16.2 18.7 17.5 1.1 16.4-18.7

1982-03-26 17.2 19. 1 18.7 2.1 16.7-20.8

1983-01-28 16.1 18.0 17.8 0.61 17.2-18.6

1983-02-11 12.2 17.3 10.9 2.3 8.72-13.1

1983-02-18 10.9 10.4 2.3 8.12-12.8

1983-02-25 9. 04 10.9 9.47 2.0 7.46-n.4

1983-03-18 18.5 23.2 18.2 2.9 15.3 - 21. 2

On average the W.S.C. discharges are 21 percent larger than the

authors' measurements while the calculated discharges are 7 percent
higher. The discrepancies in results were caused by numerical differences
in cross-sectional area for the three approaches. The W. S. C. stream
gauging procedure of measuring one velocity at mid-depth tends to over
estimate mean velocity for the case of shallow depths, and the authors
used a un-clirectional electro-magnetic current meter whereas the W.S.C.
used a rotating-cup current meter.
5.0 Conclusions
The following conclusions can be drawn based on the present data set:
1. The Prandtl-von Karman velocity distribution is limited to its
application to natural channels by the variability in K' and the uncer­
tainty in the relationship between ks and B and natural boundary
condi tions.
2. The Modified Pratte approach for estimating ks' the Modified

357
I.imerinos equation Eor estimating n and n , the Sabaneev Equation for
i b
estimating n ' and the Pavlovskiy equation for estimating n were the
c t
most consistent a pproac hes for each respective purpose.
3. Calculated winter discharges based on composite resistance
analysis were, on average, only 7 percent different from the authors'
discharges; while those obtained by the Water Survey of Canada were, on
average, 21 percent higher than di scharges obtained by the author.
LIST OF REFERENCES
Bray, 0.1., 1980. Evaluation of Effective Boundary Roughness for Gravel­
Bed Rivers. Can. J. Civ. Eng., Vol. 7, (2), p. 392-397.
Chow, V.T., 1959. Open Channel Hydraulics. HcGraw-Hill, New York.
Larsen, P.A., 1969. Head Loss Caused by an Ice Cover on Open Channels.
J. Bos. Soc. Civ. En g ., Vol 56 (1), p. 45-67.
Pratte, B.D., 1979. Revi ew of Flow Resistance of Consolidated Smooth
and Rough Ice Covers. Proceedings of the Canadian Hydrology
Symposium, Vancouver.

Schlichting, H., 1968. Boundary Layer Theory. 6th Edition. McGraw-Hill,

New York.
Uzuner, M.S., 1975. The Composite Resistance of Ice-Covered Streams.
1. A. H. R.• J. of Hyd. Res., Vol. 13 (1), p. 79-102.

358
 wm Ice Symposium 1984
Hamburg

ANALYSIS OF RAPIDLY VARYING FLOW IN ICE-COVERED RIVERS

Michael G. Ferrlcx u.S. Army Cold Regions ResMrch U.S.A.

H)<lrologlst and Englneerl og Laboratory
Hancwer, New Hanpshl re

Rnpldly v~rylng flew waves are a prImary ctluse of lee coyer brslikup on rivers. Due to

the presence of Ice an"d the diffIcultIes Involved In determlnlng condItions In the fIeld,

analyses of rlver waves durIng bre.e~up are subject to much uncertainty. 'We conducted labo­

ratory experlrmnt s to determIne the effects of the Ice cOYer upon these waves, nnd to lden­

tlfy the physIc,,' processes that prodJce these effects. The dImensIonless frIction scalIng

parall'8ter of the st. Venant equl!tlons provIdes a quantI tat 1'18 est lrrete of the frIction!

InertIa balance that dlctates river wave behavior. KnOlledge of thIs bit lance Is essential

to Interpret8tlon and ani5lysls of flO1l wave ~ta. In thIs pi5per we apply the friction P8­

r<lneter In OJr Interpretatlon of the laboratory dlllta tlnd tlddress dlscrepancles bet'ween date,

ond prev} OJS ana lyses of an Tce J<In release on the Athabasc8 R Jve r.

359
Introduction

As energy costs conti nue to Increase, the use of h)dropO\li8r du,.1 n9 periods of peek de­

mand hes slgnlflC8nt ecooOTllc Importence., In northern rivers covered by Ice In the winter,

compll~tlons cen develq) as a result of the abrupt, large I'Mglltude flOf and ..eter level

changes that acc~any hydrq:l~er peaking. If peaking destrOfs the river Ice cover, Ice

jelftS and floodl ng can resul t, and bret!lkup durl ng a period of IOf al r t9f'!\'8rature rrey Initi­

ate frazll Ice fOll'Mtlon, creating such problEms as clogging of Intakes and constriction of

the rl'Jar channel. Ice cowr breakup occurring naturally durl n9 the spring Ceuses destru::­

tlve Ice runs, Ice jam fo~tlon end flooding on soma rivers. A quantitative description of

rapidly varying flOf waves In Ice-covered rivers would !J.Ilde peaking q>eratlons to avoid the

a rtf f I cl al breakup problem and Imp rove understandl ng of natura I breakup.

Much speculetlon concern I ng the effects of an Ice cover upon fl c;w waves In rivers Is

based upon a canblnatlon of field ol:6ervatlons where conditions are not well knewn and nu­

rrerlcal modeling • .applicatIon of the St. Venant equations to describe WllveS In Ice-cowred

rivers requires thet the cover behave passively, affecting the flOll only as a friction sur­

face.. This paper will ajdress the effects of the Ice cover upon rapid Iy varying river

waves, and the physl~1 processes t hat proruce these effects. We c onducted a s eries of ex ­

perlrrents In the ~REL flurre wHh IdentIcal InflOf h)drographs lind sequences of bed slopes

for q)en water, Styrofoan cover, and flOtltlng Ica cover conditions.. The q)en water tests

provided baseline deta to C00ll8re 8g3lnst the covered fl ew tests. The Styrofoam cowr pro­

vided e friction surf lice to the flOf but hlld negligIble stiffnes s and Inertia. The I c e COl­

er thickness used In oor tests was nominally 20': of the /Mxlmoo depth.. This relatively

thldc. Ica cover cruld be molntalned largely Intact for the tast serIes, and In addition to

frictIon, Its Inertle or stiffness coold potentially lIffect repldly varying unsteady flow

waves. Different bed slq:les were In c luded I n the test series to cheracterlze their effects

upon the waves, and to ensure that Ice cover effects ara sl q)e Independent.

FI el d da t2!l I ndl cate that t n sore f ree-f I ew I ng 1ce-cove red r ''Ie rs wave moyeme nt ocru rs

with a reletlvely IOf celerity characteristi c of a klnell'8tlc wave. For rlverfeaches that

a ra ponded to a dep th much greater t han the wave amp I I tude, observed wave speeds 2!1 re sign 1­

flcantly hlg.er, approaching those of a d.,.,amlc wave. These changes In wave celerity lire

lndlcetlve of a shift In the Importance of processes governing the flew. Ferrld< [1984J

Identified a grQJP of dlnenslonless peran'9ters of the St. Van8nt eq~tlons that quentlfy the

relative Importance of the effects of friction, lnertlll, lind pressure gradient upon river

waves. The date requIred to evaluate these dlnBnslonlass pararreters can be relldlly ob­

t2!llned. In partlQJlar, the IMgnltude of the d i mensionless friction plIraneter qUllntlfles the

frlctlon/1nertle balance, ",",Ich detenrines wave type.. This InfonT!lltlon Is especlelly valu­

able when a c~lIcated flew coodltlon Is being c onSidered, such as gener8l1y OCQJrs during

spring breakup In Ice-covered rivers. In this paper '-'8 will evaluate the friction paraffBter

360
to eld lnterpret~tlon of the CRREL flume data, "nd to con s ider an Tee jam relt3as a wave that

occurred durl ng the 1979 sprl ng breakup on the Athebaso:a. River.

The Friction P~rcrneter

We knew In general that bulk waves, IncludIng klnenatlc and diffusIon waves as stb­

types, ocrur In rivers when InertIa Is neglIgIble relatIve to frlctToo. Dyn&nlc .-aves re­

place these bulk waves as the InertIa of the tlOf Increases. Flnelly, gravIty waves occur

when frIction becones negligible relatIve to Inertia.. The bel.!lnce beTween frictIon "nd 10­

ertla cont,-ols rlvar .,.ave behavior and ITUst be determIned to appropriately !rode I river

waves. To 8ddress this bal"nce FerrIck 11984) ccmbined the St. Venant aQuatJoos and formed

a systan eQU8tTon contaIning only velocIty derIvatIves. 'M"ltlng this eQuatIon In dJl'TBnslol"l­

less form proruced a grrup of dImensIonless sc~llng para'lleters that QlJantlfy the relatIve

IMgntt..rjes of all terms In the equatIon. The frlctlo;,l1nertla bal8nce Is represented by the

frIctIon scalIng para-neter Fo defined as

2
2 v 0
Fe ="---r-2 l­r1<.frx ) (I)
ei c m Yo

where vo and Yo are mean velocIty and depth In the rIver r88ch durIng pa s s&ge of the wave,

Cm Is the measured wave celerity, C. Is the me8n dImensIonless Chazy conveyance coe fficient,

/),X Is h81f the wavelength or half the prcpagatlon dIstance of the wave, whIchever Is smal­

ler, and k = I for open .eter and = 2 for ke-covered conditIons." GIven a basIc physIcal

descrIptIon of the rIver reach, the InformatIon requIred to evaluate the frictIon par~eter

can be obt~lned frO'l'l 8 ~I r of stre2!m gagl ng statIons operated dur1 ng steaOy and unsteady

condltl()t"1s. The distance beTween the gages dIvIded by the elapsed tIme betweon the wave ar­

rIvals yIelds masurad wava celerIty. Wevalength Is obtained t:J..t multIplyIng ttle wave celer­

1ty by the mean time for wave pass.ege 8t the gages.

AnalysIs ot data fran case studies has revealed thllt Fc > 10 IndIcates bulk waves domI­

nated by frIction, and that Im~rtant d')4'lamlc wave effects occur at Fc < 10. Values of

Fc« 1 IndIcate the exIstence of trlettonless gravIty ...aves." With thase wave tn!lnsltlons

defIned, eval10tlon of the frictIon parall'Bter dIrectly yIelds wave type. If the tnaglltude

of Fc Is near the t:olk/dynaT11c w8ve transItIon Fc ~ la, the varl8blilty of VOl Yo' C., em

and frx Is consIdered and Fc 15 treated as 8 r8ndan variable (Ferdck, 19841.

CRREL FI ""e experiments

The 8nalysts of FerrIck 119841 seeks to resolve the form of the St. Venant eQlRltlons

that Is 8pprq,rlate for given condItIons. Sane form of these equatIons 15 81most lInlversal-

Iy lKicpted for analysTs of unsteady flOf In Ice-co~red rIvers. ThIs epprooch assurres that

the tee cover Is a pesslve surface th8t affects the flcw only t:J..t IncreasIng the energ( dls­

slpetlon of the channel. A serIes of laboratory e~rll'l'Bnts that we conducted 1n the CRREL

flume can be used to consIder the effects of the Ice coyer upon rapIdly v8rylng rIver flcw

w8ves. and to address thl~ assllrtptlon.

361
 01 2

; 008

<5

FJgure 1. H~rograph depicting the sequence of

rapid Iy va rlad fl art waves that WliS repeated for
each e>Cper l!TBnt 1 n the CRREL f lurrwa sari as.

Located In a refrigerated ldboratory, the CRREL flume Is abOJt 36 m long, 1.2 rn wide,

and h~s an ad,iJsteble bed slope.. The flume has 8 large headbox upstre5ll, and temnates

dcwnstre8TI In 1I free ovarial I. To more closely approaCh one-dImensional flOil In this test

serles, a horse-hair uflClJf stralgltenerf1 \leiS lnstl!llfec;1 upstrean of the working section,

~hlch extended fran a locatIon 0 m upstrecrn to a location 30.5 m dQtnstreml. FIOJf depth at

0,9 .. 1, 18.:3, and 30.5 m, and velocIty at 0 m .ere recorded at 6-second Inter,,~15 for the

antI re test duration. A sequence of unsteady flOrt walles, repelloted for each set of test con­

dltlons, wa:s produced ~ repositIoning the ~I ve controlling the flo.t to the heedbox at spe­

clfled tlllles. The hydrograph depicting the wave sequence (Fig. I) oms cCJIl)uted fran ....­

sured velocity and depth at 0 moo The serIes of nTne tests IncllXted open 'IIfIter, StyrofoMl

cOoler and Tee cOoler condItions at three dIfferent channel bed slq>es, nanfna"y 0.0001

(SOil, 0.0004 (504), ond 0.0016 (516). The open ",ter tests provided baseline <1<Ite with

whldl to canpare the Styrofocrn and Ice CCNer tests. The Styrofo5n COoler was uniform, flexl­

ble and highly buoyant, affectl ng the flo.t on Iy as a friction surface. The Ice cover ..,s

free-floating, and varied be"""een 5 and 8 an In thld<ness. The Ice cover was treated care­

fully to nedntaln a solId cover to the extent possible. Rq>es '!ere fromn lengthwise Into

the cover to retaIn In place the parts of the cover where crad<lng OCQJrred. Wfthoot these

ropes, most of the cover ...es lost durIng pessage of the InitIal wave,.

Que to the OJrvature of the water surfece near the free overiall, the dcwnstretm-most 5

m of Ice cO'Jer could not be retained. Therefore, the Ice cowr test depths recorded at 30.5

m reflected open water condItIons at that location. flcw depth reported for locations w1th

362
 0 20

oL-__- L____ ~ __ ~ ____ ~ __

1-------1
4 10 13 16 19 22

FIgure 2. Canper-Ison of flOll depths ~s functions

of time at station 30.5 m for the SOl and 516
q>en water experiments.
020

E
e 0 1
g
a

Flgure~. Cooperlson of fl c:w depths as fl.l1ctlons

of tIme lit st&tTon 30.5 m for the 501 and 516 Ice
cowr experll'!'Bnts.

a Styrofotm or Ice cover Is the dlstlllnce fran the channel bed to the undersIde of the cover.

ThTs InterpretatIon of depth all c:ws direct corrparl son of depth ave' lable to pass the flOli

bet..een the q>en water, Styrofoml cOler and 1ca cover test serIes.

A cOITparlson of flow depths at the dO\lJlstreMl gage, 30.5 m, Is presented In Figure 2

for the q>en water tests wi th channel bed 5/ cpos 501 and 516. The steeper bed 51 ope caused

a 51 J~tly faster stage decrease wIth t Irre after passage of the wave peak. H0'JrI8Ver, overall

wa .... e shape dId not change sIgnIfIcantly with changes In bed slq)e. FIgure 3 gl ...es thls S5nEI

depth cOlT1)erlson tor the Ice cover tests. A~ln, faster dralnOJt of the flurre at the steep­

er slq)e caused decreased base flew depths relatl ...e to the flatter slope. The other dltfer­

ence beheen the lee cover cases es sll~tly later .... a...e arrI ...als at the greater bed slope.,

In rl ... ers where wa ... e amplltlAe Is large relatI ...e to depth, the celerIty of dewnstre8'n-prqJa­

363
 °4~--~~--~~--~
IO I~J----~~
1 6----~~--~2~2
19
TIme (min)

Figure 4. C~8r1son of 11 Of depths liS fll1ctlons

of time lit stlttToos 0 m 8nd JO .. 5 for the 516 Cl)sn
'fII!Iter e;,cperllT'Bnt.

020
--Open Water
- - - Ice C(NEtf
...... "Slyroloam Cover

!
010
l:
0

005

10 13 16 19 22
T Ime (min)

Flgure 5. Ccmparlson of fl~ depths liS functions

of t lrre at statTon 30.5 m for the 516 open 'fIfIIte r,
Styrofo8n C(),fer and Ice COlIer expertments.

gl!Itlng pCJ51tlv8 waves decr-eases with base flew depth. Though not liS epparent In Frgure 2,

the Inverse relationshIp between wave celerity and bed 510;>88150 existed In the open weter

tests. WJth thIs 8I(ceptlon the W8ve response..es not sensitIve to bed 510;>6 for lIny -.atar
surface coodltTon. Therefore, for consIstency we will consider SI6 test date for the re­

:relnder of this dlsQJsslon.

The SI6 open watar 'IOf depths at 0 end 30.5 mare gl . . . en In FIgure 4. These ...lI.. . es pro­

pagated through the study reach with essentl~lly no 8tten~tlon or dl8nge In form, and ~n

a.. . erage MlplJtud~ of 0.10 m. FIgure 5 COfl)ares flOf depths ~t 30.5 m for the 516 ~en "'8­
ter, Styrofoan cOWlr and Ice cover tests. The Styrofo~ COYer dId not 8ffect ... a.. . e speed or

364
 02 5

o4L----J----~IO~---IL3-----IL
6----~~---2~
,9 2-
Time ( min )

Figure 6. C~!!rlsons of 'I cw d~ths flS ftJ'lctlons

of time at statTon 0 m, 9.1 m and 30.5 m for the
S1 6 Ice cover experlt1'Bnt.

shape for any test rel~tlve to open water condltlons. These results Indtce.te that It dId

not signIfIcantly Increase fdctJonal energy dIssIpatIon, as Intended. Vlbrlltlons of the

StyrofoMi cover of larger Mlplltooe than the open weter surtace ~aves cliin be observed In

these data.
For the Ice cover tests three significant modltlcatlons of the wa ....e fonn relative to

the other tests can be noted. The base fl ClII depth follow' ng each wa ...e and the t lITe requl red

for p85sage of the wave peak were apprmdmately dOJbled, and the average wave ernplltude of

0.07 m 'flieS decl'"eased. A IOOr6 complete picture of the wave developrrent In the Ice cover tast

Is given by the depth hydrographs In FIgure 6. The Ice c~er extended over mos t of the

liIOr1c.lng sectIon of the flume, and wave behavior under the cover Is reflected In the depths

at 0 and 9.1 m. Attenu~tloo of the wave MlplltiJde fran an average of 0.14 to 0.10 m oc­

curred during wave passage through thIs short reach. HOIIIellElr, there 'llll3S not an accOlTf>anylng

change In the shape of the wave. ThrQ.Jgh the 30.5""'1TI wOrXlng sectloo the rooasured wave ce­

lerity Increased by an average of 24% relatIve to open .,ter condItions. These results are

cootnuy to the canrnon belief that rIver Ice covers retard the movement of flew w~ves. If

we 8ssert that frIctIon Is the only macnanlsm t¥ whIch the Ice cOllElraffects the flew, the

Increased wave celerity must be a conseQuence of larger InItial fl~ depth prIor to wave

passage than exIsted 1 n the open -.eter tests.

We c8nnot yet answer with certaInty the questIon of which physlc81 medlanl9ns c""used

the obser-led manges In wave behavIor In the presence of an Ice cover. The Ice cover Intro­

duced addItIonal frictional dISSipatIon relative to the Styrofoaon cOlIer and open water

365
CdS<lS. I:stllftatad m.::tdn V"llUe5 of Fc are < 5.2 for dl I C8ses IFerrick, 19841, IndIcating

dynanlc wave behavIor. Therefore, If frIction was the cause of the observed dIscrepancies,

dynamIc wave n'Qdel s based upon the complete St. \tenant equatIons Should sl£cessfuJ Iy sTrru­

late a I I ceses.

1979 Athabasca RI ver Ice Jam Release

One mechanl'3Tl by whICh rapIdly v,Hylng flew waves are lntroruced In Ice-covered rIvers

I Ii the breakup of an upstrean lee J~. Ice Jatnml ng e~nts are canrron on I1'8ny rIvers dud ng

the sprIng breakup perIod. DC¥Id and Andres 119791 descrIbed the 1979 sprIng breakup o n the

Athabasce RIver near Fort McMurrey, Alberta. They reported that an Ice JCf'n collapse at

Mountaln RapIds on April 28, 1979, generated a wave that was largely responsible for Ice

CO'Mr breakup to a locatIon !)eyond IoIacE..en BrIdge, 11 k.m dOW'lstrem. We will evaluate the

dImensIonless parMlEttar Fc for thIs wave to QuantIfy the balance between frIctIon and

I nertl~, and to address dI screpancles th8t e)(1 st between the data and prevl OJS analyses.

Henderson and Gerard 119811 modeled waves resultIng fran Ice Jan release wIth the St.

Venant equatIons neglecting bed stepe and resIstance. ThIs approad'l Is equlv8tent to the

8ssunptIon that waves fran an Ice Jan release behave as gravIty waves. For the jztn fal lure

on the Athebasca RIver they predIcted a wave celerity of 11 mIs, correspondIng to the dynan­

Ic wave cdlerlty of the peak of the wava. Howe....ar, neasured wave celar-Tty -.as only abrut

on Iy 4 m/s.

8eltaos and Krlshnapp8n 119821 used a dynamic wave nunerlcal model based upon the ccm­

plete St. Venant equatIons to sImulate the prepagatlon of thJs SM)8 wave. Several sImula­

tions 1II9re perfonned, each with a dIfferent value for the friction pararreter. A~J n, the

CCJ7l>uted wave ce I erlty W8 s sIgn 1 f I cant Iy greater than the me asured ce Ie rl ty, as r~ I ected by

an error I n the t lrne of wave arrIval 8t the brIdge of abrut 20 ml nutes. The wa....a arrIval

time was not sensltlve to the frIction par.sneter. The primary effect of Increasing frIction

In the model ..es a sIgnificant elong:,tJon of the wave front at ~cE\IIif3n Bridge. The pre­

ferred sImulatIon shewed the stage at the bridge IncreasIng over a 50-m1 nute perIod. In

contrast, the lT8asIJred stage Increase \llif3S abrupt, occurrIng In a period of ~bOJt 10 mInutes.

AnalysIs of forces In the Ice cover IBlllfalk, 19821 hBS shewn that par5neters of prImary

Importance for rhl8r Ice cowr stablllty are ·..,ave hel!1lt and the slope of the wave front.

Therefore, differences bet'ween cCJ7l>uted and measured wave front slepes are of much practical

I mportan c e.

Prior to the rttlease of the Tce Jam, the b8se flew depth and velocIty In the rIver were

about 3 m and 0.6 mIs, respectIvely. An a~rage bed slope of 0.00035 In the predom1n8ntly

Ice-covered readl with thIs depth and velocIty yields a dlmenslonl~ss Chazy conveyance coef­

ficIent of 8.4. we assume that thIs value Is representatIve of the channel conveyance dur-

I ng wave passoge. The heIght of the W8ve at the brIdge was 3.6 m, whIch together wI th the

3-m base flcw depth, gIves a rrean depth of 4.8 m. Eased upon the reported flcw velocl ty

366
data durIng wl!Ive pass~e, we estlmtJte the mean velocIty at 2.0 m/s. The dlstence fran the

site of the jan fl!lliure to ~cEen BrIdge was abcut 11 kin. 'ftIter lavel profIles taken prIor

to Jam release sh~ed that the length of the Jam Inruced backweter was abrut 14 km. The

length scale rnlllracterlzJng the wave motIon In the reach Is half the propag!5ltlon dIstance,

5500 m, be~use prq>agatton dlstence Is shorter than wllIvelength. The Ica cOYer In the study

reach 'fiI!IS essentially Intact prtor to passage of the wave. The length sc!lle dIvided bt the

measured wave celerity yIelds a thne scale of 23 mInutes. We take k=2, 855'-"'lng that lce­

covered flc:w near !JecE.en Bridge persIsted for a perIod COI'T1)3rltble tothls tIme scale after
arrl'181 of the toe of the wave.

EquatIon 1 can n~ be used to obtaIn an Fe estTmlIte of 16.2, well 1nto the range of

frTctJon-danJntlted bulk waves. ThIs result IndIcates that the tlss\II1ptlon of gravIty wave

behavIor Is not approprIate for these conditIons. The d~amlc wave n'Odel of thIs wave In­

cludes the effects of frictIon, but large Fc Indlcetes that the terms of the moment1.lft

equatIon are 1mbalanced In favor of frIctIon. DIfferential equations with this characterls­

tTc are tenred nstlff," and are dIfficult to solve nunerlcally. Ferrick at al. 119841 used

a dl ffusTon wave model neglectIng InertIa to obtain aCQJrtlte simulations of wave Shape, ce­

lerIty and attenuation In rapldly varyIng open weter bulk wave cases. These results and

dlfflQJltles wIth treatlng bulk waves as a subset of dynanlc waves sl.9gests that more con­

plete Eq~tlons do not ensure crure 8ccurate nurrerlcal solutions. Additional wof1( Is needed

to more firmly support this conclusIon.

Conc Ius 1ons

The CRREl flume e)(perlments revealed that the additIon of an lee cover Increased wave

celerIty and slowed wave recessIon relatIve toan IdentIcal sequence of open IIt3ter rapldly

varying flO!l waves. Attenuation of the wave peak with distance oCQJrred In the Ice ccwer

eJq)erlnants, but not In the cpan ...ater tests. These Ice COYer effects lIII3re consIstent and

Independent of channel bed sl q>e.

The eonman assunptlon 15 that frictional Increases resulting frem the presence of the

Ice CQl(er are the cause of these effects. 'fie have not yet detennlned the primary physl~1

rred'lanlsm(s) for the CRREl flulOO eX'PBrltrents. Arg•.l 1ng InductIvely, '016 could assurre that

frIctIon Is the primary mechanl3Tl, allcwlng us to apply the dImensIonless frIctIon paran­

eter. EvaluatIon of Fc IndIcates dynanlc wave behavIor In all tests. An aCQJrate simula­

tion of fl()j wave behavior with the dyncrnlc wave equations would verify the original hypo­

thes 1 s.

We addressed dIscrepancIes between data f ran an 1ce Jam release wave on t~e Athabasea

RIY8r and results of prevlQJs modeling studIes. As In these studIes we assune that frictIon

15 the primary mechanl3Tl bf whIch the lee cover affects fl()j waves In rivers. Evaluation of

the frIctIon paratreter revealed that thIs wave..as domlnated bf frlctlon, the definItion of

a bulk fl()j wave. EkJlk waveS travel at a celerity that Is related to the flO!l velocity, and

367
Is much slOfer than the dynanlc celerIty of the wave. Controlled open water stLdles heve

raya~led that rapIdly var,lng bulk waves, such 85 those followIng ~n Ice jllll rele8s8, h8ve

an ~brupt onset 8nd a relatIvely sharp lInear front. All of these cheracterhtlcs ere In

evIdence In the Athebasca RIver Mtl!..

The perceptIon obtaIned fran the lIterature Is that bulk weves ere a subset of dynanlc

waves because thelrgowmlng 8qUc"tlons can be obtaIned es 8 simplifIcatIon of the dynM'llc

weve equations. Therefore, an analyst can adopt the more general dyn5T11 c equations for I!Jrry

CllISe.,. I-fowever, our prevlQJs experIence and tills t\lna lysIs of the Atheb8sca Rlwr Mta sug­

gest that models based upon dyn5T11c wave equations frequently do not provIde eCQJrate sTmu­

latIons of bulk waves,. We sl.99Bst that the difficultIes of d'FIemlc wave roodels result fran

numerically eppro)(lmetlng stIff equatIons, but heve not yet develqled a more deteJled sup­

port, ng a rgurren t.

References

Belta05, S., and B.G. Krlshnappl!Jn,1982. Surges fran Ice jam releases: A case study. Can.
J. Clv. Eng., 9, 276-284.
Blilfelk, l., 1982. Ice cover fOl'Tl'etlon 8nd brel!Jkup of solid Ice covers on rIvers. B.Jlle­
tin No. TRITA-VBI-In, H)dreullcs Leboretory, Rovel Institute 01 Tecl>nolog(, Stoc!<holrn,
Sweden.
Doyle, P.F. end 0.0. Andros, 1979. Spring breokup end Ice J<mmlng on the ,t,thebesc. River
nettr Fort McMurrey. Report SWE-79-05, TransportatIon and Surface Water EngT neerlng DIvI­
sion, Alberta Research COlIC I I, Edrronton, 32 pp.
Ferrld<, t.4.G., 1984. On rIver waV9S. CRRE.l Report }29, U.S. Anny Cold Reg! OIlS Research and
E.nglneerlng laboratory, l-'anover, NH.
Ferric!<, M.G., J. 811"",s and S.E. Long, 1984. Modell ng repld Iy v.r1ed II QI In t.II •• ters.
'etar Resources Research, 20, 271-289.
Henderson, F.t.4. end R. Gerard, 1981. Flood waves caused by Ice jl!Jm forrnetlO!l and fl!lllure.
ProceedIngs, Intern8tlonal AssocIatIon for I-f-,draullc Resel!lrch, Intentet10nI!JI SymposllJ'l on
I ce, Quebec CiTy, 209-219.

368
 IAHR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

AN UNSTEADY FLOW MODEL OF

RIVER ICE HYDRAULICS

Poojitha N.D.D. Yapa Department of Civil and U.S.A.

Research Assistant Professor Environmental Engineering
Clarkson University
Hung Tao Shen* Pot sdam. New York
Professor

In this paper an unsteady flow model for rivers with ice cover is de­
veloped and applied to the St. Lawrence River. The model is capable of
providing continuous simulation of flow and ice conditions in a river net­
work during a winter season. The flow condition is determined by the so­
lution of one-dimensional equations of motion for unsteady river flows
with ice covers using an implicit finite difference scheme. Variations of
hydraulic resistance of the ice cover are described by an empirical simu­
lation model. Growth and decay of ice cover thickness is simulated by a
modified degree-day model. The initial thickness of ice cover is deter­
mined by existing ice jam theories.

*On sabbatical leave at the U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineer­
ing Laboratory, Hanover, N.H.

369
 lntroduction
Numerical simulation of flow conditions in natural rivers is an im­
portant element of hydraulic engineering. Mathematical models can be used
to de termine flow characteristics relevant to the design or management of
water resources projects. A vast amount of literature exists on the simu­
lation of unsteady flow in rivers under open water conditions. Many com­
puter models for unsteady flow are capable of accurately predicting water
level and flow in rivers. None of these models, however, is capable of
simulating river flow conditions in the presence of an ice cove r. With
the increas e in hydropower development, inland navigation, and other water
resources development in cold regions, an unsteady flow mode l for rivers
with ice cover is needed. In this paper a numerical model for unsteady
flow in a network of river channels with an ice cover is presented. The
mo del is develope d for the international section of the St. Lawrence River
between Kingston, Ontario, and Massena, New York (Fig. 1), although it can

!
'"
O
/
Loke r '

OnlO (lO ".;...

---+- Node and Branches _ _

• Water Level
......-=":~:;;~::!::$~B~r~OC~k~v5ilt~e~~M~a~'r~ra~n~d:::=m~~~..a:;
Siolion
® Ice Th4~~r,~~s Ogdens burg

~ Typica l Open-waler
Area

"v
!
I

o 5 mil es
L~

Figure 1. The upper St. Lawrence River and its schematization.

370
 ,­

be applied to other rivers as well. A detailed description of this model

is given by Yapa (1983).

Problem Formulation
The flow condition in a river not only influences ice conditions but
also interacts with them. Stage and discharge conditions in a river with
a floating ice cover can be described by the continuity and momentum equa­
tions:

~+~ 0 (1)
ax at
and
2
a
P ~ + P - (~) + pgA aH + (PiTi + PbTb) = 0
at ax A ax (2)

where, x = distance; time; Q discharge; A = flow cross-sectional

area; g = gravity; H water level (zb+dw+h); zb = bed elevation; d w =
depth of flow; h = equivalent- thickness of the ice cover (Pih/P); P = den­
sity of water; Pi = density of ice; h = ice cover thickness; Pb,Pi = wet­
ted perimeter formed by the channel bed and the ice cover, respectively;
and Tb,Ti = shear stress at the channel bottom and at the ice water inter­
face, respectively. The resistance term in Eq. 2 can be expressed in
terms of the commonly used Manning's coefficients (Shen and Ruggles,
1982):
2 4/3
Pi Ti + PbTb = PgnbPb II
A7/3 Q Q (1+F)4/ J ( J)

where F = (ni/nb)3/2 (Pi/Pb) and ni,nb = Manning's coefficients of ice

cover and channel bed, respectively.
To solve Eq. 1 and 2 for the discharge and the water level, it is
necessary to know the geometry and the resistance coefficient ni of the
ice cover, in addition to parameters needed for simulating free surface
flows. Methods for simulating ice cover thickness and the resistance co­
efficient of the ice cover will be discussed in the follOWing sections.
The areal extent of the ice cover is considered to be given in the present
model.

Growth and Decay of Ice Cover

An empirical degree-day method developed by Shen and Yapa (1983) is
used to simulate the ice cover thickness and break-up in the St. LaWTence
River. In this method the ice cover thickness variation during a winter
is determined by the following steps:

371
 a. Calculate the initial ice cover thickness, ho' using existing
ice jam theories (Pariset et al., 1966; Uzuner and Kennedy
1976).

b. Calculate the ice cover thickness using a modified degree-day

formula:

h = (h~+ CIS)1/2_ llD e (4)

where D number of days since the formation of the ice cover;

5 = cumulative degree-days of freezing since the formation of
the ice cover; a = coefficient that is a constant during the
growth period and decreases linearly with the increase in air
temperature during the decay period; ~ and e = empirical con­
stants that account for the suppression effect of the turbulent
heat flux from the river water. The value of e is 1.0.

c. When the ice cover thickness decreased to a value ~ from its

maximum thickness hmax, the ice cover is considered to be in
the period of decay. No thickening of the ice cover will be al­
lowed during this period, which continues until the coefficient
a reaches a lowe r limi t a~.

d. When the coefficient a reaches a~, the ice cover is considered

to be in the break-up period. Equation 5 is then used to deter­
mine the rate of decay of the ice thi cknes s:

dh __ b _
dt a Ta (5 )

where Ta = air temperature; b = rate of decay of the thickness

due to turbulent heat flux from the river water; a = rate of
melting at the top surface of the ice cover. The last term is
often negligible for ice cover in rivers.

Flow Resistance Due to an Ice Cover

A simulation model for the time-dependent variation of the resistance
coefficient of the ice cover ni has been developed (Yapa and Shen, 1983).
This model is used in the present study with some refinements. In the
simulation model the Manning's coefficient of the ice cover is considered
to include both the effect of the surface roughness of the cover and the
effect of localized accumulations, such as hanging dams in a river reach.
The simulation model considers the resistance coefficient ni as a combina­
tion of three components, i.e., ni=nd+nt+o (Fig. 2). The first component
nd is a simple function of time, which increases monotonically during the
freeze-up period and decreases monotonically during the rest of the win­
ter. The component nt represents the increase in resistance during the
decay period of the ice cover. · The last component n represents the fluc­
tuation in resistance due to the transport and accumulation of frazil ice.

372
 0­
0

.,:::
c
'"u
w:'" -nini1
II -r

::
'"o
u

Time. td

Figure 2. The resistance coefficient model.

The method of simulating each of the three components is discussed in the

following paragraphs.
The first component nd can be determined as the smaller value com­
puted from Eqs. 6 and 7:

lIn[td/PtF)]Y + Jlend (6)

lIn(e I/ltd - e Ij;tL) + nend (7)

where I/l lll( otL)]log,,(lIn); td = time from the beginning of the freeze-up
(days); tF = duration of the freeze-up period (days); tL = duration be­
tween the beginning of freeze-up and the beginning of the break-up period
(days); lin = difference between the resistance coefficients at the end of
the freeze-up period, ninit, and the beginning of the breakup period,
Jlend; and A, yand 6 = empirical constants with estimated values of 2, 0.5
and 2, respectively.
Except for ninit and nend, the empirical constants in Eqs. 6 and 7
are found to be site independent for different reaches in the upper St.
Lawrence River. Values of ninit and Jlend can change along the river and
can vary from winter to winter due to changes in characteristics of ice
covers. In this study, the upper St. Lawrence River is divided into five
subreaches (Fig. 1) according to the general flow resistance characteris­
tics and locations of water level gaging stations. Values of ninit and
nend in a given subreach can be expressed by empirical relationships of
the following forms:

373
 (8 )

and
(9)
8 2
where X ~ Tao AOo in the units of 10 °F-day-ft ; Tao = freezing degree­
day of air temperature during the freeze-up period (OF-day); Two ~ water
temperature at the upstream end of the reach during the freeze-up period
(OF): AOo ~ area of the nearest open water upstream of the ice cover at
the end of the freeze-up period (ft 2 ); kl-k 4 , Cl and C2 ~ empirical coef­
ficients. Values of these empirical coefficients are presented by Yapa
(1983).
The iocrease in 0i during the decay period of the ice season is rep­
resented by the component 0t in the simulation model. This component is
assumed to be a linear function of time:
(10)

(11 )
where tb is the time at which the effect of nt begins, and sn is a con­
stant that may vary depending on the location and year (Yapa, 1983). The
value of Sn is smaller for a cold winter in the downstream sub reaches and
decreases from upstream to downstream. This is because more frazil accu­
mulates under the ice COver in a colder winter. During the melting peri­
od, part of the thermal energy contained in the warm water will first be
used to melt the fraztl ice, leaving less heat to form ice ripples.
The fluctuation component n is considered to be governed by the
transport and depoSition of frazil ice under the ice cover. This compo­
nent exists only when the ice cover resistance is affected by frazil ice
produc ed in open water upstream of the ice cover. The following empirical
relationship describes the fluctuation component well:

K Ao Ta IJ' (12)

K Ao (Ta + Tr) U- T (13 )

where Ta average mean daily air temperature of the three preceding days
in freezing degree-days (OF-day); Tr ~ reference temperature (OF-day); U
average of the flow velocity of the day under consideration and that of
the preceding day in fps, calculated from discharge and the mean cross­
sectional area of the channel, assumed to be 12xl04 ft 2 for the upper St.
Lawrence River; Ao ~ open water area within or immediately upstream of a
subreach: and T r , K and T ~ empirical constants (Yapa, 1983).

374
computer Model for the St. Lawrence River
Based on the formulation discussed in preceding sections, a numerical
model is developed for the upper St. Lawrence River. The model can be
used for other rivers with appropriate modifications.
As the outlet of Lake Ontario, the upper St. Lawrence River flows
northeastward from Kingston to the Moses-Saunders Power Dam at Massena; it
is approximately 100 miles long and has a discharge varying between
200,000 and 330,000 cfs. The width of the river varies between 1/4 mile
and 2 miles and has an average depth of about 30 ft. In the computer
model the river is represented by a channel network consisting of 30 in­
terconnecting branches (Fig. 1). Discharge and stage values at the up­
stream and downstream ends of each branch are obtained from Eqs. 1 and 2
using a four-point implicit finite-difference procedure (Potok and Quinn,
1979; Yapa, 1983). Boundary conditions used are the water level at the
outlet of Lake Ontario and the discharge at the Moses-Saunders Power Dam.
The initial condition is approximated by a steady state solution of the
governing equations at the beginning of the simulation. The system of
nonlinear algebraic equations obtained from the finite-difference discre­
tization is solved by the Newton-Raphson procedure. The computer scheme
can include effects of control structures by locating a point of division
between branches at the location of each control structure.
The roughness coefficients of the channel bed determined by Potok and
Quinn (1979) are used for nb in this study. Ice cover roughness coeffi­
cients are determined by the simulation procedure discussed in the preced­
ing section.
The application of the unsteady flow model to the St. Lawrence River
for five winters shows that the model can provide good simulation for win­
ter flow conditions. Comparison between the simulated and recorded water
levels at five gaging stations along the river (Fig. 3) shows that the av­
erage standard error of the simulated water level is approximately 6%.

Summary and Conclusions

In this paper a numerical model for unsteady flow in a river with an
ice cover is developed. Ice cover effects due to the reduction in flow
area by the ice cover thickness and the hydraulic resistance of the bottom
of the ice cover are included. The areal extent of the ice cover, the air
temperature and the discharge or water level at the upstream and down­
stream ends of the river are require input data for the model.

375
 24 8 I i i i I i iI I
Klnqslon
246
~
Ogdensb
244

::; 242
0;
§ 2'10
; 23 9

" 236

234

;, ~ 380
, 0

a",

.~ ~ 24 0
Q~

20 o f--'-,-!~·-.':,-'--+

Figure 3. Comparison of simulated and mea­

sured water levels, 1977-78.

The model is applied to the 100-mile reach of the St. Lawrence River
between Lake Ontario and the Moses-Saunders Power Dam. Simulated water
levels compared favorably with recorded water levels. This shows that the
model can be used for long term simulation of flow in ice-covered rivers.
The major deficiency of the model is the requirement of the areal extent
of the ice cover as part of the input. To overcome this deficiency, a
model for simulating ice cover formation, progression and recession is
needed. Such a model is being developed, and will be reported later (Shen
and Yapa, 1984). By incorporating the ice cover model into the unsteady
flow model, a complete river ice-flow simulation model can be accom­
plished. Such a model will provide a useful tool for future river ice
management studies.

Acknowledgments
This study was funded by the Great Lakes Environmental Research
Laboratory, of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S.
Department of Commerce under Contract No. NA80RAC00147. The manuscript of
this paper was prepared by H.T. Shen during his sabbatical leave at the
U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory.

376
References

Pariset, E., Hausser, R., and Gagnon, A., 1966. Formation of ice covers
and ice jams in rivers. Journal of the Hydraulics Division, ASCE, Vol.
92(11), p. 1-24.
Potok, A.J., and Quinn, F.H., 1979. A hydraulic transient model of ·the
upper St. Lawrence River for water resources studies. Water Resources
Bulletin, Vol. 15(6), p. 1538-1555.
Shen, H.T. and Ruggle·s , R.W., 1982. Analysis of ice cover roughness •.
Proceedings, Applying Research to Hydraulic Practice. ASCE, Jackson,
Mississipp i.
Shen, H.T. and Yapa, P.N.D.D., 1983. Simulation of the St. Lawrence River
ice cover thickness and breakup. Report 83-1, Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, Clarkson College of Technology, Potsdam, N.Y.
Shen, H.T., and Yapa, P.N.D.D., 1984. Computer simulation of ice cover
formation in the Upper St. Lawrence River. Third Workshop on the
Hydraulics of River Ice, Fredericton, N.B.
Uzuner, M.S. and Kennedy, J.F., 1976. Theoretical model of river ice
jams. Journal of the Hydraulic Division, ASCE, Vol. 102(9), p.
1365-1383.
Yapa, P.N.D.D., 1983. Unsteady flow simulation of rivers with an ice
cover. Ph.D. dissertation, Clarkson College of Technology, Potsdam,
N.Y.
Yapa, P.N.D.D. and Shen, H.T., 1983. Roughness characteristics of the
upper St. Lawrence River. 20th Congress of the IAHR, Moscow, U.S.S.R.,
September 1983.

377
 lAHR Ice Symposium 1984
Hamburg

ANALYSIS OF CAUSES FOR FLOODS DURING ICE RUN

ON THE LOWER REACHES OF THE YELLOW RIVER

Chen Zanting,Senior Yellow River Con- pe o;Jle ' s

engi neer
Sun Zhaochu,Associate
, rofessor
Wang Wencai , Engineer
servancy Commission Reuublic
Hefei Po l ytechni c of China
University
Yellow Ri ver Con ­
se rvanc y Commissi on

ABSTRACT

Fl oods during ice run on the l ower reaches of the Yellow Ri­
ver have l ong been known as cause of frequent dyke breaches,
bringing about disastrous consequen ces . During the past 30
years, there occurred many a time serious menaces of floods
during ice run, the study of their genesis and adoption o f
measures of protection are therefore of much significance.

The lower course of the Yellow River possesses its particu­

larities with respe ct to evoluti on of ice run besides the
features common to all rivers in cold climate. The paper
treats of,in detail and in a comprehensive way, the causes
for the formation o f flood during ice run, fr om the angle of
geography, mete orol ogy, hydrology, river mor, hol ogy as well
as the nature of th e "suspended river", as it is sometimes
called.

379
The Yellow River is the second largest in China. having a total
l ength of 5464 km. The lower reaches of the river begins from
Taohuayu, in the vicinity of Zhengzhou, Henan, and the river
em') ties itself into Bohai Sea after flowing over 700 km or
more , as shown in Fig.l.

m ea ll Jefilll' &'...:llon
~ jvl.." III('(J Ih

......... \1<1111 dyk..:

~Hill

Fig.I.Sketch map of the lower reaches of the Yellow River

From our statistics ,s omething like 1.6 billion tons of sedi ­

ment are being delivered on the average in each year along
the lower reaches, of which as much as 400 million tons are
being deposit e d in the river channel there. Aggradation of
bed level takes place year after year, forming the "s uspended
river" in its, present state, bringing about considerable dif­
ficulty to the prevention of disasters during ice run.

Floods on the lower reaches of the Yellow River occur in sum­

mer and autumn as consequences of heavy rainfalls and also in
winter and spring during ice run. Owing to different causes
of formation, the variation of river discharge over different
sections differs. Floods in summer and autumn are consequent
of rainstorms of high intensity and s hort duration or of low
intensity but long duration. As the Yellow River became sus­
; ended above the ground level, no water is gathered from major
tributaries besides that from the upper and middle reaches in

380
the main, the flood peak diminishes from Zhengzhou downstream
through regulating effect of channel storage. Take the major
flood in 1958 for instance, the peak flow at Huayuankou Sta­
tion, Zhengzhou, was 22,300 m3/s ,which was reduced to only
10,400 m3/s upon reaching Lijin, see Fig.2.

Floods on the lower reaches

.l of the Yellow River during
t ice run in winter and
spring, however, occur in a
different way. Subsequent
to freezing-up of the river
the channel storage is in­
creased and afterwards re­
leased during thawing, form..:
ing floods during ice run.
While being propagated in
the downstream direction,
the volume of floodwater is
I augmented. During ice run
i in 1972, the peak flow at
," lily
19~8
Sunkou and Luokou, both on
Fig.2.Flood hydrographs at vari­ the lower reaches of the
ous stations along the lower Yellow River was 672 and
reaches of the Yellow River in
1958 1270 m3/s respectively,
which increased to 2230 m3 /s upon reaching Lijin. Similar
condition was exhibited at the Nei Monggol section, see Fig.~

In magnitude, floods during ice run are small in comparison

with those occurring in summer and autumn, sometimes very
small indeed, but the flood stage during ice run might exceed
that in the hot seasons. Furthermore, river stage rises quite
abruptly during ice run in cold climate, making the work of
flood prevention very difficult to carry out.

Ice floods occur in winter on rivers in cold climate. The

Songhua River and Heilongjiang River,for example,have larger
thickness of ice cover and larger volume of ice than the Yel­

381
 ".
' "1
"'" Ittl'+tl-t++;1+H ~~" ~
low River, thanks to the severe
cold in the former valleys. But
the menace of ice run is much
more a ppreciable along the lower

I1 I I ID "lkO I· ~I~1I1I1I1I
~
i 'ow course of the Yellow River,being
,.
OJ
ShizuL\han governed by the particular geo­
.~ .~UI'J graphic location as well as me­
teorological and hydrological
conditions and river morpholog~
III 20 300'1Ct.:
Ft't'ln.JiI~ Murch ,\toni/)
The following are the main con­
Fig.3.Hydrographs of river ditions of natural circumstances
discharge during thaw at

various stations in Nei Mong­ for forming menace of ice run

gol for the year 1953

on the lower reaches of the

Yellow River:

Difference in temperature at upper and lower section

With respect to the dire ction of flow, the lower reaches of

the Yellow River may be divided into two major sections, that
above Lankao being practically in the eastward direction, and
that do\mstream of Lankao in the northeastern direction. The
latitude is 340 54' N for the upper section, gradually in­
creasing to 38°10 ' N upon reaching the coast, thus a differ­
ence of 3°20' or so is manifest, which is a fact that results
in difference in air temperature between the u pper and lower
section. The mean air temperatures over seasons, months and
ten days computed from data collected over a number of years
for Zhengzhou (representing that at the upper section),Jinan
(re presenting that at the lower section and Beizheng (re­
presenting that at the end section) are shown in Table I,
with temperature diminishing from Zhengzhou to Jinan and fur­
ther t o Beizheng, where the mean temperature of air in winter
0
months (December - February) is 3 .1 e lower than that at
Zhengzhou, the monthly mean 2 .4 - 3.5°e lower, and the mean
temperature over ten days 2 .7 - 3.8°e lower. The aforesaid
is computed from data over a number of years. In a particular
year, the difference in air temperature between the two

382
 Table 1 Mean air temperature at Zhengzhou, Jinan, and
Beizheng over ten days, in a month and in a sea­
son in winter, 1951 - 1981 (oC)
-
Place Mean air Mean air Mean air temperature over
temperaturetemperature,a
~~e~r~i~o~d~o,f~t~e~n~d~a~iY~1s~~__~
in winter Ln a month~~~e~c~'~,+,~Ja~n~'rT"~~~~'eb~'TT~
(~c.-Feb.)DecJan.JFeb .. I II II I P II I 11 111

Zhengzhou 1.0 1.J O.J 2. J.J LE 0 0.1 -0.( 0.1 0.8 22 JI>
Jinan O.J 1.1 1.4 1. 2.8 12 -0.7 12 -1.7 -1.J o.J 1.1 2f,

Beizheng -2.1 1-1.1 J.8 -1.'< M o.~ -2.8 .31-+ -4.1 -JI> J.O 1.J o.J

is still more pronounced. Take the air temperature in the

second ten days in January 1957 f or instance, the mean value
over a period of ten days in Beizheng was 7.4°C lower than in
Zhengzhou, and on January 18 of the same year, the air tem­
o
perature in Beizheng was 15.2 C lower than in Zhengzhou.

Besides, the duration of sub-zero temperatures is longer in

Beizheng than in Jinan(and Zhengzhou in turn). On De c .12, 24
and 25, the air temperature at the three places respectively
turns to sub-zero for sure, when the daily mean value is
taken into consideration. The mean daily temperature rises
above freezing point on Feb.2J,Feb.8 and Jan.24 respectively.
The respective duration of sub-zero temperature is 7J, 46 and
JO days.

As the air temperature varies differently at various places

on the lower reaches of the Yellow River, the growth, deve­
lopment and vanishing of ice run are characterized by three
particular features.

(1) Daily mean sub-zero temperature begins in Beizheng lJ

days earlier than in Zhengzhou, so that the downstream sec­
tions freeze up much more earlier than upstream stretches.

(2) Sub-zero temperatures in Beizheng are lower than those

in Zhengzhou, and they last 4J tis.ys longer too, thus resul t­

383
i ng in substantially larger thickness of ice cover in down­
stream sections, O.J - 0.4 m in general, whereas in reaches
above Lankao, the thickness is generally 0.1 m or so.

(3) In Beizheng area, the daily mean temperature rises above

zero JO days later than in Zhengzhou, so that thawing takes
plac e first in the upstream sections and then extends in the
downstream direction.

Freezing-up begins in downstream sections in places of higher

latitude, and the ice cover extends in the upstream direction
during sustained drop in temperature.The obstruct i on of ice
cover to river flow causes a part of the oncoming water de­
tained in the channel, leading up to a rise in stage. Incre­
ment of channel storage as such was as much as 800 million mJ
or so in 1954 and 1970, for the lower reaches alone. During
temperature rise in spring favouring the breaking-up of the
ice cover, first in upstream srctions, the ice run relieves
the resistance to flow imposed by the ice cover when frozen,
and the aforesaid volume of water as increment of channel stcr ­
age is also released, moving downstream together with the ice
run, causing a drop in river stage in the sections in thawing
condition , while the water level in the downstream sections
still in frozen condition rises, augmenting the hydraulic ao­
tions for breaking up of ice cover and expediating thaw as
well as rate of re lease of icy water in river channel, further
promoting the role of hydraulic factors, giving rise to more
icywaterflowing at higher and higher speed, forming torrenti­
al flow of ice run. As the air temperature further below is
still under zero, the thickness and strength of ice cover are
both cons iderably large, which, if not broken up by the oncom ­
ing stream of water hydraulically , the drift ice will clog up,
forcing the river stage to rise abruptly, with serious menace
of flood during ice run, with threats of dyke breaches and di­
sastrous consequences. It is therefore seen, the last-mentioned
feature is of key importance.Air temperature on reaches above
Lankao rising above zero, that in the tail water still remains
at _4°C or so. The difference in temperature no longer reflects

384
simply the difference in climate, but that the temperature
above and below critical value for solid and liquid state is
of much significance to the forming of flood during ice run.

Abrupt changes in stream flow during winter

Rainfall is rather scarce in winter in the Yellow River ba­

sin. There is practically no surface runoff, and the river is
fed by groundwater outflow, depleting constantly during the
period in general cases, and consequently, the flow gradual­
ly decreases. Discharge on the lower reaches of the Yellow
River is however affected by freezing up of river in Nei
Monggol section and alternate freezing and thawing in the
middle reaches from Longmen to Tongguan, where a stable di­
minishing trend is not manifest.

Section of the Yellow River in Nei Monggol lies between 40 ­

41 0 lat.N, and the river usually freezes up prior to the
last ten days of November, leading up to small discharges
downstream. During the first ten days of November 1970, for
instance, river flow in the aforesaid section was over 500
m3/s. In the middle of the month, the river was freezing at
the banks and drift ice occurred, and when it was frozen in
the next ten days, the flow dropped to 120 m3/s, which has
its influence on the lower reaches of the river during the
beginning of December, the flow markedly abating,see Fig.4.

After the Nei Monggol section was frozen up, the resistance
to flow offered by ice run decreased somewhat, while the in­
crease in channel storage caused heave of ice cover, thence
increasing the discharge downstream. A concaving curve, the
flow first decreasing and subsequently increasing, is thus
manifest, characterizing the variation of flow on the lower
reaches of the Yellow River, affected by condition of sec­
tions frozen upstream.

A comparison of the variation of the river flow in winter sea­

son on the lower reaches of the Yellow River with that of va­

385
 I Mnr----r-~--r_-._-_,
riation of air temperature
has sho'lm that they closely
agree with each other, the
above-mentioned concaving
curve being manifest for
~ the period from November to
,o~ 1000
March for both discharge
and air temperature. The
lowest values for both , in
255 particular, occur almost at
1--"'
IO--!:'::-
o --!;
JOc----;,O~--;;,
" .- --1 Dale the same time, thus forming
s lJ ec . 1970
{lV
unfavourable conditions of
.1~711

Fig.4.Decrease in river flow at freezing up at comparatively

Nei Monggol section of the Yellow small discharges on the
River and its effect on flow
hydrographs for the lower reaches l ower reaches of the Yelluw
River, which is one of the
causes for aggravating the menace of ice run there, mainly
reflected as follows:

(1) Under the s?me air temperature, the smaller the discharge
in freezing climate, the earlier is the river to freeze up,
with low-level ice cover and small ca,acity for passing the
flowing water unaer the ice cover, and the channel storage
will be appreciably increased with increased river discharge
in the later period.

(2) After the river is frozen up, large increases in oncoming

flood flow, abrupt increases in particular, will cause sudden
rises in river stage, heaving up or even fracturing the ice
cover, thus "forced breaking-up" in the main. Take for in­
stance the case which occurred during the first ten days of
January 1973, the tail water on the lower reaches was frozen
u;J at a di scharge of LfOO m3/s, whereas th river flow above
Zhengzhou incre~sed from 500 to 824 m3/s during the period
from Jan.ll tu 15. On Jan.18, river discharge at Jinan in­
creased to 800 m3/s or more, ana the role of hydraulic factors
brought about cracking of ice cover and breaking up of the
frozen condition. In that year, the duration of frozen con­

386
dition was rather short and the ice cover thin, due to limit­
ed volume of ice formed, serious menace of flood being how­
ever manifest at localized stretches of the river .

There occurred also alternate fre ez ing and thawing on the

lower rea c hes of the Yellow River during a cold season, thi s
is due to fluctuati on of air tempe rature over wi d e ranges
near the freezing point and sudden changes in river d is­
charge nuring this period, so that th e froz en state is not
stable, which is one of the principal reasons why flood me­
nace i s more serious here d uring ice run than elsewhere.

Effect of river morphology

Morphology of river channel differs appreciab ly for the up­

per and lower secti ons of lower. ours€' of the Yellow River,
both in wiath as also in depth, the meandering courses hav­
ing c hanged many times. Broadly speaking , the upper section
is wider than that downstream. The river is contained by
main dykes on both banks , the distance between dykes aimi­
nishing from 5 - 20 km for the reach above Sunkou t o 1 - 2
km below Sunkou, where the narrowest se ction is only 0 . 5 km
in width. The e ffect o f river morpholo g y on flood during ic e
run on the l ower r eac hes of th e Yellow Rive r is mainly seen
in the f ollowing two aspects:

(1) The length of the secti on above Sunkou comprises only

46 % of the t otal length of the lower reaches. The increment
of channel s torage during the fr ozen stage is s ome thing like
60 % of that of the l ower reac hes f or the section ab ove Sun­
kou, which may be considerably greater in individual years.
Th e increment of channel storage being concentrated in the
up pe r secti on adds to the burden on the dovmstream section
for dis charge of ice and water when the cover is being brok ­
en up there. The large r capac ity of the upper section t o
pass the flood s during i ce run of smaller magnitude and vice
versa for the lower secti on refl e ct ver y acute contradic­
tions .
(2) River s e ctions which cause i c e jamming and backwater

387
are in the main of two types. The first is braided channel
above Sunkou, br oad , shallow and forked, although the overall
aspect is rather smooth and straight, the stream flows mean-,
deringly through a number of channels. At the head of a sand
bank, the river stage rises, and circulating bottom currents
in opposite directions at bounQary line of adjacent streams
also favours jamming of drift ice at the sand bank, forked
section or channe l contraction. On the other hand, the flood­
plains in wide channe l sections accomodate the passing of ice
and water whenever jamming occurs, obviati ng disasters at the
cost of inundation of land on the floodplains. The second is
narrow and meandering section, characterized by that below
Sunkou, exhibiting L or S shape, where the main current
swerves around 900 or even 180 0 , sometimes successively. The
circulating and crosswise currents at the bend together with
concentrated drift of ice in the main current favour the
forming of ice jam there. This has been substantiated by many
a time of serious menace of flood during ice run in the past
30 years.
All in all, the bend in river course toward northeast at Lan­
kao is the dominant factor for produc ing of flood menace dur­
ing ice run , supplemented by frequent fluctuations of river
flow in winter and unequal width of channel in upstream and
downstream section, which also play important role.
It is worth mentioning that the floor of river channel on
the lower reaches of the Yellow River lies generally 3 - 5 m
higher than the adjacent land behind the dykes, which may be
as much as 10 m or more at individual localities. The well­
known "sus pe nded river", though having nothing to do with
the evolution of ice,run, aggravates the matter in case of
any threats of ice jamming and backwater with their disas­
trous consequences, much more serious than from rivers not
"suspended". Numerous dyke breaches in the past history top­
ped all records before liberation. The strengthening of main
dykes and construc ti on of detention reservoirs for regulation
of flow during ice run and cognition and utilization of the
law of evoluti on of same have brought about fruitful results.

388
 A PROCEDURE FOR CALCULATI~G RIVER FLOW RATE

UNDER AN ICE COVER

G. R. Alger and H. 5. Santeford Department of Civil Engineering

Professor and Associate Professor Michigan Technological University
Houghton, MI 49931 U.S.A.

When an ice cover forms on a river the wetted perimeter is increased

and the boundary resistance is altered. This generally results in an
increase in river stage. The river level is further altered with time as
the ice thickness changes. Under these conditions the stage-discharge
relationship developed for the summer open water condition is not directly
applicable for flowrate determination under an ice cover.
In this paper a theoretically based model is developed which allows
for a direct prediction of the under-ice flowrate using indicated stage,
float depth of the ice, and the open water stage-discharge relationship.
An example of field application is provided for illustrative purposes.
The proposed model has the advantage of being : (a) theoretically based,
(b) reproducible, and (c) computer compatible.

389
: nROOl'CT ION
It has long heen recognized that the presence of an ice cover can
alter the stage-discharge relationship of a natural channel. During the
early years of the U.S. Geological Surveys Water Resources Division, Hoyt
(1910) was one of the first to explore this problem. His work recognized
the significance of the control sections and the realization that in the
vicinity of an open l'later control section, a floating ice sheet will have
little or no effect on the stage-discharge relationship. However, once
removed from the open water control section, a solid ice cover could
ilffect the stage in a manner ranging from a simple buoyant displacement to
a complex combination of buoyant displacement and backwater conditions.
Through the years, the need for data at specific locations on a
stream has resulted in the placement of gages at locations which are
removed from open water control sections and consequently may experience a
cOl1' pound effect of buoyant displacement and backwater. Empiric relation­
ships were developed which attempted to relate the ice covered stage with
the actual under ice discharge. By the mid-1960's these empiric techni­
ques had been grouped into 4 major categories: a) Backwater or Shifting
Control Method; b) Interpolated-Discharge Method; c) Adjusted-Discharge or
Hydrographic ane Climatic Comparison Method; and d) K-Factor or Discharge
Ratio Method. In an attempt to determine the accuracy of the various
techniques, a detailed study was performed by what is now a part of Envi­
ronment Canada. The results of that study ~Iere summarized in a report by
Rosenberg and Pentland (1966). They concluded that the data reduction
technique could significantly affect the accuracy of the predicted flow­
rate. However, no single technique wa s universally applicable and the
size of the river and the severity of the climate appeared to influence
the resu lts.
Recently the U.S. Geological Survey published two reports dealing
with the computation of discharge during periods of a so lid ice cover;
Rantz et al. (1982), and Kennedy (1983). These most recent publications
again make a comparison hetween the empiric techniques for estimating the
discharge under a solid ice cover. The U.S. Geological Survey currently
favors the use of the "Hydrographic and Cl imatic Compariscn Method". With
this technique the actual stage is measured and an equivalent open water
dischurge computed assuming there i s no ice effect. At selected periods
throughout the winter, holes are cut through the ice and a conventional
streamflow measurement is made using a current meter. The measured flow­

390
rates are plotted on the hydrograph obtained trOE) th~ indicated stilge
record. For periods between the measuren~nt points, the hydrogrilph for
the station in question is compared with hydr09raphs from surrounding
stations and local climatological data. Using the indicated fluct~ation
in stage, fluctuation in the nearby streams, and the climatological datil,
the hydrologists estimates the hydrograph between mea<;urement points. The
similarities between the station in question and the surrounding stations,
the degree of ice effects on the surrounding streams, and the expertise of
the hydrologist can all be significant factors in estimating the flowrates
for the periods between successive measurements.
Santeford and Alger (1983) presented a conceptual model describing
the theoretical effect of an ice cover on river hydraulics. The model is
subdivided into 3 major portions: freeze-up; the period of complete ice
cover; and breakup. At freeze-up the flow will be unsteady and non-uni­
form and governed by a new, temporary and perhaps shifting ice control.
An analysis of the time variations of the flow depend upon the position of
an obsener (i.e. gage) relative to the temporary developing ice control.
Once the freeze-up process is complete, the flow returns to a steady but
non-uniform condition under the influence of an ice control which mayor
may not correspond to the open water control. The same hydraulic model
continues through the winter period until such time that the ice is free
to move with the flow and breakup is eminent. With the initiation of
breakup the hydraulic model describing the flow must again consider both
unsteady and non-uniform conditions.
The procedure developed in this paper is only applicable during
periods of stable ice control and should not be applied to the period of
freeze-up or breakup.
Development of the Model
Beginning with Manning's equation
Q = ~ AR2/3 51/ 2 = ~R2/:J [Sl/2/,;] Eqn . 1
where Q is the flowrate
A is the cross-sectional area
R is the hydraulic radius
S is the slope of the energy gradeline
n is Manning's roughness coefficient
it can be seen that the first of the bracketed terms on the right side of
Eqn. 1 is totally a geometric function. The second term is an energy term
and will be referred to as X, the site specific discharge factor (where X

391
 :;\/n). The significance of X can be shown by considering a rectangular
channel of constant cross-section, roughness, and bottom slope. The flow
is controlled by a sudden change in bottom slope as shown in Figure I . If
'it·age recorders were to be installed at positions A, B, and C of Figure 1,
each gage would have its own unique stage-discha.rge relationship. It can
be seen from Manning's equation that for any given value of stage, there is
only one value of flowrate which is a function of a geometric term and an
energy term. For va ri ous va 1ues of stage, there wi 11 Ibe vari ou s va 1ues of
flowrate. Consequently it is possible to formulate functiona q relation-

A
B

--Q

Figure 1. Sketch of flow conditions at a control section

ships between: stage and discharge; stage and geometric term; and stage
and energy factor (or site specific discharge factor). For our simple
example, gages A, B, and C all have the same functional relationship be­
tween stage and geometry. The uniqueness of the individual stage-dis­
charge relationships for gages A, B, and C is thus governed by the energy
term, X = S1/n. The actual functional relationship between stage and X is
dictated by the position of the gage along the profile.
For simplicity, the above discussion began with the assumption of a
rectangular channel. It should be obvious that the actual geometry of the
cross-section is insignificant as long as the functional relationship be­
tween stage and geometry remains fi xed. If one alters the functional
relationship between stage and X, then there must be a corresponding
change in the stage-discharge relationship.
It should be noted that if the functional relationship between stage
and section geometry changes with time, the analysis becomes far more com­
plex and is beyond the scope of the present discussion. Such changes
could occur with large accumulation of frazil slush, anchor ice, etc.

392
These conditions are excluded from the present discussion.
Consider Manning's equation applied to two conditions at the same
section in a channel, i.e. at a gage location. The first condition has an
open water surface while the second has an ice covered surface. The flow­
rate, Q, is the same for both conditions. Then using the subscript "0"
for the open water case and Hi" for the ice covered condition:

A R 2/3 ~ In Eqn. 2
o 0 0 0

For the ice covered condition, ni is the composite roughness composed of

the combined effects of the channel boundary and the ice cover. If one
utilizes the mean hydraulic depth, 0, which is defined as the area of the
section, A, divided by the top width, B, i.e. 0 = AIR and assumes a wide
shallow channel, then

Ai
and noting
Xo = S0~ In Xi =
Si~ In
i
Substituting the above into Eqn. 2 0
Q = (0 B )(0 )2/3 X = (0.6 . )(.J.. )2/3 X,'
o 000 0 "2
pr
(0.7S9)(X.IX )0.6 (6 ,./8 0 )0.6 Eqn. 3
, 0

Equation 3 represents the functional relationship which must exist at a

given gage location for equal flow condition both with and without an ice
cover. However, in the stated form it is not convenient to use.
From the field data available for any gage location it is a simple
matter to make a plot of the mean hydraulic depth, 0, vs. gage height, GH,
and develop a functional relationship or equation:
o = f(GH)
A similar procedure can be used for both the oren water and ice covered
conditions. Thus,
Do f(GH )
o

°i f(GH i )

and
nQ f(GH )
o
X. 0.6 6. 0.6 Eqn. fl
T(GHjT = 0.759 (--1) ( --1)
°i Xo Bo

393
GH is the under ice gage height which is equal to the actual gage read­
i
ing, GH w' adjusted for the float depth of the ice, F.D.
GH.1 = GH W - F. D. Eqn. 5
A winter measurement made at the gage location would provide GH w'
and F.D. from these one can obtain GH o and GH i as well as Bo and Bi ·
°i
Thu s Eqn. 4 can be solved for (Xi / Xo ).
The parameter (Xi/X ) i s termed the "winter regime coefficient" and
o
represents the change in the stage-discharge factor resulting from the
formation of the complete ice cover. In terms of the simple example given
in Figure 1, the change from open water to ice covered condition is ana­
logous to moving from gage location A to location B or C. Although the
functional relation ship between stage and X are not the same for station A
and B, or for a station with and without an ice cover, the ratio between
XA and XB, or between Xi and Xo is a constant. Thus for any given gage,
the winter regime coefficient i s a site dependent factor which will remain
constant as long as the control re mains stable. The type of ice cover,
the roughness of the ice, and the roughnes s of the channel directly impact
the ma gnitude of the winter regime coefficient as well as indirectly
effecting the s lope of energy gradeline.
From a practical standpoint Eqn. 4 can be further simplified. In the
case of a rectangular channel the ratio of (Bi/Bo) would obviously be 1.0
and therefore it is of no consequence. In the natural river setting the
ratio would likely be slightly greater than 1.0, however, the exponent
would somewhat diminish the net effect. It would likely be sufficient to
simply treat it as a constant and incorporate it with the other con s tants.
Thu s
Const. Eqn. 6

A few winter measurements at the gage s ite would yield the constant
which then may be used to calculate all other flows from the measured
winter gage heights and the summer rating curve. Typi cally in the U.S.
only three or four winter measurements are made at anyone gaging station.
In order to apply the above procedure one would have to estimate ice
thi ckness (float depth) between successive measurement s . The technique
utilized for this purpose would likely be a region al function. In some
areas a simple degree day function such as that presented by Michel (19 71)
may be useful. In other areas heavy early snow accumulations may mitigate
temperature effect s and the actual snow load on the i ce may be a greater

394
influence on float depth. In some cases a simple stndght line interpola­

tion between measurement of ice thicknesses may be appropriate. In any

case such procedure would have to be developed to best fit the circum­

stances.

An Application of the Model

In the natural system experience indicates that conditions at a con­

trol section are not rigid constants, but rather fluxuate with time. This
condition is substantiated by the need to routinely monitor and upgrade
stage-discharge relationships for any given section. The basic question
then, is: Are the constraints imposed by the theoretical model developed
above approximated by the natural system over some limited time span? If
so, then Eqn. 6, or more precisely Eqn. 4, could be used to provide esti­
mates of the under ice flowrate for periods between successive measure­
ments. In order to test the model several winter measurement periods
would be required to determine the value of the constant in Eqn. 6. This
would then be used to convert the continuous winter stage record to a
hydrograph. This hydrograph would then be compared to the actual winter
streamflow. Of course, to accomplish this one would have to know the
actual flow rate and float depth throughout the period of stable ice
control. The authors are not aware at this time of any such available
data.
Santeford and Alger (1984) did report on some very limited unpublish­
ed data obtained by the U.S.G.S. on the Sturgeon River near Nahma
Junction, located in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, for the water year
1973. Only three data points were available and since the gaging location
does experience some shifting control it was not advisable to use several
years of such data to test the value of the constant.
Subsequent to the report mentioned above additional unpublished data
was reviewed for a different stream. This is the Sturgeon River near
Sidnaw, Michigan (Station #04040500). The average flow (42 years) is 215
cfs and the drainage area is 171 sq. mi. The stream is 50 to 60 feet wide
with a small island at the gaging section and depths are generally less
than 2 feet in the winter period. The river section is quite stable at
the gage location and the relationship for hydraulic mean depth takes the
form

GH - 2.54 o GH - 2.54
o o _ =o0~----.,.,...."....
1. 54 or r, - , GH. - 2.54

395
 Ten winter measurements were selected from the data from the period 1962
through 1974 covering a range of flowrates from 30 to 80 cfs. From this
data the average ratio of Do/Di was found to be 0.99 with a standard
deviation of 0.02. It would certainly appear from this that the function­
al relationship suggested by Eqn. 6 is indeed a constant.
Figure 2 shows a working hydrograph prepared by the U.S.G.S. for this
gaging station for the water year 1971. The upper solid curve is a hydro­
graph developed by applying the winter gage height measurement to the
summer rating curve. The lower curve (short dash) is the estimated actual
hydrograph prepared by hydrologists of the U.S.G.S. using the "Climatic/
Comparison Method" outlined in the introduction section of this paper.
The circles are actual field measurements of flow. Superimposed over
these two constructions is the hydrograph developed by applying Eqn. 6 .
. Ice thickness was estimated during periods between measurements as a
linear function with time. Obviously there is considerable difference in
the two "actual" hydrographs. Of course without continuous actual flow­
rate knowledge one cannot say which is better. Research is under way at
Michigan Technological University directed toward this end as well as
addressing the situation at freeze-up and breakup.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Currently empirical techniques are used to estimate the flowrate in a
stream with a solid ice cover for all periods except when actual measure­
ments are made through the ice. All of the currently used techniques are
empirically based.
For the period of stable ice control, i.e. for the period following
freeze-up and continuing through the initiation of breakup, a theoretical­
ly based model has been developed which allows for a direct computation of
the under ice flowrate based on the indicated stage, an estimate of the
float depth of the ice, and the open water stage-discharge relationship.
A limited amount of wintertime field data is necessary to establish the
magnitude of the site specific constants. However, once the site specific
constants have been determined, the technique remains valid until such
time that there is a major change in the control section.
The new technique has a distinct advantage over the old, empirical
techniques in that: (a) it has a sound theoretical basis; (2) it is
consistent and reproducible not relying on the expertise of the person
making the analysis; and (3) it is computer compatible which should result
in considerable saving of man-hours.

396
 1000

uj 500
U:
EQ.6
U

w
EQUIVALENT OPEN WATER" FLOW
I
r"', ,
~ I
~\JI
II:: '.J
I "
~ '1
g
lL.

100 -o-~
U.S.G.S. 'Q.
~~C J~"'" "-~ ~ ~/
f
;' __
,

_...­
I

" ""'---- ------fl

50 5 10 15 20
DECEMBER JANUARY FEBRUARY MARCH
Figure 2. Hydrograph of under ice f101~rates as computed by Eqn. 6 and by the
"Hydrographic and C1 imatic COr:l pariso n t1ethod" (USGS) for the
Sturgeon River nea r Sid naw, ,11, HY 71.

w
~
 The current discussion has been limited to the application of the
theoretical wodel to the routine case of obtaining reliable estimates of
the under ice streamflow from indicated stage measurements. The authors
recognize other potential applications such as design plans where water
levels are an important consideration. However, such applications are
heyond the scope of the present discussion.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the cooperation and assistance of
the U.S. Geological Survey, Water Resources Division, and in particular
the staff of the Sub-district Office, Escanaba, MI.
RfFERENCES
Hoyt, W. G. 1913. The effect of ice on streamflow . U. S. Geological
Survey Water Supply Paper 337, 77 pro
Kennedy, E. ,1. 1983. Computation of continuous records of streamflow.
Techniques of Water-Resdurces Investigations of the U. S. Geological
Survey, Book 3, Chapter A-13, 53 pp.
r~ichpl, fl. 1971. Winter regime of rivers and lakes. Cold Regions
Science and Engineering, Monograph III-Bla, CRREL, Hanover, New
Hampshire, U.S.~.
Rantz, S. E. et al. 1982. Measurement and computation of streamflow:
Volume I. Measurement of stage and discharge. U. S. Geological
Survey Water-Supply Paper 2175, pp. 151-155 and pp. 360-377.
Rosenberg, H. B., Pentland, R. I.. 1966. Accuracy of winter streamflow
records. Proceedings "Eastern Snow Conference, pp. 51-72.
Santeford, H. S., Alger, G. R. 1983. Effects of an ice cover - a concep­
tual model. ASCE Hydraulics Division Specialty Conference,
Cambridge, MA, pro 242-247.
Santeford, H. S., Alger, G. R. 198~. Predicting flow rates in an ice
covered stream. Third International Specialty Conference on Cold
Regions Engineerin9, CSCE / ASCE, Edmonton, April 4-6, 1984.

398